1. What are the different types of network topology?

Answer:
Network topologies define the layout of a network. Common types include:

 Bus Topology: All devices connected to a single backbone cable.

 Star Topology: All nodes connected to a central hub/switch.

 Ring Topology: Each node connected to two others forming a ring.

 Mesh Topology: Every node is connected to every other node.

 Tree Topology: A hybrid of star and bus topologies.

 Hybrid Topology: Combines two or more topologies.

2. Define and differentiate between LAN, MAN, and WAN.

Answer:

 LAN (Local Area Network): Covers small area like office/school. High speed, low latency.

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city or campus. Medium speed.

 WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large geographical area like countries. Lower speed, uses public infrastructure.

3. What is the purpose of the OSI model?

Answer:
The OSI model standardizes network communication into 7 layers:

1. Physical

2. Data Link

3. Network

4. Transport

5. Session

6. Presentation

7. Application

Purpose:

 Helps vendors develop interoperable devices.

 Breaks down complex communication into manageable layers.

4. Explain CRC with a simple example.

Answer:
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is used for error detection. A sender appends a CRC code (remainder) to the data using
polynomial division. The receiver performs the same division; if remainder is zero, data is error-free.

Example:
Data: 110101
Generator: 1011
Appended bits and divide → remainder → CRC code

5. Describe TCP congestion control techniques.

Answer:
TCP uses the following to avoid congestion:

 Slow Start: Exponentially increase congestion window.

 Congestion Avoidance: Linear growth.

 Fast Retransmit & Fast Recovery: On 3 duplicate ACKs, assume loss and retransmit.

 Leaky Bucket Algorithm: Enforces constant output rate.

 Token Bucket Algorithm: Tokens control packet sending; allows burstiness.

6. Describe routing protocols with examples. Differentiate between forwarding and routing.

Answer:

 Routing: Selecting paths for traffic (e.g., OSPF, RIP, BGP).

 Forwarding: Moving packets from input to output interface based on routing table.

Routing is decision-making; forwarding is execution.

7. Explain various error detection and correction techniques.

Answer:

 Parity Bit: Adds 1-bit to data to make number of 1s even/odd.

 Checksum: Sums data segments, sends sum.

 CRC: Polynomial division method, detects burst errors.

 Hamming Code: Corrects single-bit errors, detects two-bit errors using parity bits.

8. Explain the working of DHCP and DNS in detail.

Answer:

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) assigns IP addresses dynamically.

o Steps: Discover → Offer → Request → Acknowledge

 DNS resolves domain names.

o Query hierarchy: Recursive resolver → Root → TLD → Authoritative Server

9. Describe the working of HTTP and FTP protocols.

Answer:

 HTTP: Application-layer protocol for transferring hypertext (webpages). Stateless. Uses TCP (port 80).

 FTP: Used to transfer files. Has control and data connections. Uses TCP (ports 20, 21).

10. Explain CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA protocols.

Answer:

 CSMA/CD (Collision Detection): Used in Ethernet. Listens before transmission, detects collision, and resends after
backoff.

 CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance): Used in Wi-Fi. Tries to avoid collision using RTS/CTS mechanism.
1. Describe the OSI Model with Functions of Each Layer.

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework developed by ISO (International Organization for
Standardization) to standardize communication functions in telecommunication and computing systems. It has seven layers, each
responsible for a specific aspect of data communication.

Layers of OSI Model:

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

o Deals with hardware transmission of raw bit streams.

o Defines cables, connectors, voltages, modulation, and data rates.

o Devices: NIC, hub, repeater.

o Protocols: Ethernet physical standards, DSL, USB.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

o Responsible for node-to-node reliable data transfer.

o Performs framing, error detection, and flow control.

o Uses MAC addresses.

o Sub-layers: Logical Link Control (LLC), Media Access Control (MAC).

o Protocols: Ethernet, PPP, HDLC.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

o Manages logical addressing and routing.

o Responsible for packet forwarding, congestion control, and fragmentation.

o Uses IP addressing.

o Protocols: IPv4, IPv6, ICMP, IGMP.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

o Provides end-to-end communication.

o Ensures reliable data transfer using sequencing and error control.

o Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (unreliable), SCTP.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

o Manages sessions between applications.

o Responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating sessions.

o Manages dialog control (half/full duplex).

o Protocols: NetBIOS, RPC.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

o Translates data between application and network.

o Handles data encryption, compression, and translation.

o Converts formats like EBCDIC ↔ ASCII, JPEG, GIF, etc.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

o Closest to the user; provides network services to applications.

 o Includes protocols for email, web browsing, file transfer.

o Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, POP3, DNS.

Significance of OSI Model:

 Encourages interoperability between vendors.

 Modular approach: makes understanding and troubleshooting easier.

 Guides protocol development.

2. Explain Different Types of Multiplexing Techniques with Examples.

Multiplexing is a technique used to transmit multiple signals over a single communication channel. It helps to efficiently use
available bandwidth and reduce cost.

Types of Multiplexing:

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

o Divides bandwidth into non-overlapping frequency bands.

o Each user is assigned a unique frequency.

o Used in radio, TV broadcasting, cable TV.

o Requires bandpass filters to separate signals.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

o Divides time into slots, and each user gets a time slot to send data.

o All users share the same frequency.

o Synchronous TDM: Fixed time slots.

o Asynchronous TDM (Statistical): Dynamic slot assignment.

o Used in telephony, digital circuits.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):

o Used in fiber optic communication.

o Multiple light wavelengths (colors) are multiplexed into a single fiber.

o Each channel uses a different wavelength of light.

o High data rates and bandwidth.

4. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM/CDMA):

o Each signal is multiplied by a unique code.

o All signals are transmitted simultaneously over the same frequency.

o Used in mobile communication, GPS.

o Requires powerful computation for encoding/decoding.

Applications:

 FDM: FM/AM radio.

 TDM: Digital telephony.

 WDM: Long-distance optical fiber transmission.

3. Explain Stop-and-Wait, Go-Back-N, and Selective Repeat ARQ with Diagrams.

ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest) is a mechanism used to ensure reliable data transmission over unreliable networks. It uses
acknowledgments (ACK) and timeouts.

1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ:

 Sender sends one frame and waits for ACK before sending the next.

 Simple but inefficient: long idle times.

 If ACK not received, sender retransmits.

Pros: Easy to implement.

Cons: Low throughput, inefficient for high-latency networks.

2. Go-Back-N ARQ:

 Uses a sliding window protocol.

 Sender can send multiple frames (window size N) without waiting for ACK.

 If a frame is lost or error occurs, all subsequent frames are resent.

Pros: Improved efficiency.

Cons: Wastes bandwidth if errors occur frequently.

3. Selective Repeat ARQ:

 Also uses a sliding window.

 Only erroneous frames are resent, not the entire batch.

 Receiver buffers out-of-order frames and rearranges them.

Pros: More efficient than Go-Back-N.

Cons: More complex; requires large memory and buffering.

Comparison Table:

ARQ Type Complexity Efficiency Retransmission

Stop-and-Wait Low Low One by one

Go-Back-N Medium Medium All after error

Selective Repeat High High Only lost ones

Diagrams can be added during exam for better marks.

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your MAKAUT B.Tech 6th Semester Computer Networks syllabus.
✅ 4. Explain IPv4 Addressing and Subnetting with Examples.

IPv4 Addressing:

IPv4 is a 32-bit logical address used to identify devices on a network. It is divided into four 8-bit octets, written in dotted
decimal format (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

Each IP address has two parts:

 Network ID: Identifies the network.

 Host ID: Identifies a specific host in that network.

IPv4 Address Classes:

Class Range Default Subnet Mask Purpose

A 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255 255.0.0.0 Large networks

B 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255 255.255.0.0 Medium networks

C 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255 255.255.255.0 Small networks

D 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255 — Multicast

E 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255 — Experimental

Subnetting:

Subnetting is the process of dividing a single network into multiple smaller sub-networks (subnets).

It helps in:

 Efficient IP address allocation.

 Improved security and performance.

 Reducing broadcast traffic.

Example:

Given IP: 192.168.1.0/24

This means:

 32 bits address

 /24 indicates subnet mask: 255.255.255.0

 Number of hosts: 2⁸ – 2 = 254 usable IPs

If we subnet into two /25 networks:

 First subnet: 192.168.1.0 – 192.168.1.127

 Second subnet: 192.168.1.128 – 192.168.1.255

Each can support 126 hosts.

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing):

CIDR allows for variable-length subnet masking. For example:

 192.168.10.0/26 gives 64 IPs.

 /30 gives 4 IPs (2 usable).

CIDR improves address allocation efficiency.

✅ 5. Describe TCP Congestion Control Techniques in Detail.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) ensures reliable, ordered data delivery. To prevent congestion in networks, TCP uses
various congestion control techniques:

1. Slow Start:

 Starts with a congestion window (cwnd) of 1 MSS (Maximum Segment Size).

 Increases exponentially with each ACK (cwnd doubles every RTT).

 Prevents overwhelming the network at connection start.

2. Congestion Avoidance:

 When cwnd reaches a threshold, growth becomes linear, not exponential.

 Adds 1 MSS per RTT.

3. Fast Retransmit:

 If a packet is lost, receiver sends duplicate ACKs.

 On receiving 3 duplicate ACKs, sender immediately retransmits the lost packet (no waiting for timeout).

4. Fast Recovery:

 After fast retransmit, congestion window is reduced, but not to the initial size.

 cwnd = ssthresh + 3 * MSS

 Avoids full slow-start restart.

5. Leaky Bucket Algorithm:

 Controls traffic rate.

 Packets enter a bucket and leak at a fixed rate.

 If bucket is full, packets are discarded.

6. Token Bucket Algorithm:

 Tokens are generated at fixed rate.

 A packet is sent only if a token is available.

 Allows bursty traffic.

Why Congestion Control is Important:

 Prevents packet loss.

 Improves throughput.

 Minimizes retransmission and delay.

✅ 6. Describe Routing Protocols with Examples. Differentiate between Routing and Forwarding.

Routing vs. Forwarding:

Feature Routing Forwarding

Function Determines the best path for packets. Sends packets based on routing table.

Done By Routing protocols. Routers and switches.

Frequency Occasionally updated. Performed for every packet.

Routing Protocols:

Routing protocols are algorithms used by routers to determine the best path for data to travel.

1. Distance Vector Routing (e.g., RIP):

 Routers share their routing tables with neighbors.

 Routes are updated based on hop count.

 Simple but slow convergence.

2. Link State Routing (e.g., OSPF):

 Routers know full network topology.

 Use Dijkstra’s algorithm.

 Faster convergence, more resource-intensive.

3. Path Vector Routing (e.g., BGP):

 Used in Internet backbone.

 Maintains path information.

 Important for inter-domain routing.

Static vs. Dynamic Routing:

Type Static Routing Dynamic Routing

Configured Manually Yes No, updated automatically

Suitable For Small networks Large, changing networks

Adaptability Poor Excellent

Applications:

 OSPF in enterprise networks.

 BGP in ISPs and global internet routing.

✅ 7. Explain Various Error Detection and Correction Techniques.

Communication is prone to errors. Techniques are applied to detect and correct these errors:

1. Parity Check:

 Adds 1 bit (parity bit) to make number of 1s even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).

 Detects single-bit errors.

 Cannot correct or detect multiple-bit errors.

2. Checksum:

 Data is divided into fixed-size blocks.

 All blocks are added using 1’s complement arithmetic.

 Sender sends data + checksum.

 Receiver recalculates and compares.

Used in: TCP, UDP.

3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):

 Uses polynomial division.

 Appends CRC bits to data.

 Receiver performs same division to check remainder.

 Detects burst errors.

Used in: Ethernet, HDLC.

4. Hamming Code:

 Adds multiple parity bits at power-of-2 positions.

 Can detect and correct single-bit errors.

 Uses mathematical relationships of parity bits to locate error.

Error Correction Techniques:

 ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request): Retransmission on error detection (e.g., Stop-and-Wait, Go-Back-N).

 FEC (Forward Error Correction): Adds redundant data to correct errors without retransmission (e.g., Hamming, Reed-
Solomon).
✅ 8. Explain the Working of DHCP and DNS in Detail.

1. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):

Used to automatically assign IP addresses to devices on a network.

Working Steps:

1. Discover: Client sends broadcast to locate DHCP server.

2. Offer: Server offers IP address and configuration.

3. Request: Client requests offered address.

4. ACK: Server acknowledges and assigns IP.

Also provides:

 Subnet mask

 Gateway

 DNS server info

2. DNS (Domain Name System):

DNS resolves domain names into IP addresses.

Hierarchy:

 Root Server: Directs to TLD servers.

 TLD Server: (e.g., .com, .org) → Directs to authoritative servers.

 Authoritative Server: Provides actual IP of domain.

Types of Queries:

 Recursive: DNS resolver does full resolution.

 Iterative: Server refers client to another server.

Example:

To resolve www.google.com:

 Resolver → Root → .com → google.com → IP

Importance:

 DHCP reduces manual IP configuration.

 DNS makes the internet user-friendly.

✅ 9. Describe the Working of HTTP and FTP Protocols.

1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):

 Application layer protocol used for web communication.

 Uses port 80 (HTTP) and 443 (HTTPS).

 Stateless, request-response model.

Working:

1. Client initiates TCP connection to server.

2. Sends HTTP request (GET, POST, etc.).

3. Server sends HTTP response (with HTML content).

4. Connection is closed.

Example Request:

vbnet

CopyEdit

GET /index.html HTTP/1.1

Host: www.example.com

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

 Used to upload/download files between client and server.

 Uses two separate TCP connections:

o Port 21: Control connection

o Port 20: Data connection

Working:

1. User connects to FTP server using credentials.

2. Files are listed, uploaded, or downloaded.

3. Data transfer via separate channel.

Modes:

 Active Mode: Server connects to client.

 Passive Mode: Client connects to server (used in NAT environments).

✅ 10. Explain CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA Protocols.

1. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection):

 Used in wired Ethernet (legacy).

 Devices sense channel before transmitting.

 If collision occurs, transmission is stopped, and random backoff time is applied.

Steps:

1. Sense channel.

2. If idle → transmit.

3. If collision → stop, send jam signal.

4. Wait random time → retry.

2. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance):

 Used in wireless LAN (Wi-Fi).

 Collisions can’t be detected easily → so avoided.

 Uses RTS/CTS (Request to Send / Clear to Send) mechanism.

Steps:

1. Sense channel.

2. Send RTS → wait for CTS.

3. If CTS received → transmit.

4. If not → backoff.

Comparison Table:

Feature CSMA/CD CSMA/CA

Medium Wired Wireless

Collision Handling Detection Avoidance (no detection)

Use Ethernet (legacy) Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

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