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Course Outline
• Introduction to Computing

CS1100 • Programming (in C)

Introduction to Programming
• Exercises and examples from the mathematical
Introduction to Computing area of Numerical Methods
Madhu Mutyam
Department of Computer Science and Engineering • Problem solving using computers
Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Course Material – SD, SB, PSK, NSN, DK, TAG – CS&E, IIT M 1 2
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Evaluation Class Hours

• Two Quizzes – 30 • Theory class meets 3 times a week (F1 slot)
– Wednesday 11:00 – 11:50 AM
– Thursday 9:00 – 9:50 AM
• Programming Assignments – 25
– Friday 8:00 – 8.50 AM
• Venue: CS36
• End of Semester Exam – 45
• Lab class meets once a week
– B.Tech: Friday 2:00 4:50 PM (T1 slot)
• Attendance – taken in the lab and in lectures – DD: Wednesday 2:00 4:50 PM (R1 slot)
• Attendance sheet will be circulated for signature

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Policies What is CS1101 About?

• Strictly no cell phone usage in class • Computer and its components
– Keep your cell phone turned off
• Not even in silent mode
• Computing
– No SMS, chat etc.
• Cell phones will be confiscated if there are
violations • Programming Languages
– Returned only after 2 weeks
• Repeat violations • Problem Solving and Limitations of a Computer
– Students will be sent to the Dean (Acad)

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Common Uses of a Computer What is a Computer?

• A computer is a programmable machine
• Its behavior is controlled by a program
• Programs reside in the memory of the machine
– “The stored program concept”
All figures are taken from Google

Von Neumann Alan Turing

Charles Babbage
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Early Computing Hardware The Difference Engine: ~1850’s

Part of Babbage's difference

engine, assembled after his
death by Babbage's son, using
The Slide rule parts found in his laboratory.
http://sliderulemuseum.com/ The Chinese Abacus

The London Science Museum's

replica Difference Engine, built
from Babbage's design.

Odhner’s Arithmometer An automatic, mechanical

Pascal’s Calculator calculator designed to tabulate
Dalton’s Adding Machine polynomial functions
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“Mechanical calculator” from Wikipedia

The First Programmer ENIAC The First Electronic Computer

Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace (December Physically, ENIAC was massive
10, 1815 – November 27, 1852) is mainly known for compared to modern PC standards. It
having written a description of Charles Babbage's early
mechanical general-purpose computer, the analytical contained 17,468 vacuum tubes, 7,200
engine. crystal diodes, 1,500 relays, 70,000
The programming language ADA is named after her.
resistors, 10,000 capacitors and around
5 million hand-soldered joints. It
weighed 27 tons, was roughly 2.4 m by
0.9 m by 30 m, took up 167 m², and
consumed 150 kW of power.
Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer,
1946-55 (Univ. Penn.)

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Core i7 Processor The Computing Machine

PROCESSOR

MEMORY

01234……. (say) 256 MEGABYTES

The computer is made up of a processor and a

2008: Intel Core i7 Processor
Clock speed: >2.5 GHz memory. The memory can be thought of as a series
No. of Transistors: 731 million of locations to store information.
Technology: 45nm CMOS
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Area: 263mm2 SD, PSK, NSN, DK, TAG – CS&E, IIT M

The Computing Machine Variables

PROCESSOR • Data is represented as binary strings
– It is a sequence of 0’s and 1’s (bits), of a
MEMORY
predetermined size – “word”. A byte is made of 8 bits.
01234……. 256 MEGABYTES • Each memory location is given a name
program data • The name is the variable that refers to the data
• A program is a sequence of instructions assembled for stored in that location
some given task – e.g. rollNo, classSize
• Most instructions operate on data • Variables have types that define the interpretation
• Some instructions control the flow of the operations of data
• It is even possible to treat programs as data. By doing so a – e.g. integers (1, 14, 25649), or characters (a, f, G, H)
program could even modify itself.
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Instructions Programs
• Instructions take data stored in variables as • A program is a sequence of instructions
arguments • Normally the processor works as follows,
• Some instructions do some operation on the data – Step A: pick next instruction in the sequence
and store it back in some variable – Step B: get data for the instruction to operate upon
– e.g. The instruction “X X+1” on integer type says – Step C: execute instruction on data (or “jump”)
that “Take the integer stored in X, add 1 to it, and – Step D: store results in designated location (variable)
store it back in (location) X”
– Step E: go to Step A
• Other instructions tell the processor to do
• Such programs are known as imperative
something
programs
– e.g. “jump” to a particular instruction next, or to exit
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Programming Paradigms A Limitation Computer Arithmetic

• Imperative programs are sequences of instructions. They • Number of digits that can be stored is limited
are abstractions of how the von Neumann machine
operates
• Pascal, C, Fortran • Causes serious problems
• Object Oriented Programming Systems (OOPS) model
the domain into objects and interactions between them
• Simula, CLOS, C++, Java Consider a computer that can store:
• Logic programs use logical inference as the basis of Sign, 3 digits and a decimal point
computation
• Prolog Sign and decimal point are optional
• Functional programs take a mathematical approach of
functions
• LISP, ML, Haskell example : 212, -212, -21.2, -2.12, -.212
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More Examples Why?

• 113. + -111. = 2.00 Consider 113. + -111. + 7.51
• 2.00 + 7.51 = 9.51
• -111. + 7.51 = -103.49 (exact arithmetic) To us addition is associative
(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)
But our computer can store only 3 digits.
So it rounds –103.49 to –103 (113. + -111.) + 7.51 = 2.00 + 7.51 = 9.51
113. + (-111. + 7.51) = 113. – 103. = 10.0
This is a very important thing to know as a system
designer. Why?
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Conclusion Books
• P. Deitel and H. Deitel. C: How to Program.
• Computer is fast but restricted • V. Rajaraman. Computer Programming in C.
• R. G. Dromey. How to Solve It By Computer.
• So we must learn to use its speed • Kernighan and Ritchie. The C Programming
Language.
• And manage its restrictions • Kernighan and Pike. The Unix Programming
Environment.

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Building Blocks of a Computer The Blocks, Their Functions

• Input Unit
Central
Processing
– Takes inputs from the external world via variety of
Unit input devices – keyboard, mouse, etc.
Control Unit
• Output Unit
– Sends information (after retrieving, processing) to
output devices – monitors/displays, projectors, audio
Input Memory ALU Output
devices, etc.

System Bus

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More (try more filename on your Unix/Linux machine) Some More (commands are in /bin, /usr/bin. Use ls)
• Memory • System Bus
– Place where information is stored – Essentially a set of wires, used by the other units to
– Primary Memory communicate with each other
• Electronic devices, used primarily for temporary storage – transfers data at a very high rate
• Characterized by their speedy response • ALU – Arithmetic and Logic Unit
– Secondary Memory – Processes data - add, subtract, multiply, …
• Devices for long-term storage
– Decides – after comparing with another value, for
• Contained well tuned mechanical components, magnetic
example
storage media – floppies, hard disks
• Compact Disks use optical technology

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Finally (check man cp, man mv, man ls, man k search string) The CPU (editors vi, emacs used to create text)
• Control Unit • Can fetch an instruction from memory
– Controls the interaction among other units • Execute the instruction
– Knows each unit by its name, responds to requests • Store the result in memory
fairly, reacts quickly on certain critical events • A program – a set of instructions
– Gives up control periodically in the interest of the • An instruction has the following structure
system Operation operands destination
• A simple operation
CPU = Control Unit + ALU add a, b Adds the contents of memory locations a and b
and stores the result in location a

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Compilers Assembly Language

Human friendly languages à source code
• An x86/IA-32 processor can execute the
Source code in a Source code in a following binary instruction as expressed in
Higher Level Language 1 Higher Level Language n
machine language:
Compiler Compiler
Binary: 10110000 01100001
mov al, 061h
Assembly language code – Move the hexadecimal value 61 (97 decimal) into the
processor register named “al”.
Assembler, linker, loader – Assembly language representation is easier to
remember (mnemonic)

machine language code From Wikipedia

Machine understandable language

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Higher Level Languages Data Representation

• Higher level statement = many assembly • Integers – Fixed Point Numbers
instructions
• For example “X = Y + Z” could require the
following sequence Decimal System - Base 10 uses 0,1,2,…,9
– Fetch the contents of Y into R1 (396)10 = (6 × 100) + (9 × 101) + (3 × 102) = (396)10
– Fetch the contents of Z into R2
– Add contents of R1 and R2 and store it in R1 Binary System - Base 2 uses 0,1
– Move contents of R1 into location named X
(11001)2 = (1 × 20)+(0 × 21)+(0 × 22)+(1 × 23)+(1 × 24)
= (25)10

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Decimal to Binary Conversion Largest Number that can be Stored in m-digits

Convert (39)10 to binary form
Base = 2 base - 10 : (99999…9) = 10m - 1
2 39 39 = 2*19 + 1 base - 2 : (11111…1) = 2m - 1
2 19 + Remainder 1 = 2*(2*9 +1) + 1
= 22*9 + 21*1 + 1
2 9 + Remainder 1 = 22*(2*4+1) + 21*1 + 1
2 4 + Remainder 1 = 23*4+22*1+ 21*1 + 1
2 2 + Remainder 0 = 23*(2*2+0)+22*1+ 21*1 + 1 m=3 (999) = 103 - 1
= 24*2+23*0+ 22*1+ 21*1 + 1
2 1 + Remainder 0 = 24*(2*1+0) + … (111) = 23 - 1
0 + Remainder 1 = 25*1+24*0+23*0+22*1+ 21*1+ 1
Limitation: Memory cells consist of 8 bits (1 byte)
Put the remainders in reverse order multiples, each position containing 1 binary digit
(100111)2 = (1 × 20 )+(1 × 21)+(1 × 22)+(0 × 23)+(0 × 24)+(1 × 25)
= (39)10 35 36
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Sign-Magnitude Notation One’s Complement Notation

In the one’s complement method, the negative of integer n
Common cell lengths for integers : k = 16 or 32 or 64 bits is represented as the bit complement of binary n
000 : 0 000 : 0
First bit is used for a sign 001 : +1 E.g. : One’s Complement of (3)10 in a 3-bit cell 001 : +1
0 – positive number 010 : +2 010 : +2
complement of 011 : 100
011 : +3 011 : +3
1 – negative number 100 : -0 -3 is represented as = (100)2 100 : -3
101 : -1 101 : -2
The remaining bits are used to store the binary 110 : -2 Arithmetic requires care: 110 : -1
magnitude of the number. 111 : -3 111 : -0
2 + (-3) = 010 + 100 = 110 – ok
Limit of 16 bit cell : (32,767)10 = (215 – 1)10 Zero has two But, 3 + (-2) = 011 + 101 = 000 and carry of 1
Zero has two
representations! representations!
Limit of 32 bit cell : (2,147,483,647)10 = (231 – 1)10 need to add back the carry to get 001!

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NOT WIDELY USED 38
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Two’s Complement Notation Two’s Complement Notation

In the two’s complement method, the negative of integer n
in a k-bit cell is represented as 2k – n The two’s complement notation admits one more negative
number than the sign - magnitude and one’s complement
Two’s Complement of n = (2k – n) notations.
E.g. : Two’s Complement of (3)10 in a 3-bit cell To get back n, read off the sign from the MSB 000 : 0
-3 is represented as (23 - 3)10 = (5)10 = (101)2
If –ve, to get magnitude, complement the cell and 001 : +1
010 : +2
Arithmetic requires no special care: 000 : 0 add 1 to it! 011 : +3
001 : +1
2 + (-3) = 010 + 101 = 111 – ok 010 : +2 E.g.: 101 à 010 à 011 = (-3)10 100 : -4
011 : +3 101 : -3
3 + (-2) = 011 + 110 = 001 and carry of 1 100 : -4 (8 – 4) 110 : -2
101 : -3 (8 – 3)
we can ignore the carry! 111 : -1
110 : -2 (8 – 2)
111 : -1 (8 – 1)
WIDELY USED METHOD for –ve numbers
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Numbers with Fractions Binary Fraction à Decimal Fraction

Integer Part + Fractional Part (10.11)2

Decimal System - base 10 Integer Part (10)2 = 1*21 + 0*20 = 2

235 . 7846
1 1
Binary System - base 2 Fractional Part (11)2 = + = 0.5 + 0.25 = 0.75
2 22
(10011 . 11101)2 = (19.90625) 10
7 8 4 6 Decimal Fraction = ( 2.75 )10
Fractional Part (0.7846)10 =
10
+ + +
10 2 103 10 4

1 1 1 0 1
Fractional Part (0.11101)2 = + + + + = 0.90625
2 22 23 24 25

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Decimal Fraction à Binary Fraction (1) Decimal Fraction à Binary Fraction (2)
Convert (0.90625)10 to binary fraction Convert (0.9)10 to binary fraction
0.90625 0.9
×2 0.90625 = ½(1+0.8125) ×2
= ½(1+ ½(1+0.625)) For some fractions, we do
0.8125 + integer part 1 0.8 + integer part 1
×2 = ½(1+ ½(1+ ½(1+0.25))) ×2 not get 0.0 at any stage!
0.625 + integer part 1 = ½(1+½(1+ ½(1+½(0+0.5)))) 0.6 + integer part 1 These fractions require an
×2 = ½(1+½(1+½(1+½(0+½(1+0.0))))) ×2 infinite number of bits!
0.25 + integer part 1 = ½+1/22+1/23+0/24 +1/25 0.2 + integer part 1 Cannot be represented
×2 = (0.11101)2 ×2 exactly!
0.5 + integer part 0 0.4 + integer part 0
×2 ×2
0 + integer part 1 0.8 + integer part 0 Repetition
Thus, (0.90625)10 = (0.11101)2 (0.9)10 = 0.11100110011001100 . . . = 0.11100
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Fixed Versus Floating Point Numbers Scientific Notation (Decimal)

Fixed Point: position of the radix point fixed
and is same for all numbers 0.0000747 = 7.47 × 10-5
31.4159265 = 3.14159265 × 101
E.g.: With 3 digits after decimal point:
0.120 * 0.120 = 0.014 9,700,000,000 = 9.7 × 109
A digit is lost!!
Floating point numbers: radix point can float Binary
1.20 × 10-1 * 1.20 × 10-1 = 1.44 × 10-2 (10.01)2 = (1.001)2 × 21
Floating point system allows a much wider range of (0.110)2 = (1.10)2 × 2-1
values to be represented
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Using Floating Point Notation

For any number x 32 bits :
x ≈ ± q × 2n First bit for sign
q – mantissa Next 8 bits for exponent
n – exponent 23 bits for mantissa

(-39.9)10 = (-100111.1 1100)2 = -39. 90000152587890625

= (-1.001111 1100)2 × 25
Decimal Value of stored number (-39.9)10
= (-1. 001111 1100 1100 1100 11001) × 25

23 bit

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