ET ZC344

Instrumentation and control

BITS Pilani Balasubramanian M
Assistant Professor Grade-I
Pilani | Dubai | Goa | Hyderabad
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

2.1 Principles of Analog Signal Conditioning

Principles of Analog Signal Conditioning

•Analog signal conditioning provides the operations necessary to

transform a sensor output into a form necessary to interface with
other elements of the process control loop.
•It is possible to categorize signal conditioning into several
general types.

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Signal level and Bias changes
• One of the most common types of signal conditioning
involves adjusting the level(magnitude) and bias(zero
value) of some voltage representing a process variable.
• Bias Adjustment: signal conditioning by first changing the
zero to occur when the sensor output is more than 0 V.
• In designing bias and amplifier circuits, one must be
concerned with issues such as the frequency response,
output impedance, and input impedance.

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 Linearity
Fig. 2.1 The purpose of linearization is to provide an output that
varies linearly with some variable even if the sensor output does not.

A linearization circuit
would ideally be one that
conditioned the sensor out
put so that a voltage was
produced which was linear
with the process variable.

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 Conversions
• Often, signal conditioning is used to convert one type of
electrical variation into another.
• Thus, a large class of sensors exhibit changes of
resistance with changes in a dynamic variable.
• In these cases, it is necessary to provide a circuit to
convert this resistance change either to a voltage or a
current signal.
• This is generally accomplished by bridges when the
fractional resistance change is small and/or by amplifiers
whose gain varies with resistance.

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 Signal transmission
• An important type of conversion is associated with the process control
standard of transmitting signals as 4 to 20mA current levels in wire.
• This gives rise to the need for converting resistance and voltage levels
to an appropriate current level at the transmitting end and for converting
the current back to voltage at the receiving end.
• Of course, current transmission is used because such a signal is
independent of load variations other than accidental shunt conditions
that may draw off some current.
• The V to I and I to V converters are often required.

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Digital Interface
• The use of computers in a process control requires conversions of
analog data into a digital format by IC devices called analog to
digital converters(ADCs).
• Analog signal conversions is usually required to adjust the analog
measurement signal to match the input requirements of the ADC.
• Ex. The ADC may need a voltage that varies between 0 to 5 V, but
the sensor provides a signal that varies from 30 to 80mV.Signal
conversion circuits can be developed to interface the output to the
required ADC input.

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Filtering and Impedance Matching

• In many cases, it is necessary to use high-pass , low pass,

or notch filters to eliminate unwanted signals from the
loop. Such filtering can be accomplished by passive filters,
using only resistors, capacitors, and inductors, or active
filters, using gain and feedback.

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Filtering and Impedance Matching

• Impedance matching is an important element of signal

conditioning when transducer internal impedance or line
impedance can cause errors in measurement of a dynamic
variable.
• Both active and passive networks are employed to provide
such matching.

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Concept of loading
• This element could be a sensor or some other part of the signal
conditioning circuit, such as bridge circuit or amplifier.
• This could be the input resistance of an amplifier.
• A current will flow, and voltage will be dropped across Rx. It is
easy to calculate the loaded output voltage will thus be given by

Objective :make RL >>Rx

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 THANK YOU

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 ET ZC 344

Instrumentation and control

Swapna Kulkarni
BITS Pilani Lecturer
Pilani | Dubai | Goa | Hyderabad
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

2.2.1 Divider Circuits

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Divider Circuits

The elementary voltage divider often

can be used to provide conversion
of resistance variation into a voltage
variation.

Fig. 2.4 The simple voltage divider can

often be used to convert resistance variation
into voltage variation

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 Divider Circuits
• It is important to consider the following issues when using a divider
for conversion of resistance to voltage variation:
1. The variation of VD with either R1 or R2 is nonlinear
2. The effective output impedance of the divider is the parallel
combination of R1 and R2.
3. In a divider circuit, current flows through both resistors; that is,
power will be dissipated by both, including the sensor. The power
rating of both the resistor and sensor must be considered.

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 THANK YOU

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 ET ZC 344

Instrumentation and control

Swapna Kulkarni
BITS Pilani Lecturer
Pilani | Dubai | Goa | Hyderabad
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

2.2.2 Bridge Circuits

Bridge Circuits
• It is used to convert impedance variation into voltage
variations.
• Adv.: it can be designed so the voltage produces varies around
zero.
• This means that amplification can be used to increase the
voltage level for increased sensitivity to variation of
impedance.
• Another application of bridge circuits is in the precise static
measurement of an impedance.

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 Wheatstone Bridge
∆V= V(R3R2-R1R4)/(R1+R3)(R2+R4)

The simplest and most common bridge circuit ∆V=Va-Vb

is the dc Wheatstone bridge.
This network is used in signal conditioning
applications where a sensor changes
resistance with process variable changes.
The object labeled D is a voltage detector
used to compare the potentials of points a and
b of the network.
For initial analysis, assume the detector
impedance is infinite.
Va=VR3/(R1+R3) Vb=VR2/(R2+R4)

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Wheatstone Bridge
 A particular combination of resistors can be found that will result in
zero difference and zero voltage across the detector, i.e. , a null.
• R3R2=R1R4 (2.8)
• The application of Wheatstone bridges to process-control
applications using high-input impedance detectors.

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Galvanometer Detector
• The use of galvanometer as a null detector in the bridge circuit introduces
some differences in the calculations because the detector resistance may be
low and need to determine the bridge offset as current offset.
• Easy way to determine the offset current is to first to find the Thevenin
equivalent circuit between points a and b of the bridge.

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Galvanometer
• The Thevenin voltage is simply the open circuit voltage
difference between points a and b of the circuit.
R 3 R 2 − R1 R 4
VTh = V
(R1 + R 3 )(R2 + R 4 )
Consider the internal resistance of supply is negligible
compared to the ridge arm resistances.
R1R 3 R2R4
R Th = +
R1 + R 3 R2 + R 4

The offset current is

V
I = T h

+
G
R T h R G Fig 2.6 When a galvanometer is used
for a null detector , it is convenient to use
the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the
bridge
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Bridge Resolution
• The resolution of the bride circuit is a function of the
resolution of the detector used to determine the bridge offset.
Thus, referring to the case where a voltage offset occurs, the
resolution in resistance (resistance change in one arm of the
bridge that causes an offset voltage)that is equal to the
resolution of the detector.

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 Lead Compensation
• There are many effects that can change the resistance
of the long lead wires on a transient basis, such as
frequency, temperature, stress, and chemical vapors.
Such changes will show up as a bridge offset and be
interpreted as changes in lead resistance are
introduced equally into two arms of the bridge circuit,
thus causing no effective change in bridge offset.

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 Lead Compensation
• Wire(3) is power lead and has no
influence on the bridge balance
condition.
• If wire(2) changes in resistance because
of unwanted influences, it introduces
this change into the R4 leg of the bridge.
• Wire (1) is exposed to the same
environment and changes by the same
amount, but is in the R3 leg of the
bridge.
• This type of compensation is often
employed where bridge circuits must be Figure For remote sensor applications,
this compensation system is used to
used with long leads to the active avoid errors from lead resistance.
element of the bridge.
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 Current Balance Bridge
• One disadvantage of the simple Wheatstone bridge is the need
to obtain a null by variation of resistors in bridge arms.
• A technique that provides for an electronic nulling of the bridge
and that uses only fixed resistors (except as may be required for
calibration) can be used with the bridge. The method uses a
current to null the bridge.
• A closed-loop system can even be constructed that provides the
bridge with a self-nulling ability.

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Current Balance Bridge
Figure : The current The least restrictive is to require.
balance bridge R 4> > R 5
O f t e n , i f a h i g h – i m pedanc e nu l l
d e t e c t o r is u s e d , t h e r e s t r i c t i on of
equation becomes
( R 2 + R4) > > R5
V (R 4 + R5 )
Vb = + IR5
R 2 + R 4 + R5
 V = V a − Vb
V R3 V (R 4 + R 5 )
V = − − IR5
R1 + R 3 R 2 + R 4 + R 5
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Current Balance Bridge
• If one of the bridge resistors changes, the bridge can be
renulled by changing current, I.
• In this manner, the bridge is electronically nulled from
any convenient current source.
• In most applications, the bridge is nulled as some
nominal set of resistance with zero current. Changes of
a bridge resistor are detected as a bridge offset signal
that is used to provide the renulling current.

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Potential Measurement Using Bridges

A bridge circuit is also useful to

measure small potentials at a very
high impedance, using either a
conventional Wheatstone bridge or
a c u r r e n t b a l a n c e b r i d g e . T h i s t yp e
of measurement is performed by
placing the potential to be
m e a s u r e d i n s e r i e s wi t h t h e
detector.
Figure Using the basic Wheatstone
bridge for potential measurement

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Potential Measurement Using Bridges
V (R 4 + R5 )
Vb = + IR5 And VC =Vx +Va
R 2 + R 4 + R5

Where Va is given by Equation and Vx is the

pot ent i al t o be m eas ur ed.
T he v ol t age appear i ng ac r os s t he nul l det ec t or i s
 V = V c- V b= V x+ V a- V b

V (R4 + R5 )
R3V VR4
R3V Vx + − =0
Vx + − − IR5 = 0 R1 + R3 R2 + R4
R1 + R3 R2 + R4 + R5
Vx- I R =0
5

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AC Bridge
The bridge offset voltage
then is represented as

Z3Z2 − Z1Z4
E = E
(Z 1 + Z 3 )(Z 2 + Z 4 )

 E = ac offset voltage

Where
E = sine wave excitation voltage
Z1,Z2,Z3,Z4 = bridge impedances. Figure : A general ac
Z3Z2=Z1Z4 bridge circuit

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Bridge Applications
• To convert variations of resistance into variations of voltage.
• This voltage variation is then further conditioned for interface to
an ADC or other system.
• The variation of bridge offset is nonlinear with respect to any of
the resistors.
• If the range of resistance variation is small and centered about the
null value , then the nonlinearity of voltage versus resistance is
small.
• Amplifiers can be used to amplify this voltage variation, since it is
centered about zero, to a useful range.

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2.2.3 RC Filters
 RC Filters
• To eliminate unwanted noise signals from measurements, it is often necessary to use
circuits that block certain frequencies or bands of frequencies. These circuits are called
filters. A simple filter can be constructed from a single resistor and a single capacitor.

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Low pass RC filter
• When the ratio of o/p voltage
to i/p voltage is one, the
s i g n a l i s p a s s e d wi t h o u t
effect; When it is very small
or zero, the signal is
effectively blocked.

Figure : Circuit for the low-pass RC filter

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 Low pass filter
• The critical frequency is that frequency for which the ratio of o/p to
i/p voltage is approx. 0.707.
• In terms of the resistor and capacitor, the critical frequency is given
by fc = (1/ 2ΠRC)
• The output to input voltage ratio for any signal frequency can be
determined graphically or can be computed by
ΙVout/VinΙ= 1/√[1+(f/fc)²]

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 Design Methods
• A typical filter design is accomplished by finding the critical frequency, fc that will satisfy
the design criteria.
• The following practical guidelines are offered on this process.
1. Select a standard capacitor value in the F to pF range.
2. Calculate the required resistance. If it is below 1k or above 1M, try a different value
of capacitor so that the required resistance falls within this range, which will avoid
noise and loading problems.
3. If design flexibility allows, use the nearest standard value of resistance to that
calculated.
4. Consider tolerance in resistor and capacitor. Capacitors have a tolerance as high as 
20%.
5. If exact values are necessary, it is usually easiest to select a capacitor, measure its
value, and then calculate the value of the required resistance. Then a trimmer resistor
can be used to obtain the required value.
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 High-Pass RC Filter
• The rejection is not sharp in
frequency but distributed over a
range around a critical frequency.
• The magnitude of Vout/Vin= 0.707
when the frequency is equal to the
critical frequency.
• An equation for the ratio of output to
input voltage as a function of the
frequency for the high filter is found
to be

ΙVout/VinΙ=(f/fc)/√[1+(f/fc)²] Figure : Circuit for the

high-pass RC filter

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 Practical consideration
1. After the critical frequency is determined, the values of R and C are
selected. A number of practical issues limit the selection:
a) Avoid very small values of resistance (lead to large currents and thus
large loading effects). Similarly very large capacitors should be
avoided. In general , try to keep the resistance in the kΩ and above
range and capacitors in the F or less range.
b)Often, the exact critical frequency is not important, so that fixed resistors
and capacitors of approx. the computed values can be employed . If exact
values are necessary, it is usually easier to select and measure a capacitor,
then compute and obtain the appropriate resistance using a trimmer
resistance.

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 Practical Consideration
2. The effective input impedance and output impedance of the RC filter
may have an effect on the circuit in which it is used because of loading
effects .
• If the input impedance of the circuit being fed by the filter is
low, need to place a voltage follower between the filter output and the
next stage. Similarly, if the input impedance of the feeding stage to the
filter is high , you may want to isolate the input of the filter with a voltage
follower.
3. It is possible to cascade RC filter in series to obtain improved
sharpness of the filter cutoff frequency. However, it is important to
consider the loading of one RC stage by another. The output impedance
of the first stage filter must be much less than the input impedance of the
next stage to avoid leading.

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2.3 Operational Amplifiers

Op amp characteristics

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Characteristics of ideal op-amp
1) An infinite impedance between inputs, and
2) A zero output impedance

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Ideal Inverting Amplifier

I1+I2 = 0 ;Where I1 = current through R1;I2 = current through R2

R2
V out = − V in
R1
Figure The opamp inverting amplifier.
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Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

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 Nonideal Effects
Finite Open – Loop Gain
The design rule presented here assume the op amp has infinite open-
loop gain. The gain is defined as the slope of the voltage –transfer
function.

Finite input impedance

A real op amp has a finite input impedance and, consequently, a finite
voltage across and current through its input terminals.

Nonzero output impedance

A real op-amp has a nonzero output impedance, although this low
output impedance is typically only a few ohms.

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Inverting amplifier with nonideal opamp properties

Vout 2Vsat
A= 
(V2 −V1 ) V
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Op amp Specifications
• Input offset voltage: In most cases, the op amp output voltage may
not be zero when the voltage across the input is zero. The voltage
that must be applied across the input terminals to drive the output to
zero is the input offset voltage , Vios.
• Input offset current: Just as a voltage offset may be required across
the input to zero the o/p voltage, so a net current may be required
across the input to zero the o/p voltage. Such current is referred to
as an input offset current. This is taken as the difference of the two
input currents.
• Input bias current: this is the average of the two input currents
required to drive the output voltage to zero

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Op Amp Specification
• Slew rate: If a voltage is suddenly applied to the input of an op amp, the
o/p will saturate to the maximum. For a step input, the slew rate is the
rate at which the o/p changes to the saturation value. This typically is
expressed as volts per microsecond (V/ s)

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2.4.1 OPAMP Circuits in Instrumentation

Voltage Follower
• unity gain and very high input impedance.
• The input impedance is essentially the input impedance of the op amp
itself, which can be greater than 100M . The voltage output tracks the
input over a range defined by the plus and minus saturation voltage
outputs.

Figure : The Op amp voltage follower. This circuit has unity gain
but very high input impedance

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• Current output is limited to the short circuit of op amp, and output
impedance is typically much less than 100 .
• Such a unit is usually specifically designed for very high input impedance.
The unity gain voltage follower is essentially an impedance transformer in
the sense of converting a voltage at high impedance to the same voltage
at low impedance.

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Inverting Amplifier
• It is important to note that the input impedance of this circuit is essentially
equal to R1, the input resistance. In general, this resistance is not large, and
hence the input impedance is not large. The output impedance is low.

R2
Vout = − Vin
R1
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Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

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Summing Amplifier

Figure: The Op Amp summing Amplifier

 R2 R2 
Vout = − V1 + V2
 R1 R3 
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Noninverting Amplifier

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Differential Instrumentation Amplifier
• An ideal differential amplifier provides an output voltage with respect
to ground that is some gain times the difference between two input
voltages.
Vout = A(Va-Vb)
• Where A is the differential gain and both Va and Vb are voltages with
respect to ground.
• Such an amplifier plays an important role in instrumentation and
measurement.

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2.4.2 Instrumentation and ConverterAmplifier

Differential Amplifier
Va + Vb
V cm =
2

Figure : The basic differential amplifier

configuration
• The common-mode rejection ration (CMRR) of a differential amplifier
is defined as the ratio of the differential gain to the common-mode
gain.
• The common – mode rejection (CMR) is the CMRR expressed in dB.

A
CMRR =
Acm
C M R = 2 0 l o g 10
(C M R R )
Instrumentation Amplifier
• If the resistors are not well matched, the CMR will be poor. The circuit
has a disadvantage in that its input impedance is not very high and,
further is not the same for the two inputs. For this reason, voltage
followers are often used on the input to provide high input
impedance. The result is called an instrumentation amplifier.
Instrumentation Amplifier

Figure : An instrumentation amplifier includes voltage

followers for input isolation.

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Instrumentation amplifier

Vout =  1 + 2 R 1   R 3  (V 2 − V 1 )
 RG  R2 
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Voltage-to-Current Converter

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• The maximum load resistance and maximum current are related
and determined by the condition that the amplifier output
saturates in voltage. Analysis of the circuit shows that when the
op amp output voltage saturates, the maximum load resistance
and maximum current are related by

(R4 + R 5
)  V
− R sa t
3


 I 
R = m

+ R4 + R5
ml
R3

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Current-to-Voltage Converter

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights rese.

Figure : A current-to-voltage converter using an op amp. Care

must be taken that the current output capability of the op amp is
not exceeded.
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2.4.3 Application of Amplifiers

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Integrator (Active low pass filter)

Vin dVout
+C =0
R dt

1
RC 
Vout =− V in dt

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• Other function also can be implemented, such as a
highly linear ramp voltage. If the input voltage is
constant Vin=K, equation reduces to K
V out = − t
R C

• Which is linear ramp, a negative slope of K/RC. Some

mechanism of reset through discharge of the capacitor
must be provided, because otherwise Vout will rise to
the output saturation value and remain fixed there in
time.

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Differentiator(Active high pass filter)
Practically speaking, this
circuit exhibits erratic or even
unstable response and can be
used only in combination with
other circuitry to depress this
instability.
C
dVin
+ ut
=0 dV i n
= −RC
Vo
dt
R
V out
dt

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Linearization
• The op amp can also implement linearization.
• Generally, this is achieved by placing a non-linear element in the
feedback loop of the op amp (shown in fig.)

F(Vou
t)

Vin R
Vout
+

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Linearization
•The summarization of currents provides
Vin/R+I(Vout)=0
where Vin=input voltage
R= input resistance
I(Vout)= nonlinear variation of current with voltage
Eq. is solved (in principle) for Vout, we get
Vout=G(Vin/R)
where Vout=output voltage
G(Vin/R)= a nonlinear function of the input voltage[actually the
inverse function of I(Vout)]

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