ET ZC344

Instrumentation and control

Dr. Balasubramanian M
BITS Pilani
Pilani | Dubai | Goa | Hyderabad
Assistant Professor Gr-1
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

1.4 Analog and Digital Processing

Analog and Digital Processing
Definitions
Need
Data Representation
Data Conversions:
– ADC
– DAC

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Analog data
• An Analog representation of data means that there is a
smooth and continuous variation between a
representation of a variable value and the value itself.

Fig 1.11 (a) shows how output variable b

changes as an analog variable of c

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Digital Data (3/3)
Fig. 1.11 (b) shows how a digital output variable, n, would change with variable
c

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On/Off Control
Fig. 1.13 This ON/OFF control system can either heat or cool or do neither. No
variation of the degree of heating or cooling is possible.

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• Digital Control

• True digital control involves the use of a

computer in modern applications.
• There are two approaches to using computers
for control:
1) Supervisory Control
2) Direct Digital Control(DDC)

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Digital Control

• True digital control involves the use of a

computer in modern applications.
• There are two approaches to using computers
for control:
1) Supervisory Control
2) Direct Digital Control(DDC)

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 Supervisory Control

Fig.1.15 In supervisory control, the computer monitors measurements and

updates set points, but the loops are still analog in nature.

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 Direct Digital Control(DDC)

Fig. 1.16 This direct digital control system lets the computer
perform the error detection and controller functions.

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General Architecture of Smart Sensor

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 Networked Control Systems
Fig. 1.17 LANs play an important role in modern process-
control plants

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 PLCs

Fig. 1.18 A PLC is an outgrowth of ON/OFF type control environments. In

this case the heater and cooler are either On or OFF.

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1.5.1 UNITS, STANDARDS

International System of units

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 Analog data Representation
• Fig. 1.19 Electric Current and pneumatic pressures are the most common means of
information transmission in the industrial environment.

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 Current Signal

Fig. 1.20 One of the advantages of current as a transmission signal that it

is nearly independent of the resistance

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1.5.2 DEFINITIONS
 Definitions
❑Error: When used for a controlled variable in a
control system, error is the difference between the
measured value of the variable and the desired value-
that is, the reference or setpoint value.

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Block Definitions

• Control system are often described in terms of

blocks.
• In order to work effectively in control systems, one
must understand the terms and expressions used to
describe the characteristics of a block.

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Transfer Functions

• The static transfer function describes the

input/output relationship when the input is not
changing in time.
• The dynamic transfer function describes the
input/output relationship when there is time
variation of the input.

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Accuracy

• This term is used to specify the maximum overall error

to be expected from a device, such as measurement of
a variable
• Accuracy is usually expressed as the inaccuracy and
can appear in several forms:
1) Measured variable;
the accuracy is ±2⁰C in temp. measurement =>an
uncertainty of ±2⁰C in measured temp.
2) Percentage of the instrument full scale(FS) reading
±0.5% FS in a 5V FS => ±0.025V

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Accuracy

3) Percentage of instrument span-percentage of

instrument measurement capability.
±3%of a span for 20 to 50 psi range of pressure=> the
accuracy would be (±0.03)(50-20)= ±0.9psi.
4) Percentage of actual reading.
±2% of reading voltmeter 2V => an inaccuracy of
±0.04 V for 2V

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 System Accuracy

•one must consider the overall accuracy V±∆V = (K ±∆K)(G ±∆G)C

of many elements in a process control
Where V= output voltage
loop to represent a process variable.
•Generally, best way is to express the ±∆V= uncertainty in output
accuracy of each element in terms of the voltage
transfer functions. K,G = nominal transfer functions
∆K, ∆G= uncertainties in
transfer
functions
C = dynamic variable
We can find the output
uncertainty to be
∆V = ±GC∆K ± KC∆G ± ∆K∆GC

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 System Accuracy

In terms of fractional uncertainties by factoring out V.

=>

Statistical analysis teaches us that it is more realistic to

use root-mean square(rms) representation of system
uncertainty.
This found from the relation

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Sensitivity

• It is a measure of the change in output of an instrument

for change in input.
• High sensitivity is desirable in an instrument because a
large change in output for a small change in input
implies that a measurement may be taken easily.
• Sensitivity must be evaluated together with other
parameters, such as linearity of output to input, range
and accuracy.
• The value of sensitivity is generally indicated by the
transfer function.
• Ex. When a temp. transducer outputs 5mV per degree
Celsius, the sensitivity is 5mV/⁰C
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Hysteresis and Reproducibility

• Frequently, an instrument will not have the same

output value for a given input in repeated trials.
Such variation can be due to inherent
uncertainties that imply a limit on the
reproducibility of the device.
• This variation is random from measurement to
measurement and is not predictable.
• A different reading results for a specific input,
depending on whether the input value is
approached from higher or lower values. This
effect is called as hysteresis.
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 Hysteresis
• Fig.1.23Hysteresisisapredictableerrorresultingfrom
• Hysteresis is usually
specified as a percentage differencesinthetransferfunctionastheinputvariableincreasesor
of full scale maximum decreases.
deviation between the
two curves.
• This effect is predictable
if measurement values
are always approached
from one direction
because hysteresis will
not cause measurement
errors.
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 Resolution
• It is a minimum value of the input variable in
measurement devices.
• This can be changed with redesign of the instrument.
• Ex. A wire wound potentiometer: the slider moves across
windings to vary resistance. Its resolution is ∆R,
• In analog systems, the resolution of the system is
usually determined by the smallest measurable change
in the analog output signal of the measurement system.
• In digital systems, the resolution is a well defined
quantity that is simply the change in dynamic variable
represented by a 1 bit change in the binary word output.

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 Linearity
• When a linear relationship exists, a straight line equation
can be used to relate the measured variable and
measurement output
cm=mc+c0
where c= variable to be measured
m = slope of straight line
c0= offset or intercept of straight line
cm= output of measurement

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1.5.3 Process control Design

 Process Control Drawings
• An electric schematic is a drawing that employs a
standard set of symbols and definitions so that anyone
who knows the standards can understand the operation
of the circuit.
• Same way, process control employs a standard set of
symbols and definitions to represent a plant and its
associated control systems.
• This standard was developed and approved by a
collaboration between the American national Standards
Institute(ANSI) and the Instrumentation, Systems, and
Automation (ISA) society.

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Process Control Drawings

• The standard is designated ANSI/ISA S5.1-1984

(R1992) Instrumentation and identification.
• This standard is used for the early design phases of a
plant control system to construct simplified process
control diagrams and then to render the final, detailed
plant design as a piping and instrumentation
diagram(P&ID)

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P & ID Signal and process lines

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General Instruments or functions
• This aspect of standard defines the symbols to
be used for the various instrumentation needed
to measure and control the process and the
plant.
• This instrumentation includes sensors,
transmitters, data converters, controllers,
computers, and even PLCs.

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Special Symbols used in the P & ID

• A line through a symbol means it is accessible

to the operator, such as by being in a panel in
the control room.
• No line means that the instrument is located
in the field, perhaps at the control site itself,
and is not accessible to the operator.
• A dashed line means that the device is
inaccessible by virtue of being located within
other equipment, such as behind the panel of
a control room.

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Actuators and process elements

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Letters in P & ID
• Generally, the symbol will also contain a
combination of letters and numbers.
• The letters serve as a shorthand way of
indicating the purpose of the instrument in
the system.
• Ex. FC-flow controller;TT- temperature
transmitter(sensor and transmitter);Y- for PLC
instrumentation
• C,D,G,M,N,O are all at the discretion of the
user to define; M- for motor

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Number in P&ID

• The numbers serve to identify in which part of the overall

plant the instrument operates.
• Loops are often numbered as 100, 101 and so on and
the instruments in the loop carry this number.

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Math functions
• Many of these operations
are now being performed
by software in computer –
control systems, but when
they appear in a P&ID, they
generally denote a
hardware implementation.
• Ex. A common example is
extraction of a square root
to convert pressure
measurement to flow data

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What is the Difference Between PFD and
P&ID?
• Simplified or conceptual designs, often called process
flow diagrams (PFDs), provide less detail than fully
developed piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs).
Since a PFD shows less details than a P&ID, it is used
only to understand how the process works.

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A P&ID Should NOT Include:
• Instrument root valves;
• Control relays;
• Manual switches;
• Primary instrument tubing and valves;
• Pressure temperature and flow data;
• Extensive explanatory notes.

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1.6 Sensor time response

 Sensor time response
• The static transfer function of a process control loop
element specifies how the output is related to the input if
the input is constant.
• An element also has a time independence that specifies
how the output changes in time when the input is changing
in time.
• It is independent from the static transfer function.
• This dynamic transfer function , which is independent from
the static transfer function ,is often simply called the time
response.
• It is particularly important for sensors because they are
primary element for providing knowledge of the controlled
variable value.

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 Sensor time response

Fig. 1.28 Characteristic first order

Fig. 1.27 The dynamic transfer function exponential time response of a
specifies how a sensor output varies when sensor to a step change of input.
the input changes instantaneously in time
(i.e., a step change).
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 First order response

• The simplest time response as the output change in time

following a step input.This is called first order because,
for all sensors of this type, the time response is
determined by the solution of a first-order differential
equation.
• A general equation can be written for this response
independent of the sensor, the variable being measured,
or the static transfer function.

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First Order Response

• The equation gives the sensor output as a function of time

following the step input:
b(t)= bi +(bf – bi)[1 – e-t/τ] (1.7)
where bi = initial sensor output from static transfer function and
initial input
bf = final sensor output from static transfer function and
final input; τ = sensor time constant
• Eq. describes transducer output very well except during the
initial time period – that is, at the start of the response near t=0.
• In particular, the actual transducer response generally starts the
change with a zero slope, and equation predicts a finite starting
slope.
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Time Constant

• The time constant,τ, is part of the specification of the

sensor.
• Its significance can be seen by writing the equation as
follows
b(t)-bi =(bf – bi)[1 – e-t/τ] (1.8)
Where [b(t)-bi ]= the change in output as a function of time,
And (bf – bi)=total change that will occur
[1 – e-t/τ]=The fraction of total change as a function of
time

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 Time constant
• Suppose we wish to find the change that has occurred
at a time numerically equal to τ.
• Then we set t=τ in eq.1.8 and find
b(τ)-bi = o.6321(bf – bi)
=> One time constant represents the time at which the
output value has changed by approximately 63% of the
total change

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 Real time effects
• The concept of the exponential time response and
associated time constant is based on a sudden
discontinuous change of the input value.
• In the real word, such instantaneous changes occur
rarely, if ever, and thus we have presented a worst case
situation in time response.
• In general, a sensor should be able to track any
changes in the physical dynamic variable in a time less
than one time constant.

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 Second order Response
• In some sensors, a step change in the input causes the output to
oscillate for a short period of time before settling down to a value
that corresponds to the new input.
• Such oscillation( and the decay of the oscillation itself) is a function
of the sensor.
• This output transient generated by the transducer is an error and
must be accounted for in any measurement involving a transducer
with this behavior. This is called a second order response because
for this type of sensor, the time behavior is described by a second
order differential equation.
• It is not possible to develop a universal solution, as it is for the first
order time response. Instead we simply describe the general nature
of the response.

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 Second order response
• Fig. 1.29 Characteristic second order • fig. shows a typical output curve
oscillatory time response of sensor that might be expected from a
transducer having a second order
response for a discontinuous
change in the input.
• it is impossible to describe this
behavior by a simple analytical
expression, as it is with the first
order response.

•however, the general behavior can be

described in time as
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 Second order system
• In general, such a transducer can be said to
track the input when the input changes in a time
that is greater than the period represented by
the natural frequency.
• The damping constant defines the time one
must wait after disturbance at t=0 for the
transducer output to be a true indication of the
transducer input.
=> in a time of (1/a),the amplitude of the
oscillations would be down to e-1 , or approx.
37%.

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1.7 Significance and statistics

 Significance and statistics
• Process control is vitally concerned with the value of
variables, as the stated objective is to regulate the value
of selected variables.
• It is therefore very important that the true significance of
some measured value be understood.

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 Significant Figures
In any measurement, we must be careful not to attach more
significance to a variable value than the instrument can
support.
This is true within the growing use of digital reading
instruments and calculators with 8 to 12 digit readouts.
Ex. The digital instrument measures a resistance as
125Ω.This does not mean 125,000Ω; it means it is closer to
125,000 than it is 124,000 and 126,000Ω.
We can use the 125Ω number in subsequent calculations, but
we cannot draw conclusions about results having more
than three numbers-i.e., three significant figures.
The significant figures are three digits(places) actually read or
known from a measurement or calculation.

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 Significance in Measurement
When using a measuring instrument, the number of
significant figures is indicated either by readability, in the
case of analog instruments, or by the number of digits,
in a digital instrument
This is not like accuracy which supplies an uncertainty to
the reading itself.

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 Significance in Calculations
• In calculations, one must be careful not to obtain
a result that has more significance than the
numbers employed in the calculation.
• The answer can have no more significance than
the least of the numbers used in the calculation.

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 Significance in Design
A design is a hypothetical development that makes
implicit assumptions about selected values in
the design.
Ex. If the designer specifies a 1.1kΩ resistor, the
assumption is that it is exactly 1100Ω and for
4.7V across the resistor, then exactly 4.7V.If
current calculated as 4.2727272mA.But 1.1kΩ
and 4.7V are two significant figures, so current
is 4.3mA.

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 Statistics
• This is particularly true where random errors in
measurement cause a distribution of readings of the
value of some variable.
• Points to be considered in statistics are:
1) Arithmetic mean
2) Standard deviation

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 Arithmetic mean
If many measurements of a particular variable are taken,
the arithmetic mean is calculated to obtain an average
value of the variable.
Ex. To control the average temp. in a process, the temp.
might be measured in 10 locations and averaged to give
a controlled variable value for use in the control loop.
For calibration of transducers and other process
instruments, the average gives information about the
transfer function.

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 Arithmetic Mean

In digital or computer process control, it is often easier to

use the average value of process variables.
The arithmetic mean of a set of n values, given by x1 ,x2
,x3 ,x4 ,……..,xn is defined by the equation

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 Standard Deviation
• It is sufficient to know the value of the arithmetic
mean of a set of measurements.
• To interpret the measurements properly, it may
be necessary to know something about how the
individuals values are spread out about the
mean.

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 Standard Deviation

• For two set, mean is same. The standard deviation is

measure of this spread.
• A measure of the dispersion of a set of data from its
mean. The more spread apart the data, the higher the
deviation. Standard deviation is calculated as the square
root of variance.

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 Standard Deviation
A set of n values x1 ,x2 ,x3 ,x4 ,……..,xn , first define a set
of variations by the difference between the individual
values and arithmetic mean of the values,¯x.
The deviations are:

The set of these n deviations is now used to define the

standard deviation as equation

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 Standard Deviation

The sample standard deviation formula is:

where,
s = sample standard deviation
n = number of scores in sample.
➢ Finite data in sample data
➢ Ex. For research, age group, etc.

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 Standard Deviation

The population standard deviation formula is:

where,
σ= population standard deviation
∑= sum of...
µ¯= population mean
n = number of scores in sample.
➢ Finite number set
➢ Ex. Students data in a class, etc.

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Interpretation of standard deviation
Fig. 1.30 Multiple readings are taken of some variable with an actual value,V.
The distributions show that sensor A has smaller standard deviation than sensor
B

•Note: the distribution readings for sensor

A is much more narrowly distributed
around the average than sensor B.

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 THANK YOU

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