Introduction to the Human Body

11th Edition
Gerard J. Tortora and Bryan H. Derrickson

Chapter 4

Tissues
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Chapter Outline
Section 4.1 Types of Tissues
Section 4.2 Epithelial Tissue
Section 4.3 Connective Tissue
Section 4.4 Membranes
Section 4.5 Muscular Tissue
Section 4.6 Nervous Tissue
Section 4.7 Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis
Section 4.8 Aging and Tissues

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Types of Tissues
Body tissues are classified into four basic types based on their structure
and functions:
1. Epithelial tissue – covers body surfaces; lines body cavities, hollow organs,
and ducts; and forms glands.

2. Connective tissue – protects and supports the body and its organs, binds
organs together, stores energy reserves as fat, and provides immunity.

3. Muscular tissue – generates the physical force needed to make body

structures move.

4. Nervous tissue – detects changes inside and outside the body and initiates
and transmits nerve impulses that coordinate body activities to help
maintain homeostasis.
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Epithelial Tissue (1 of 5)
• Epithelial tissue may be divided into two types:
1. Covering and lining epithelium
2. Glandular epithelium
• As its name suggests, covering and lining epithelium forms the outer
covering of the skin and the outer covering of some internal organs.

• It also lines body cavities; blood vessels; ducts; and the interiors of the
respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.

• The cells of epithelial tissue have

q an apical surface, which is exposed to a body cavity, lining of an internal
organ, or the exterior of the body;
q lateral surfaces, which face cells on either side; and
q a basal surface, which is deep.
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Epithelial Tissue (2 of 5)
Arrangement of cells in layers:
• Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells that function in
diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, and absorption.

• Pseudostratified epithelium (pseudo = false) appears to have

multiple layers of cells because the cell nuclei lie at different
levels and not all cells reach the apical surface.

• Stratified epithelium (stratum = layer) consists of two or more

layers of cells that protect underlying tissues in locations where
there is considerable wear and tear.
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Epithelial Tissue (3 of 5)
Cell shapes:
• Squamous cells – are thin, and these allow for the rapid passage of
substances through them.

• Cuboidal cells – are as tall as they are wide and are shaped like cubes or
hexagons. They may have microvilli at their apical surface and function in
either secretion or absorption.

• Columnar cells – are much taller than they are wide, like columns, and
protect underlying tissues. Their apical surfaces may have cilia or microvilli,
and they often are specialized for secretion and absorption.

• Transitional cells – change shape, from flat to cuboidal and back, as organs
such as the urinary bladder distends.

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Epithelial Tissue (4 of 5)
• Simple epithelium:
q Simple squamous epithelium
q Simple cuboidal epithelium
q Simple columnar epithelium (nonciliated/ciliated)
q Pseudostratied columnar (nonciliated/ciliated)

• Stratified epithelium:
q Stratified squamous epithelium (keratinized and nonkeratinized)
q Stratified cuboidal epithelium
q Stratified columnar epithelium
q Transitional epithelium

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Epithelial Tissue (5 of 5)
• A gland may consist of one cell or a group of highly specialized
epithelial cells that secrete substances into ducts, onto a surface,
or into the blood.

• All glands of the body are classified as either endocrine or

exocrine:
q Endocrine glands enter the interstitial fluid and then diffuse into
the bloodstream without flowing through a duct.
o These secretions are called hormones.

q Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts that empty at the
surface of covering and lining epithelium such as the skin surface or
the lumen of a hollow organ.
o The secretions of exocrine glands include mucus, perspiration, oil,
earwax, milk, saliva, and digestive enzymes.

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Cell Shapes and Arrangements of Layers of Surface
Epithelium

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (1 of 22)
Table 4.1 Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium
A. Simple Squamous Epithelium Blank

Description Single layer of flat cells that resembles a tiled floor when
viewed from apical surface; centrally located nucleus that is
flattened and oval or spherical in shape.

Location Lines heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, air sacs of

lungs, glomerular (Bowman's) capsule of kidneys, and inner
surface of the tympanic membrane (eardrum); forms
epithelial layer of serous membranes (mesothelium), such as
the peritoneum. The simple squamous epithelium that lines
the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels is known as
endothelium (en'-dō-THĒ-lē-um; endo- = within; -thelium =
covering); the type that forms the epithelial layer of serous
membranes, such as the peritoneum, pleura, or pericardium,
is called mesothelium (meso- = middle). See Figure 4.3b.

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 Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (2 of 22)
A. Simple Squamous Epithelium Blank

Function Filtration, diffusion, osmosis, and secretion in serous membranes.

Blank 2 L M micrographs and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissue. An L M micrograph at 150
times magnification shows a surface view of simple squamous epithelium of mesothelial lining of
peritoneum. Plasma membranes, cytoplasm, and the nucleus of the simple squamous cell are visible. An
expanded view of the L M micrograph provides a closer look at a single squamous cell. The plasma
membrane encases the cytoplasm with the nucleus at the center. An L M micrograph at 630 times
magnification and a diagram show a sectional view of simple squamous epithelium of the peritoneum of
the small intestine. Flat simple squamous cells with nuclei line a basement membrane. The basement
membrane is superior to connective tissue. The connective tissue is superior to the muscular tissue.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (3 of 22)
B. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Blank

Description Single layer of cube-shaped cells; round, centrally located

nucleus. Cuboidal shape is obvious when tissue is sectioned
and viewed from the side.

Location Lines kidney tubules and smaller ducts of many glands,

makes up the secreting portion of some glands such as the
thyroid gland, covers surface of ovary, lines anterior surface
of capsule of the lens of the eye, and forms the pigmented
epithelium at the posterior surface of the eye.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (4 of 22)
B. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Blank
Function Secretion and absorption.
An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L
Blank M micrograph shows a sectional view of simple cuboidal epithelium of the urinary
tubules. Connective tissue, blood capillaries with red blood cells, nuclei of simple
cuboidal cells, and lumen of tubules are visible. An expanded view of the L M
micrograph shows the nucleus of a simple cuboidal cell. In the diagram simple
cuboidal cells with nuclei line a basement membrane. The basement membrane is
superior to connective tissue.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (5 of 22)
C. Nonciliated Simple Columnar Blank
Epithelium

Description Single layer of nonciliated column-like cells with nuclei near

bases of cells; contains cells with microvilli and goblet cells.
Microvilli, microscopic fingerlike projections, increase the
surface area of the plasma membrane (see Figure 3.1), thus
increasing the rate of absorption by the cell. Goblet cells are
modified columnar cells that secrete mucus, a slightly sticky
fluid, at their apical surfaces. Before release, mucus
accumulates in upper portion of cell, causing it to bulge and
making the whole cell resemble a goblet or wine glass.

Location Lines most of the gastrointestinal tract (from the stomach to

the anus), ducts of many glands, and gallbladder.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (6 of 22)
C. Nonciliated Simple Columnar Blank
Epithelium
Function Secretion and absorption. Secreted mucus lubricates linings
of digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts, and most of
urinary tract; helps trap dust entering respiratory tract; and
prevents destruction of stomach lining by stomach acid.
An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L
Blank M micrograph shows a sectional view of non ciliated simple columnar epithelium
of the urinary tubules. Connective tissue, basement membrane, nucleus of goblet
cell, nucleus of absorptive cell, lumen of jejunum and non ciliated simple columnar
epithelium are visible. An expanded view of the L M micrograph shows the lumen
of jejunum, microvilli and mucus in the goblet cell. In the diagram, long thin non-
ciliated simple columnar epithelium with nuclei line a basement membrane.
Mucus in goblet cells are disbursed throughout the non ciliated simple columnar
epithelium. A layer of microvilli is at the superior end of the non ciliated simple
columnar epithelium. The basement membrane is superior to connective tissue.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (7 of 22)
D. Ciliated Simple Columnar Blank
Epithelium

Description Single layer of ciliated column-like cells with nuclei near

bases; contains goblet cells in some locations.

Location Lines a few portions of upper respiratory tract, uterine

(fallopian) tubes, uterus, some paranasal sinuses, and central
canal of spinal cord.

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 Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (8 of 22)
D. Ciliated Simple Columnar Blank
Epithelium

Function Mucus secreted by goblet cells forms a film over respiratory

surface that traps inhaled foreign particles. Cilia wave in
unison and move mucus and any trapped foreign particles
toward throat, where it can be coughed up and swallowed or
spit out. Cilia also help move oocytes expelled by the ovaries
through uterine tubes into uterus.

Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L M micrograph
shows a sectional view of non ciliated simple columnar epithelium of the urinary tubules. Connective
tissue, basement membrane, nucleus of goblet cell, nucleus of absorptive cell, lumen of jejunum and
non ciliated simple columnar epithelium is visible. An expanded view of the L M micrograph shows
the lumen of jejunum, microvilli and mucus in the goblet cell. In the diagram, long thin non-ciliated
simple columnar epithelium with nuclei line a basement membrane. Mucus in goblet cells are
disbursed throughout the non ciliated simple columnar epithelium. A layer of microvilli is at the
superior end of the non ciliated simple columnar epithelium. The basement membrane is superior to
connective tissue. An S E M magnification shows a close up of the cilia and ciliated simple columnar
epithelium of the uterine tube. The cilia are long and thin and attach to the superior surface of the
epithelium of the uterine tube.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (9 of 22)
E. Nonciliated Pseudostratified Blank
Columnar Epithelium

Description Appears to have several layers because the nuclei of the cells
are at various levels. Even though all the cells are attached to
the basement membrane in a single layer, some cells do not
extend to the apical surface. When viewed from the side,
these features give the false impression of a multilayered
tissue—thus the name pseudostratified epithelium (pseudo-
= false). Contains cells without cilia and also lacks goblet cells.

Location Lines epididymis, larger ducts of many glands such as the

parotid glands, and parts of male urethra.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (10 of 22)
E. Nonciliated Pseudostratified Blank
Columnar Epithelium
Function Absorption and secretion.
An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L
Blank M micrograph shows a sectional view of non ciliated pseudostratified columnar
epithelium from the lining of parotid gland ducts. Lumen of gland with parotid
sections, and non ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium is visible. An
expanded view of the L M micrograph shows the lumen of gland with parotid
sections, and non ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium. The free surface
has no cilia. A corresponding diagram shows non ciliated pseudostratified
columnar epithelium which includes basal cells contained within the columnar
cells. Cells attach to the basement membrane which covers connective tissue.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (11 of 22)
F. Ciliated Pseudostratified Blank
Columnar Epithelium

Description Appears to have several layers because the nuclei of the cells
are at various levels. Even though all the cells are attached to
the basement membrane in a single layer, some cells do not
extend to the apical surface. When viewed from the side,
these features give the false impression of a multilayered
tissue—thus the name pseudostratified epithelium (pseudo-
= false). Contains cells that extend to the surface and either
contain cilia or secrete mucus (goblet cells).

Location Lines the airways of most of the upper respiratory tract.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (12 of 22)
F. Ciliated Pseudostratified Blank
Columnar Epithelium
Function Secretes mucus that traps foreign particles, and the cilia
sweep away the mucus for eventual elimination from the
body.
An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L
Blank M micrograph shows a sectional view of a ciliated pseudostratified columnar
epithelium of the trachea. Connective tissue, basement membrane, nuclei of
goblet cells, nuclei of the basal cells, nuclei of ciliated columnar cells, cilia, lumen
of trachea and ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium are visible. An
expanded view of the L M micrograph shows cilia and nuclei of ciliated columnar
cells. In the diagram long, thin ciliated simple columnar epithelium with nuclei line
a basement membrane. Mucus in goblet cells and basal cells are disbursed
throughout the ciliated simple columnar epithelium. A layer of cilia is at the
superior end of the ciliated simple columnar epithelium. The basement
membrane is superior to connective tissue.
An S E M magnification shows a close up of the cilia and ciliated pseudostratified
columnar epithelium. The cilia are long and thin an attach to the superior surface
of the epithelium.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (13 of 22)
G. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Blank

Description Two or more layers of cells; cells in apical layer and several layers
deep to it are squamous; those in the deep layers vary in shape from
cuboidal to columnar. Basal (deepest) cells continually undergo cell
division. As new cells grow, cells of basal layer are pushed upward
toward surface. As they move farther from the deeper layers and
from their blood supply in the underlying connective tissue, they
become dehydrated, shrunken, and harder. At apical layer, cells lose
their cell junctions and are sloughed off, but are replaced as new cells
continually emerge from basal cells. Keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium develops a tough layer of keratin in apical layer and several
layers deep to it. (Keratin is a tough protein that helps protect the skin
and underlying tissues from microbes, heat, and chemicals.)
Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium does not contain
keratin in apical layer and several layers deep to it and remains moist.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (14 of 22)
G. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Blank

Location Keratinized variety forms superficial layer of skin; nonkeratinized

variety lines wet surfaces (lining of mouth, esophagus, part of
epiglottis, part of pharynx, and vagina), and covers tongue.

Function Protection; provides first line of defense against microbes.

Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L

M micrograph shows a sectional view of nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium of the vaginal lining. Connective tissue, basement membrane, nuclei of
living cells, lumen of vagina and nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium are
visible. An expanded view of the L M micrograph shows the non keratinized dead
surface cells and the nucleus of the living cells. In the diagram flattened squamous
cells are stacked upon each other forming a thick layer on the basement
membrane. The basement membrane is superior to connective tissue.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (15 of 22)
G. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Blank

Description Two or more layers of cells; cells in apical layer and several layers
deep to it are squamous; those in the deep layers vary in shape from
cuboidal to columnar. Basal (deepest) cells continually undergo cell
division. As new cells grow, cells of basal layer are pushed upward
toward surface. As they move farther from the deeper layers and
from their blood supply in the underlying connective tissue, they
become dehydrated, shrunken, and harder. At apical layer, cells lose
their cell junctions and are sloughed off, but are replaced as new cells
continually emerge from basal cells. Keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium develops a tough layer of keratin in apical layer and several
layers deep to it. (Keratin is a tough protein that helps protect the skin
and underlying tissues from microbes, heat, and chemicals.)
Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium does not contain
keratin in apical layer and several layers deep to it and remains moist.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (16 of 22)
G. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Blank

Location Keratinized variety forms superficial layer of skin; nonkeratinized

variety lines wet surfaces (lining of mouth, esophagus, part of
epiglottis, part of pharynx, and vagina), and covers tongue.
Function Protection; provides first line of defense against microbes.

Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L

M micrograph shows a sectional view of keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium of the epidermis. Connective tissue, nuclei of living cells, keratinized
dead surface cells keratinized stratified squamous epithelium are visible. An
expanded view of the L M micrograph shows the keratinized dead surface cells and
the nucleus of the living cells.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (17 of 22)
H. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium Blank

Description Two or more layers of cells; cells in the apical layer are cube-shaped;
fairly rare type.
Location Ducts of adult sweat glands and esophageal glands and part of male
urethra.
Function Protection and limited secretion and absorption.

Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L

M micrograph shows a sectional view of stratified cuboidal epithelium of the
esophageal gland. Connective tissue, nuclei of stratified cuboidal cells, lumen of
duct and stratified cuboidal epithelium are visible. An expanded view of the L M
micrograph shows the nucleus of a stratified cuboidal cell. In the diagram 2 layers
stratified cuboidal cells with nuclei line a basement membrane. The basement
membrane is superior to connective tissue.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (18 of 22)
I. Stratified Columnar Epithelium Blank

Description Basal layers usually consist of shortened. Irregularly shaped cells; only
apical layer has columnar cells; uncommon.
Location Lines part of urethra, large excretory ducts of some glands such as
esophageal glands, small areas in anal mucous membrane, and part of
conjunctiva of eye.
Function Protection and secretion.
Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L
M micrograph shows a sectional view of stratified columnar epithelium of the
lining of the pharynx. Connective tissue, nuclei of stratified columnar cells, lumen
of the pharynx and stratified columnar epithelium are visible. An expanded view of
the L M micrograph shows the nucleus of a stratified columnar cell. In the diagram
2 layers of stratified columnar cells with nuclei line a basement membrane. The
basement membrane is superior to connective tissue.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (19 of 22)
J. Transitional Epithelium (Urothelium) Blank

Description Appearance is variable (transitional). In its relaxed or unstretched

state, transitional epithelium looks like stratified cuboidal epithelium,
except that the cells in the apical layer tend to be large and rounded.
As the tissue is stretched, its cells become flatter, giving the
appearance of stratified squamous epithelium. Because of its multiple
layers and elasticity, it is ideal for lining hollow structures (such as the
urinary bladder) that are subject to expansion from within.

Location Lines urinary bladder and portions of ureters and urethra.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (20 of 22)
J. Transitional Epithelium (Urothelium) Blank

Function It allows the urinary organs to stretch to hold a variable amount of

fluid without rupturing, while still serving as a protective lining.
Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L
M micrograph shows a sectional view of transitional epithelium of the bladder in a
partially relaxed state. Connective tissue, basement membrane, nuclei of
transitional cells, lumen of urinary bladder, rounded surface cell in relaxed state
and transitional epithelium are visible. An expanded view of the L M micrograph
shows the rounded surface cells in a relaxed state and the nucleus of the
transitional cells. In the diagram, round transitional cells are stacked upon each
other forming a thick layer on the basement membrane. The basement membrane
is superior to connective tissue.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (21 of 22)
J. Transitional Epithelium (Urothelium) Blank

Description Appearance is variable (transitional). In its relaxed or unstretched

state, transitional epithelium looks like stratified cuboidal epithelium,
except that the cells in the apical layer tend to be large and rounded.
As the tissue is stretched, its cells become flatter, giving the
appearance of stratified squamous epithelium. Because of its multiple
layers and elasticity, it is ideal for lining hollow structures (such as the
urinary bladder) that are subject to expansion from within.

Location Lines urinary bladder and portions of ureters and urethra.

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Epithelial Tissues: Surface Epithelium (22 of 22)
J. Transitional Epithelium (Urothelium) Blank

Function It allows the urinary organs to stretch to hold a variable amount of

fluid without rupturing, while still serving as a protective lining.
Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L
M micrograph shows a sectional view of transitional epithelium of the bladder in a
filled state. Connective tissue, basement membrane, lumen of urinary bladder,
flattened surface cell in filled state and transitional epithelium are visible. An
expanded view of the L M micrograph shows the flattened surface cells in a filled
state. In the diagram, round transitional cells are stacked upon each other forming
a thick layer on the basement membrane. The transitional cells on the apical
surface are flattened. The basement membrane is superior to connective tissue

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Epithelial Tissues: Glandular Epithelium (1 of 4)
Table 4.2 Epithelial Tissues: Glandular Epithelium
A. Endocrine Glands Blank

Description Secretory products (hormones) diffuse into blood after

passing through interstitial fluid.
Location Examples include pituitary gland at base of brain, pineal
gland in brain, thyroid and parathyroid glands near larynx
(voice box), adrenal glands superior to kidneys, pancreas
near stomach, ovaries in pelvic cavity, testes in scrotum, and
thymus in thoracic cavity.

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Epithelial Tissues: Glandular Epithelium (2 of 4)
A. Endocrine Glands Blank
Function Produce hormones that regulate various body activities.
Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L
M micrograph shows a sectional view of the endocrine gland. Hormone producing
epithelial cells, thyroid follicles, stored precursor of hormone, and blood vessels
are visible. In the diagram an endocrine gland is shown. The thyroid follicle is filled
with stored precursor of hormone. It is surrounded by hormone producing
epithelial cells and connected to a blood vessel.

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Epithelial Tissues: Glandular Epithelium (3 of 4)
B. Exocrine Glands Blank

Description Secretory products released into ducts.

Location Sweat, oil, and earwax glands of the skin; digestive glands
such as salivary glands, which secrete into mouth cavity, and
pancreas, which secretes into the small intestine.

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Epithelial Tissues: Glandular Epithelium (4 of 4)
B. Exocrine Glands Blank
Function Produce substances such as sweat, oil, earwax, saliva, or
digestive enzymes.
Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of epithelial tissues. An L
M micrograph shows a sectional view of the secretory portion of an exocrine
gland. Basement membrane, nucleus of secretory cell of sweat gland, and lumen
of duct of sweat gland are visible. In the diagram an exocrine gland is shown. The
lumen of duct of sweat gland is surrounded by a double layer of exocrine glands all
containing a nucleus.

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Connective Tissue (1 of 4)
• Connective tissue is one of the most abundant and widely distributed tissues
in the body. In its various forms, connective tissue has a variety of functions.

q It binds together, supports, and strengthens other body tissues;

q protects and insulates internal organs;
q compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles;
q is the major transport system within the body (blood, a fluid
connective tissue);
q is the major site of stored energy reserves (adipose, or fat tissue); and
q is the main site of immune responses.

• Connective tissue consists of two basic elements: cells and extracellular

matrix.
q The extracellular matrix is the material between its widely spaced cells and consists
of protein fibers and ground substance.

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Connective Tissue (2 of 4)
Types of connective tissue cells:

• Fibroblasts are large, flat cells with branching processes. They are present in
several connective tissues, and usually are the most numerous.

• Macrophages are phagocytes that develop from monocytes, a type of white

blood cell.

• Plasma cells are an important part of the body’s immune response.

• Mast cells are involved in the inflammatory response and also kill bacteria.

• Adipocytes are fat cells.

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Connective Tissue (3 of 4)
• Ground substance is the component of a connective tissue between
the cells and fibers.
q It supports cells, binds them together, and provides a medium through
which substances are exchanged between the blood and cells.

• Fibers in the extracellular matrix strengthen and support connective

tissues.

• Three types of fibers are embedded in the extracellular matrix

between the cells:
q collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers.

• Collagen fibers are very strong and resist pulling forces, but they are
not stiff, which promotes tissue flexibility. These fibers often occur in
bundles lying parallel to one another.
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Connective Tissue (4 of 4)
• Elastic fibers, which are smaller in diameter than collagen fibers,
branch and join together to form a network within a tissue.
q An elastic fiber consists of molecules of a protein called elastin
surrounded by a glycoprotein named fibrillin.
q Elastic fibers are strong but can be stretched up to 1½ times their
relaxed length without breaking.

• Reticular fibers, consisting of collagen and a coating of

glycoprotein, provide support in the walls of blood vessels and
form branching networks around fat cells, nerve fibers, and
skeletal and smooth muscle cells.
q Like collagen fibers, reticular fibers provide support and strength and
also form the stroma (supporting framework) of many soft organs,
such as the spleen and lymph nodes.

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Classification of Connective Tissues (1 of 3)
• Loose connective tissue are loosely arranged among the
many cells. The types of loose connective tissue are:
q areolar connective tissue,
q adipose tissue, and
q reticular connective tissue.

• Dense connective tissue contains more numerous, thicker,

and denser fibers (more closely packed), but fewer cells
than loose connective tissue. There are three types:
q dense regular connective tissue,
q dense irregular connective tissue, and
q elastic connective tissue.

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Classification of Connective Tissues (2 of 3)
• Cartilage consists of a dense network of collagen fibers or elastic
fibers firmly embedded in chondroitin sulfate, a rubbery
component of the ground substance.

• The cells of mature cartilage called chondrocytes occur singly or

in groups within spaces called lacunae.

• Since cartilage has no blood supply, it heals poorly following an

injury.

• The three types of cartilage are:

q Hyaline cartilage
q Fibrocartilage
q Elastic cartilage
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Classification of Connective Tissues (3 of 3)
• Bones are organs composed of several different connective
tissues, including bone or osseous tissue.

• Bone tissue has several functions.

q It supports soft tissues, protects delicate structures, and works with
skeletal muscles to generate movement.

• Bone stores calcium and phosphorus; stores red bone marrow,

which produces blood cells; and houses yellow bone marrow, a
site for triglycerides.

• Blood tissue and lymph are the examples of liquid connective

tissue that has a liquid extracellular matrix.
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Representative Cells and Fibers Present in Connective
Tissue (1 of 2)

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Representative Cells and Fibers Present in
Connective Tissue (2 of 2)

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Connective Tissues: Loose Connective Tissue (1 of 6)

Table 4.3 Connective Tissues: Loose Connective Tissue

A. Areolar Connective Tissue Blank
(a-RĒ-ō-lar; areol- = a small space)
Description One of the most widely distributed connective tissues; consists
of fibers (collagen, elastic, and reticular) arranged randomly and
several kinds of cells (fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells,
adipocytes, mast cells, and a few white blood cells) embedded in
a semifluid ground substance. Combined with adipose tissue,
areolar connective tissue forms the subcutaneous layer, the layer
of tissue that attaches the skin to underlying tissues and organs.

Location In and around nearly every body structure (thus called "packing
material" of the body); subcutaneous layer deep to skin;
superficial region of dermis of skin; connective tissue layer of
mucous membranes; and around blood vessels, nerves, and
body organs.

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Connective Tissues: Loose Connective Tissue (2 of 6)

A. Areolar Connective Tissue Blank

(a-RĒ-ō-lar; areol- = a small space)

Function Strength, elasticity, and support.

Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show a sectional view of subcutaneous areolar
connective tissue shows following parts. microphage, collagen fiber, plasma cell, fibroblast,
elastic fiber, reticular fiber, and mast cell. An expanded view of the L M micrograph shows a
fibroblast.

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Connective Tissues: Loose Connective Tissue (3 of 6)

B. Adipose Tissue Blank

Description Has cells called adipocytes (adipo- = fat) specialized for storage of
triglycerides (fats). Because cell fills up with a single, large
triglyceride droplet, cytoplasm and nucleus are pushed to periphery
of the cell. As amount of adipose tissue increases with weight gain,
new blood vessels form. Thus, an obese person has many more
blood vessels than a lean person, a situation that can cause high
blood pressure, since the heart has to work harder.

Location Wherever areolar connective tissue is located; subcutaneous layer

deep to skin, around heart and kidneys, yellow bone marrow, and
padding around joints and behind eyeball in eye socket.

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Connective Tissues: Loose Connective Tissue (4 of 6)

B. Adipose Tissue Blank

Function Reduces heat loss through skin; serves as an energy reserve;

supports and protects organs.
Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of connective tissue. An L M
micrograph shows a sectional view of adipose tissue. The adipocytes are made up of a
plasma membrane cytoplasm, fat storage and nucleus. The diagram shows blood vessels
between the adipocytes. An expanded view of the L M micrograph shows a single
adipocyte.

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Connective Tissues: Loose Connective Tissue (5 of 6)

Blank
C. Reticular Connective Tissue

Description Fine interlacing network of reticular fibers (thin form of collagen fiber) and
reticular cells.

Location Stroma (supporting framework) of liver, spleen, lymph nodes; red bone
marrow, which gives rise to blood cells; part of the basement membrane; and
around blood vessels and muscles.

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Connective Tissues: Loose Connective Tissue (6 of 6)
C. Reticular Connective Tissue Blank

Function Forms stroma of organs; binds together smooth muscle tissue cells; filters
and removes worn-out blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes.
Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of connective tissue. An L M micrograph shows a
sectional view of reticular connective tissue of a lymph node. Reticular fiber and the nucleus of the reticular
cell are visible. An expanded view of the L M micrograph shows the nuclei of the reticular cells and reticular
fibers.

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Connective Tissues: Dense Connective Tissue (1 of 6)

Table 4.4 Connective Tissues: Dense Connective Tissue

A. Dense Regular Connective Tissue Blank

Description Extracellular matrix looks shiny while; consists mainly of

collagen fibers regularly arranged in bundles; fibroblasts
present in rows between bundles. Collagen fibers are not
living cells, but protein structures secreted by fibroblasts, so
damaged tendons and ligaments heal slowly.

Location Forms tendons (attach muscle to bone), most ligaments

(attach bone to bone), and aponeuroses (sheetlike tendons
that attach muscle to muscle or muscle to bone).

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Connective Tissues: Dense Connective Tissue (2 of 6)

A. Dense Regular Connective Tissue Blank

Function Provides strong attachment between various structures.

Tissue structure resists pulling (tension) along long axis of
fibers.

Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of connective tissue. An

L M micrograph and diagram show a sectional view of dense regular connective
tissue of a tendon. Collagen fibers, and the nuclei of the fibroblast are visible. An
expanded view of the L M micrograph shows the nucleus of the fibroblast, and
collagen fiber. An additional S E M micrograph shows collagen fibers

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Connective Tissues: Dense Connective Tissue (3 of 6)

B. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Blank

Description Consists predominantly of collagen fibers randomly arranged

and a few fibroblasts.

Location Often occurs in sheets, such as fasciae (tissue beneath skin

and around muscles and other organs), deeper region of
dermis of skin, periosteum of bone, perichondrium of
cartilage, joint capsules, membrane capsules around various
organs (kidneys, liver, testes, lymph nodes), pericardium of
the heart; also in heart valves.

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Connective Tissues: Dense Connective Tissue (4 of 6)

B. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Blank

Function Provides tensile (pulling) strength in many directions.

Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of connective tissue. An
L M micrograph and a diagram show a sectional view of dense irregular connective
tissue. Collagen fibers, the nucleus of the fibroblast, and blood vessels are visible.
An expanded view of the L M micrograph shows the nucleus of the fibroblast, and
shows a longitudinal section and transverse section.

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Connective Tissues: Dense Connective
Tissue (5 of 6)

C. Elastic Connective Tissue Blank

Description Consists predominantly of elastic fibers; fibroblasts are present in

spaces between fibers; unstained tissue is yellowish.

Location Lung tissue, walls of elastic arteries, trachea, bronchial tubes, true
vocal cords, suspensory ligaments of penis, some ligaments
between vertebrae.

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Connective Tissues: Dense Connective Tissue (6 of 6)

C. Elastic Connective Tissue Blank

Function Allows stretching of various organs; is strong and can recoil to

original shape after being stretched. Elasticity is important to
normal functioning of lung tissue, which recoils as you exhale, and
elastic arteries, whose recoil between heartbeats helps maintain
blood flow.

Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of connective tissue. An L M

micrograph shows a sectional view of elastic connective tissue of the aorta. Elastic lamellae
or sheets of elastic material and the nucleus of the fibroblast are visible. An expanded view
of the L M micrograph shows a closer look at the nucleus of the fibroblast, and shows the
elastic lamellae.

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Connective Tissues: Supporting Connective
Tissue (1 of 6)
Table 4.5 Connective Tissues: Supporting Connective Tissue
Cartilage Blank
A. Hyaline Cartilage
(hyalinos = glassy)

Description Contains a resilient gel as ground substance and appears in the body as a
bluish-white, shiny substance (can stain pink or purple when prepared for
microscopic examination). Fine collagen fibers are not visible with ordinary
staining techniques; prominent chondrocytes are found in lacunae;
surrounded by perichondrium (exceptions: articular cartilage in joints and
the epiphyseal plates, where bones lengthen as a person grows); most
abundant type of cartilage in the body.

Location Ends of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of larynx, trachea,
bronchi, bronchial tubes, and embryonic and fetal skeleton.

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Connective Tissues: Supporting Connective
Tissue (2 of 6)
Cartilage Blank
A. Hyaline Cartilage
(hyalinos = glassy)

Function Provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, as well as flexibility and
support; weakest type of cartilage (can be fractured).
Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of connective tissue. An L M micrograph and
a diagram show a sectional view of hyaline cartilage of a developing fetal bone. Perichondrium, the
nucleus of the chondrocyte, the lacuna containing chondrocyte and ground substance are visible. An
expanded view of the L M micrograph shows the nucleus of the chondrocyte, and the lacuna
containing the chondrocyte. An additional S E M magnification shows the lacuna, extracellular mat
and chondrocyte.

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Connective Tissues: Supporting Connective
Tissue (3 of 6)
B. Fibrocartilage Blank

Description Consists of chondrocytes scattered among clearly visible thick bundles of

collagen fibers within extracellular matrix; lacks perichondrium.

Location Pubic symphysis (point where hip bones join anteriorly), intervertebral discs
(discs between vertebrae), menisci (cartilage pads) of knee, and portions of
tendons that insert into cartilage.

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Connective Tissues: Supporting Connective
Tissue (4 of 6)
B. Fibrocartilage Blank

Function Support and joining structures together. Strength and rigidity make it the
strongest type of cartilage.
Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of connective tissue. An L M micrograph
shows a sectional view of fibrocartilage of an intervertebral disc. Collagen fiber, the nucleus of the
chondrocyte, the lacuna containing the chondrocyte, and ground substance are visible. An expanded
view of the L M micrograph shows the nucleus of the chondrocyte, the lacuna containing the
chondrocyte, and the collagen fibers.

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Connective Tissues: Supporting Connective
Tissue (5 of 6)

C. Elastic Cartilage Blank

Description Consists of chondrocytes located in a threadlike network of elastic fibers

within the extracellular matrix; perichondrium present.

Location Lid on top of larynx (epiglottis), part of external ear (auricle), and auditory
(eustachian) tubes.

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Connective Tissues: Supporting Connective
Tissue (6 of 6)

C. Elastic Cartilage Blank

Function Provides strength and elasticity; maintains Shape of certain structures.
Blank An L M micrograph and a diagram show the classification of connective tissue. An L M micrograph and
a diagram show a sectional view of elastic cartilage of the auricle of the ear. Elastic fiber, the nucleus
of the chondrocyte, the lacuna containing the chondrocyte, perichondrium and ground substance are
visible. An expanded view of the L M micrograph shows the nucleus of the chondrocyte, the lacuna
containing the chondrocyte, and the elastic fibers.

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Membranes (1 of 2)
• Membranes are flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a
part of the body. The combination of an epithelial layer and an
underlying connective tissue layer constitutes an epithelial
membrane.

• Types of membranes:
q Mucous membranes or mucosa line a body cavity that opens
directly to the exterior. Mucous membranes line the entire
digestive, respiratory, and reproductive systems.

q Serous membranes line a body cavity that does not open directly to
the exterior, and it also covers the organs that lie within the cavity.

q Synovial membranes line the cavities of some joints.

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Membranes
(2 of 2)

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Muscular Tissue
• Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers that
are highly specialized to generate force. As a result of this
characteristic, muscular tissue produces motion, maintains posture,
and generates heat.

• Muscular tissue is classified into three types:

1. Skeletal muscle tissue is named for its location – it is usually attached
to the bones of the skeleton.

2. Cardiac muscle tissue forms the bulk of the wall of the heart.

3. Smooth muscle tissue is located in the walls of hollow internal

structures such as blood vessels, airways to the lungs, the stomach,
intestines, gallbladder, and urinary bladder.
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Nervous Tissue
• The nervous system consists of only two principal types
of cells: neurons and neuroglia.

• Neurons or nerve cells are sensitive to various stimuli.

q They convert stimuli into nerve impulses (action potentials)
and conduct these impulses to other neurons, to muscle
fibers, or to glands.

• Neuroglia do not generate or conduct nerve impulses,

but they do have many other important protective and
supportive functions.

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Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis
• Tissue repair is the process that replaces worn-out,
damaged, or dead cells.

• New cells originate by cell division from the stroma, the

supporting connective tissue, or from the parenchyma.

• If parenchymal cells accomplish the repair, tissue

regeneration is possible, and a near-perfect reconstruction
of the injured tissue may occur.

• However, if fibroblasts need to come in to repair the tissue,

they synthesize materials that aggregate to form scar tissue,
a process known as fibrosis.

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Aging and Tissues
• Tissues heal faster and leave less obvious scars in the
young than in the aged; surgery performed on fetuses
leaves no scars.

• The extracellular components of tissues, such as

collagen and elastic fibers, also change with age.

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Practice Questions
1. Name four basic types of tissue that make up the human body and state
the characteristics of each.

2. Describe the properties of the different types of epithelial tissues.

a) Discuss the general features of epithelial tissue.
b) Describe the structure, location, and function of the various types of epithelial tissue.

3. Describe the properties of the various types of connective tissues.

a) Discuss the general features of connective tissue.
b) Describe the structure, location, and function of the various types of connective tissue.

4. Discuss membranes and their classifications.

a) Define a membrane.
b) Describe the classification of membranes.

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Practice Questions
1. Describe the types and functions of muscular tissue.
a) Describe the functions of muscular tissue.
b) Contrast the locations of the three types of muscular tissue.

2. Describe the functions of nervous tissue.

3. Describe the role of tissue repair in restoring homeostasis.

4. Describe the effects of aging on tissues.

5. Describe the disorders that affect tissues.

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