GEORGETOWN LAW TECHNOLOGY REVIEW

UNDERSTANDING LARGE LANGUAGE MODELS

Amber L. Solberg*

I. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 257

II. ORIGIN OF LLMS: NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING....................... 257
III. WHAT IS A LARGE LANGUAGE MODEL (LLM)? ................................ 259
A. TRANSFORMER MODELS ............................................................ 259
B. CORE COMPONENTS OF LLMS ................................................... 260
1. Embedding Layer .................................................................. 260
2. Feedforward Layer ............................................................... 261
3. Recurrent Layer .................................................................... 261
4. Attention Mechanism............................................................. 262
C. HOW LLMS OPERATE ................................................................ 262
1. Fine-Tuning ........................................................................... 263
2. Prompt Tuning ...................................................................... 264
IV. BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF LLMS ............................................. 265
A. BENEFITS AND USE CASES ............................................................ 265
B. CHALLENGES .................................................................................. 266
V. CONCLUSION ...................................................................................... 267

*
Staff Editor, Georgetown Law Technology Review, Volume 9;
Editorial Board, Liberty University Law Review, Volume 18; LL.M.
Candidate in Technology Law and Policy, Georgetown University Law
Center (2025); J.D., Liberty University School of Law (2024); A.L.M. in
Extension Studies, Concentration: Data Science, Harvard University
(2021); B.S. Financial Mathematics and Statistics, University of
California, Santa Barbara (2018).
No. 1] GEORGETOWN LAW TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 257

I. INTRODUCTION

Since the dawn of human civilization, the evolution of spoken

language has laid the foundation for communication upon which all
human and technological interactions are constructed. Language
furnishes us with the vocabulary, semantic subtleties, and
grammatical frameworks essential for conveying complex ideas and
concepts. Large Language Models (LLMs) are advanced artificial
intelligence (AI) systems that have redefined how machines process
and generate human language.1 LLMs utilize massive datasets, deep
neural network architectures, and transformer mechanisms to
process and produce text that closely resembles human
communication.2 These capabilities make them highly effective for
various natural language processing (NLP) tasks, including text
translation, code generation, and chatbots. Since their inception,
prominent LLMs like ChatGPT and Google Translate have become
indispensable tools for advancing technology that seamlessly
integrates with human communication. This Technology Explainer
provides a high-level overview of the background, key
functionalities, operation, and types of LLMs, as well as a
commentary on their limitations and potential.

II. ORIGIN OF LLMS: NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING

Although LLMs have gained notoriety since the launch of

ChatGPT in 2021, a subfield of computer science called Natural
Language Processing (NLP) has been developing the underlying
technology for these algorithms over decades. The emergence of
intelligent machines and the pressing demand for language
translation after World War II served as a catalyst for the
development of NLP as a distinct field of computer science. NLP is
a field dedicated to creating systems capable of interacting with and
processing human language or language-like data in its written,
spoken, or structured forms.3 Rooted in computational linguistics,
NLP shifted the focus from merely understanding the abstract
principles underlying human language to engineering systems

1
What Are Large Language Models (LLMs)?, ELASTIC,
https://www.elastic.co/what-is/large-language-models [perma.cc/N2KR-
WMU4] (last visited Dec. 29, 2024).
2
Id.
3
See A Complete Guide to Natural Language Processing,
DEEPLEARNING.AI, https://www.deeplearning.ai/resources/natural-
language-processing/ [perma.cc/BP5A-P55Z] (last updated Jan. 11,
2023) .
258 Understanding LLMs [Vol. 9

capable of manipulating and processing that language in practical,

meaningful ways.4
NLP’s foundational premise is deceptively simple: enabling
computers to process, interpret, and generate human language.5
However, achieving this goal requires unraveling the complexities of
syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, each of which reflects the
dynamic, context-dependent qualities of human expression.6 In its
early days, NLP relied heavily on rule-based systems, which encoded
linguistic structures as a series of deterministic instructions.7 While
groundbreaking, these systems struggled with the subtleties and
variability inherent in human language, often failing when
confronted with idioms, context shifts, or grammatical
inconsistencies.8
The introduction of statistical methods and machine learning
marked a transformation in NLP systems—machines could now
infer language patterns from vast datasets rather than depending on
rigidly defined rules.9 This approach provided the flexibility
necessary for tasks such as sentiment analysis, machine translation,
and speech recognition.10 By leveraging probabilistic models and
training algorithms on increasingly larger corpora, NLP systems
began to mirror human-like adaptability, albeit within defined
constraints.11

4
Id.
5
Deepak Bhatt, Natural Language Processing: Bridging the Gap
Between Humans and Machines, GLOB. TECH. REV. (July 7, 2024),
https://www.globaltechnologyreview.com/post/natural-language-
processing-bridging-the-gap-between-humans-and-machines
[perma.cc/E7VW-M5P7].
6
Alexander S. Gillis, Ben Lutkevich & Ed Burns, What is Natural
Language Processing (NLP)?, TECHTARGET (last updated Aug. 2024),
https://www.techtarget.com/searchenterpriseai/definition/natural-
language-processing-NLP [perma.cc/KF22-7YYT].
7
Seyed Saeid Masoumzadeh, From Rule-Based Systems to
Transformers: A Journey Through the Evolution of Natural Language
Processing, MEDIUM (June 19, 2023),
https://medium.com/@masoumzadeh/from-rule-based-systems-to-
transformers-a-journey-through-the-evolution-of-natural-language-
9131915e06e1# [perma.cc/67WJ-QXEM].
8
Id.
9
Id.
10
GenAI vs. LLMs vs. NLP: A Complete Guide, SCRIBBLEDATA,
https://www.scribbledata.io/blog/genai-vs-llms-vs-nlp-a-complete-guide/
[perma.cc/SEX3-SXVP] (last visited Dec. 29, 2024).
11
Id.
No. 1] GEORGETOWN LAW TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 259

III. WHAT IS A LARGE LANGUAGE MODEL (LLM)?

The emergence of LLMs represents the culmination of decades

of progress in NLP, introducing a new level of sophistication.12
LLMs transcend the capabilities of earlier NLP systems by
harnessing deep learning—a subset of machine learning designed to
mimic the layered processing of information in the human brain.13
Much like the human brain requires education and refinement, large
language models undergo a process of pre-training followed by fine-
tuning to adeptly address tasks such as text classification, question
answering, document summarization, and text generation.14 The
extensive problem-solving capabilities of LLMs have wide-ranging
applications across various fields and provide the basis for a
multitude of NLPapplications like machine translation,
conversational chatbots, and intelligent virtual assistants.15

A. TRANSFORMER MODELS

To enable their sophisticated predictive capabilities, LLMs are

supported by an advanced neural network architecture known as the
transformer model.16 Much like the brain, transformers are built
upon intricate, multilayered networks comprising countless
interconnected nodes, which collectively process information,
extract meaning, and generate responses.17 Transformer models
emulate the brain’s ability to process external stimuli—they receive
inputs, interpret them within a contextual framework, and output
coherent responses.18 This conceptual foundation informs the
architecture of transformers, which typically follow an encoder-
decoder structure.19 The encoder’s primary role is to deconstruct
input sequences into tokens—discrete units of information that can

12
Id.
13
What is Natural Language Processing (NLP)?, AWS,
https://aws.amazon.com/what-is/nlp/# [perma.cc/5SPG-LXAX] (last
visited Dec. 29, 2024).
14
What Are Large Language Models (LLMs)?, supra note 1.
15
Id.
16
Rick Merritt, What is a Transformer Model?, NVIDIA (Mar. 25,
2022), https://blogs.nvidia.com/blog/what-is-a-transformer-model/
[perma.cc/C4UC-ZTX9].
17
Tyler Au, An Introduction to the Transformer Model: The Brains
Behind Large Language Models, LYRID.IO (May 1, 2024),
https://www.lyrid.io/post/an-introduction-to-the-transformer-model-the-
brains-behind-large-language-models# [perma.cc/B2RF-ZYYB].
18
Id.
19
What Are Large Language Models (LLMs)?, supra note 1.
260 Understanding LLMs [Vol. 9

represent words, subwords, or characters in the case of NLPs).20

Through sequential parsing and pattern recognition, the encoder
extracts the latent semantic and syntactic relationships embedded
within the tokens.21 The decoder then reconstructs this processed
information into an output sequence, effectively transforming raw
input into meaningful, contextually relevant language.22

B. CORE COMPONENTS OF LLMS

The encoder and decoder themselves consist of multiple

transformer layers, each serving a distinct computational function.23
For instance, attention mechanisms, normalization processes, and
feed-forward networks operate in tandem to ensure that the model
can both grasp and preserve the nuanced relationships within data.24
These layers do not work in isolation; rather, they synergistically
refine and transmit information through the model’s architecture,
progressively enhancing the precision of its representations.25

1. Embedding Layer

The embedding layer serves as the initial interface between raw

text and the model’s computations. This layer translates discrete
textual units, such as words or characters, into dense vector
representations known as embeddings.26 These embeddings encode
both the semantic meaning and syntactic relationships of the input,
capturing nuances such as word similarity, grammatical roles, and
contextual relevance.27 By embedding linguistic features into a high-

20
Au, supra note 17; Pradeep Menon, Introduction to Large
Language Models and the Transformer Architecture, MEDIUM (Mar. 9,
2023), https://rpradeepmenon.medium.com/introduction-to-large-
language-models-and-the-transformer-architecture-534408ed7e61
[perma.cc/TQ32-QRUB].
21
Au, supra note 17; Menon, supra note 20.
22
Au, supra note 17.
23
Josep Ferrer, How Transformers Work: A Detailed Exploration of
Transformer Architecture, DATACAMP (Jan. 9, 2024),
https://www.datacamp.com/tutorial/how-transformers-work
[https://perma.cc/6PW9-3WEN].
24
Id.
25
Id.
26
What Are Large Language Models (LLMs)?, supra note 1.
27
Id.
No. 1] GEORGETOWN LAW TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 261

dimensional space, this layer establishes the foundation for the

model’s understanding of language.28

2. Feedforward Layer

Building on these embeddings, the feedforward layers (FFNs)

execute a series of transformations through fully connected neural
networks.29 These layers are designed to extract increasingly abstract
patterns from the input, moving beyond surface-level meanings to
uncover higher-order relationships.30 For example, feedforward
layers may identify implicit connections, such as tone or intent,
within the text.31 This capacity to discern abstracted patterns allows
the model to contextualize user input and adapt its processing to a
wide range of applications, from sentiment analysis to nuanced
conversational responses.

3. Recurrent Layer

The recurrent layers provide the structural backbone for

interpreting sequential data, processing input one token at a time in
the order it appears.32 These layers are particularly adept at capturing
temporal dependencies, enabling the model to understand how

28
What is Embedding Layer: LLMs Explained, CHATGPT GUIDE (last
updated June 12, 2024), https://www.chatgptguide.ai/2024/02/29/what-is-
embedding-layer-llms-explained/ [perma.cc/SA6F-ZV2N].
29
Punyakeerthi BL, Understanding Feed Forward Networks in
Transformers, MEDIUM (Apr. 29, 2024),
https://medium.com/@punya8147_26846/understanding-feed-forward-
networks-in-transformers-77f4c1095c67 [perma.cc/9BQU-25KT].
30
Ian Goodfellow, Yoshua Bengio & Aaron Courville, Chapter 6:
Deep Feedforward Networks in DEEP LEARNING BOOK 164–223 (2016),
https://www.deeplearningbook.org/contents/mlp.html [perma.cc/6TFX-
LYPH]; Sandaruwan Herath, The Feedforward Network (FFN) in The
Transformer Model, MEDIUM (Apr. 19, 2024), https://medium.com/image-
processing-with-python/the-feedforward-network-ffn-in-the-transformer-
model-6bb6e0ff18db [perma.cc/JSR2-X88M].
31
Feedforward Neural Network, GEERKSFORGEEKRS (last updated
June 20, 2024), https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/feedforward-neural-
network/ [perma.cc/5RWF-8CAT].
32
See What Are Large Language Models (LLMs)?, supra note 1; see
also Andrej Karpathy, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Recurrent
Neural Networks, GITHUB.IO (May 21, 2015),
https://karpathy.github.io/2015/05/21/rnn-effectiveness/ [perma.cc/WJQ9-
XRJ3].
262 Understanding LLMs [Vol. 9

earlier words influence the meaning of subsequent ones.33 For

example, in complex sentences with subordinate clauses or idiomatic
expressions, recurrent layers help preserve the integrity of meaning
across the entire input sequence. This sequential processing is crucial
for maintaining coherence, particularly in tasks like summarization
or text generation.34

4. Attention Mechanism

The transformative innovation in modern LLMs, however, lies

in the attention mechanism. Attention mechanisms allow the model
to focus on keywords in a sentence, much like how humans focus on
key phrases in conversations.35 This component evaluates the
relationships between all tokens in a sequence, dynamically
assigning weights to determine which words or phrases are most
critical for the task at hand.36 For instance, in a passage discussing
multiple topics, attention enables the model to isolate the specific
context needed to generate an accurate response. This capability
ensures that the model produces outputs that are not only
contextually rich but also aligned with the user’s intent. What makes
attention particularly revolutionary is its ability to integrate
information across the entire input sequence simultaneously, unlike
earlier NLP models such as Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) or
Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, which are constrained
by their limited capacity to reference distant elements.37 This global
contextual awareness allows transformers to synthesize complex
patterns across vast amounts of data, facilitating their ability to
generate coherent, contextually appropriate responses.

C. HOW LLMS OPERATE

LLMs are defined by their extraordinary scale, with millions to

billions of parameters serving as the internal variables that allow
them to predict and generate text.38 These parameters are what enable

33
See Karpathy, supra note 32; see also Large Language Model
(LLM), GROWTHLOOP (last updated Feb. 28, 2024),
https://www.growthloop.com/university/article/llmv [perma.cc/7YGV-
RSVA].
34
See Karpathy, supra note 32; see also Large Language Model
(LLM), supra note 33.
35
See Merritt, supra note 16.
36
See id.
37
See Menon, supra note 20.
38
Catherine Breslin, What’s a Parameter in an LLM?, MEDIUM (Jan.
6, 2024), https://catherinebreslin.medium.com/what-is-a-parameter-
3d4b7736c81d [perma.cc/QH9K-CHTZ]; Sean Michael Kerner, What are
No. 1] GEORGETOWN LAW TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 263

LLMs to process language with a level of fluency and accuracy that

was previously unattainable. Building an LLM starts with pre-
training, where the model is exposed (in an unsupervised manner) to
massive datasets filled with diverse examples of language.39 During
this phase, the model learns the fundamental patterns and structures
of language, such as grammar, context, and word relationships.40
This foundational training equips the model with a broad
understanding that can be applied to a variety of tasks, from language
translation to content generation. To tailor an LLM for more specific
uses, techniques like fine-tuning and prompt tuning are employed.41
Both approaches tap into the LLM’s extensive pre-trained
knowledge, making it adaptable to countless applications while
preserving the depth of its original training.42

1. Fine-Tuning

The goal of fine-tuning is to transform a general-purpose model

into one that is tailored for a particular application by training it
further on a smaller, focused dataset.43 This approach takes
advantage of the extensive knowledge the model has already gained
during pre-training, allowing it to handle specialized tasks without
starting from scratch, which would be prohibitively expensive and
time-consuming for most organizations.
The process begins by introducing the model to a labeled dataset
that corresponds to the desired task.44 For each example in the
dataset, the model makes a prediction and compares it to the correct
answer (the label).45 It calculates the difference, or error, between the
prediction and the label, which serves as feedback.46 Using this

Large Language Models (LLMs)?, TECHTARGET (last updated May,

2024), https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/large-language-
model-LLM [perma.cc/HD5S-QNRA].
39
Pre-training in LLM Development, TOLOKA.AI (Feb. 22, 2024),
https://toloka.ai/blog/pre-training-in-llm-development/ [perma.cc/3LJ2-
LEMT].
40
Id.
41
Prompt Tuning vs. Fine-Tuning—Preferences, Best Practices and
Use Cases, NEXLA, https://nexla.com/ai-infrastructure/prompt-tuning-vs-
fine-tuning/ [perma.cc/D88S-LJ9N] (last visited Dec. 29, 2024).
42
Id.
43
Id.
44
Fine-tuning Large Language Models (LLMs) in 2024,
SUPERANNOTATE (July 23, 2024),
https://www.superannotate.com/blog/llm-fine-tuning [perma.cc/Y694-
GPH3].
45
Id,
46
Id.
264 Understanding LLMs [Vol. 9

feedback, the model adjusts its internal parameters, called weights,

through an optimization process like gradient descent.47 Weights that
contribute more to the error are adjusted more significantly, while
those that have less impact are changed minimally.48
This cycle of prediction, error calculation, and weight
adjustment repeats over multiple passes through the dataset, known
as epochs.49 With each iteration, the model refines its internal
representations, gradually reducing the error and honing its
performance on the specific task.50 By the end of the fine-tuning
process, the model has shifted from a broadly trained system to one
that is well-suited to the purpose for which it was tuned.

2. Prompt Tuning

Prompt tuning is a method for refining the output of LLMs by

introducing specialized, adjustable parameters known as soft
prompts.51 Unlike traditional fine-tuning, which modifies the internal
parameters of the model, prompt tuning keeps the core architecture
and pre-trained weights of the model unchanged.52
Soft prompts are artificial tokens represented as trainable vectors
that are added to the input sequence before being processed by the
model.53 These prompts act as task-specific cues, guiding the
model’s responses without altering its internal weights.54 Soft
prompts can be initialized randomly or based on pre-defined
heuristics.55 Once initialized, they are appended to the input data,
ensuring that the model interprets both the prompts and the actual
input simultaneously.56
In the training phase, the combined input—soft prompts plus
task-specific data—is passed through the model.57 During the
forward pass, the model processes this input through its layers to
generate an output. A loss function is then applied to compare the
model’s output to the expected results, calculating the discrepancy

47
Id.
48
Id.
49
Id.
50
Id.
51
Prompt Tuning vs. Fine-Tuning, supra note 41.
52
Id.
53
Dimitri Didmanidze, Understanding Prompt Tuning: Enhance Your
Language Models with Precision, DATACAMP (May 19, 2024),
https://www.datacamp.com/tutorial/understanding-prompt-tuning
[perma.cc/CBS4-C8H5].
54
Id.
55
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56
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57
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No. 1] GEORGETOWN LAW TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 265

or “error.”58 This loss serves as the guiding metric for improving the
soft prompts. Backpropagation, a standard optimization method in
neural networks, is used to update parameters.59 However, in prompt
tuning, only the parameters of the soft prompts are adjusted; the
model’s core weights remain untouched.60 The errors are propagated
backward through the network, and the soft prompts are fine-tuned
to better align the model’s output with the desired outcome.61
The cycle of forward passes, loss evaluation, and
backpropagation is repeated over multiple epochs.62 With each
iteration, the soft prompts adapt further, learning how to shape the
input in a way that minimizes errors and maximizes task-specific
performance.63 Over time, this iterative process allows the model to
become highly specialized for the task at hand while preserving its
general-purpose functionality.

IV. BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS OF LLMS

A. BENEFITS AND USE CASES

It is undisputed that LLMs have revolutionized how machines

process, interpret, and generate human language with unprecedented
sophistication. These models excel at understanding nuanced
contexts, recognizing complex linguistic patterns, and generating
text that is both contextually relevant and human-like in quality—
making them invaluable for businesses and individual users alike.
But even beyond their linguistic capabilities, LLMs have become
essential tools for streamlining processes and driving innovation
across industries such as healthcare, finance, education,
entertainment, customer service, and software development.64
In customer service and support, LLMs power virtual assistants
and chatbots capable of delivering highly personalized and context-
aware responses, significantly improving user satisfaction.65 Social

58
Id.
59
Id.
60
Id.
61
Id.
62
Id.
63
Id.
64
Pooja Choudhary, Benefits And Limitations Of LLM, AIThority
(June 18, 2024), https://aithority.com/machine-learning/benefits-and-
limitations-of-llm/ [perma.cc/3JE8-4PNM].
65
Shyam Achuthan, How AI-Powered Language Models are
Transforming the Customer Support Landscape, LINKEDIN (Mar. 19,
2024), https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-ai-powered-language-
models-transforming-customer-support-shyam-njbsf [perma.cc/Z9V3-
6QBJ].
266 Understanding LLMs [Vol. 9

media platforms utilize LLMs to analyze user sentiment, predict

trends, and generate tailored content, fostering deeper connections
between users and platforms.66 In e-commerce and retail, LLMs
facilitate sophisticated recommendation engines and dynamic
pricing strategies, enabling businesses to anticipate consumer
preferences and optimize sales in real time.67 Financial institutions
leverage LLMs for fraud detection, risk analysis, and predictive
modeling, enabling them to identify irregularities in vast, complex
datasets with precision and speed.68 In marketing and advertising,
LLMs craft hyper-targeted campaigns and conduct sentiment
analysis, ensuring messaging resonates with specific audiences.69
Meanwhile, in healthcare, LLMs support critical functions such as
analyzing patient data, accelerating drug discovery, and aiding in
diagnostic decision-making through AI-driven tools.70 These diverse
applications underscore the versatility of LLMs in automating
complex processes, uncovering actionable insights, and enhancing
decision-making, making them indispensable assets across both
established and emerging domains.71

B. CHALLENGES

Despite their transformative capabilities, LLMs face

significant challenges that limit their reliability, scalability, and

66
Shanthi Kumar V, How AI LLMs Transform Social Media
Interactions, LINKEDIN (Jan. 31, 2024),
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-ai-llms-transform-social-media-
interactions-shanthi-kumar-v--fuoff/ [perma.cc/D4QA-GJK6].
67
The Role of Large Language Models in eCommerce & Retail
Industry in 2024, AMPLEWORK SOFTWARE (Sept. 30, 2024),
https://www.amplework.com/blog/large-language-models-in-ecommerce-
and-retail/ [perma.cc/E9G8-DQYJ].
68
LLMs in Banking, PACIFIC DATA INTEGRATORS (Oct. 1, 2024),
https://www.pacificdataintegrators.com/blogs/llms-in-banking-enhance-
fraud-detection-risk-assessment [perma.cc/PPK3-WU86].
69
How to Use Large Language Models for Marketing, KIRAN VOLETI
(Aug. 17, 2024), https://kiranvoleti.com/how-to-use-large-language-
models-llms-for-marketing [perma.cc/2KMV-RPJ2].
70
Shuroug A. Alowais, Sahar S. Alghamdi, Nada Alsuhebany, Tariq
Alqahtani, Abdulrahman I. Alshaya, Sumaya N. Almohareb, Atheer
Aldairem, Mohammed Alrashed, Khalid Bin Saleh, Hisham A. Badreldin,
Majed S. Al Yami, Shmeylan Al Harbi & Abdulkareem M. Albekairy,
Revolutionizing Healthcare: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Clinical
Practice, 23 BMD MED. ED., 2023 at 1–15,
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-023-04698-z.
71
A Guide to Large Language Models (LLMs) For Enterprises, DAVE
AI (Aug. 2024), https://www.iamdave.ai/blog/a-guide-to-large-language-
modelsllms-for-enterprises/ [perma.cc/389V-DLVR].
No. 1] GEORGETOWN LAW TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 267

ethical deployment. One of the primary concerns lies in their

dependence on massive datasets that often include inherent biases,
inaccuracies, and outdated information.72 These biases can manifest
in outputs, perpetuating harmful stereotypes or generating skewed
results that reflect the imperfections of the training data. The sheer
scale of LLMs also presents logistical hurdles: their resource-
intensive nature demands extensive computational power and
energy, making them environmentally taxing and financially
prohibitive for smaller organizations.73 Furthermore, their “black-
box” architecture compounds these issues, as the complexity of their
internal workings obscures how decisions are made, leaving users
with little insight into the reasoning behind incorrect or unexpected
outputs.74
LLMs also grapple with maintaining factual accuracy and
contextual appropriateness, often “hallucinating” incorrect
information or failing to verify factual consistency in their
responses.75 This poses substantial risks in high-stakes domains such
as healthcare, law, and finance, where precision is paramount.
Customizing LLMs for specific applications introduces further
complexities, requiring specialized expertise to fine-tune models
effectively while avoiding overfitting or the introduction of new
biases.76 Addressing these multifaceted challenges requires a
combination of strategies: employing rigorous data curation to
minimize bias, developing energy-efficient architectures to reduce
resource demands, and incorporating interpretability frameworks to
make model behavior more transparent.

V. CONCLUSION

LLMs epitomize the confluence of linguistic theory and

computational innovation, pushing the boundaries of what machines
can achieve with language. As LLMs continue to evolve, they
highlight both the remarkable progress in artificial intelligence and
the enduring complexity of human communication—a complexity
that remains the ultimate challenge and inspiration for this field.

72
5 Biggest Challenges with LLMs and How to Solve Them,
TENEO.AI, https://www.teneo.ai/blog/5-biggest-challenges-with-llms-and-
how-to-solve-them [perma.cc/B35S-5XZW] (last visited Dec. 29, 2024).
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74
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75
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76
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