Module 2

Power conflict and

negotiation
Definition, bases of power, power tactics, Indian perspectives on power. Power in
action.
Conflict: Conflict: conflict process , Sources, Types, Functionality and
Dysfunctionality of Conflict, Classification of Conflict Intra Individual,
Interpersonal, Intergroup and Organizational, Resolution of Conflict, Meaning and
Types of Grievance and Process of Grievance Handling.
Negotiation- Process, types, Johari window.
Empowerment and Participation - The nature of empowerment and participation,
How participation works, Programs for participation, Important considerations in
participation.
Assertive Behaviour - Interpersonal Orientations, Facilitating smooth relations,
Stroking.
POWER
• Power: Power is the intentional influence over the beliefs, emotions, and behaviours of people.

• Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so B acts in accordance with A’s wishes.

• Someone can thus have power but not use it; it is a capacity or potential. Probably the most important aspect
of power is that it is a function of dependence.

• The greater B’s dependence on A, the greater A’s power in the relationship. Dependence, in turn, is based on
alternatives that B perceives and the importance B places on the alternative(s) A controls.

• A person can have power over you only if he controls something you desire.

• Salancik and Pfeff er (1971) have defined power as the “ability of those who possess power to bring about
the outcomes they desire.”
• According to Pfeffer (1982), “power is the capability of one social actor to overcome resistance in
achieving a desired objective or result.”

• Two Face of Power: Negative face of power is characterized by a primitive, unsocialized need to have
dominance over submissive others. The positive face of power is characterized by a socialized need to
initiate, influence, and lead

• Source of Power: The main sources of power are the formal position of the leader and the personality
characteristics of the leader.
Bases Of Power

FORMAL POWER PERSONAL POWER

Information Power

Legitimate Power 4
3
Expert Power
5
Reward Power
2
6 Referent Power

Coercive Power 1
7 Connection Power
FORMAL POWER

 Formal power is based on an individual’s position in an organization. It can come from the ability to coerce
or reward, or from formal authority.

 Position Power: Position power is power based on one’s formal position in an organization. It includes three
of the five French and Raven power bases—legitimate power, reward power, and coercive power—and the
new one, information power.

Coercive Power
 The coercive power base depends on fear of the negative results from failing to comply. It rests on the
application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, frustration
through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs.

 At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming B
values her job. If A can assign B work activities B finds un_x0002_pleasant, or treat B in a manner B finds
embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B.
 Coercive power can also come from withholding key information. People in an organization who have
data or knowledge others need can make those others dependent on them.

 Coercive Power: Leaders often control the punishments others receive—a capacity known as coercive
power.

Reward Power
 The opposite of coercive power is reward power, with which people comply because it produces
positive benefits; someone who can distribute rewards others view as valuable will have power over
them.

 Individuals with the capacity to control the rewards the followers will receive are said to have reward
power over the followers.

 These rewards can be either financial—such as controlling pay rates, raises, and bonuses—or
nonfinancial, including recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues,
and preferred work shifts or sales territories.
Legitimate Power
 In formal groups and organizations, probably the most common access to one or more of the power bases
is through legitimate power. It represents the formal authority to control and use organizational resources
based on structural position in the organization.

 Legitimate Power is the recognized right of individuals to exercise authority over others because of their
position in an organizational hierarchy.

 Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward. Specifically, it includes members’
acceptance of the authority of a position.

 We associate power so closely with the concept of hierarchy that just drawing longer lines in an
organization chart leads people to infer the leaders are especially powerful, and when a powerful
executive is described, people tend to put the person at a higher position when drawing an organization
chart.

 When school principals, bank presidents, or army captains speak (assuming their directives are viewed as
within the authority of their positions), teachers, tellers, and first lieutenants listen and usually comply.
Information Power (Control Based on Access to Information)
 This is based on the perception of one member in the relationship that another member possesses or has
access to information that is valuable to others.

 This power, generally, is vested in the organizational position. An individual’s position in the
organizational network and the kind of task assigned to him will determine how much access he has to
information and how it could be utilized as a power base.

 The power emanating from access to information could be misused by the power holder for his personal
gains, which could be detrimental to the organization
PERSONAL POWER

 It comes from an individual’s unique characteristics. Alao known as informal power.

 Personal Power:Personal power refers to the power that one derives because of ones individual qualities or
characteristics. It includes two of the French and Raven power bases—expert power and referent power—
plus persuasive power and charisma

Expert Power
 Expert power is influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge. As jobs become more
specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts to achieve goals.

 To the extent that a subordinate recognizes a superior’s advanced skills or knowledge and follows his orders
because he realizes that the superior knows what is best, the superior is said to have expert power

 It is generally acknowledged that physicians have expertise and hence expert power: most of us follow our
doctor’s advice. Computer specialists, tax accountants, economists, industrial psychologists, and other
specialists wield power as a result of their expertise.
 Running an organization oft en relies on experts who must be consulted frequently and whose advice must
be followed if an organization is to survive.

Referent Power
 Individuals who are liked and respected by others can get them to alter their actions in accord with their
directives—a type of influence known as referent power.

 Referent power is based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. If I
like, respect, and admire you, you can exercise power over me because I want to please you.

 Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person. It helps explain,
for instance, why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials.

 Marketing research shows people such as LeBron James and Tom Brady have the power to influence your
choice of athletic shoes and credit cards. With a little practice, you and I could probably deliver as smooth
a sales pitch as these celebrities, but the buying public doesn’t identify with you and me.
.
 Some people who are not in formal leadership positions nonetheless have referent power and exert influence over
others because of their charismatic dynamism, likability, and emotional effects on us

Connection Power (Control Derived from Networking)

 This power is based on the perception of one member in the relationship that another member is connected to infl
uential or important people.

 Th is power would generally emerge from the position that person holds in the organizational system. If the person
has access to infl uential members of the organization, the person is likely to enjoy connection
 power.

Persuasive power : refers to the ability to use facts and logic to present a case persuasively.

Charisma is more elusive—namely an attitude of enthusiasm and optimism that is contagious

 Power Tactics
 Power tactics are used by individuals on their own within groups (intragroup) and between groups (intergroup) in
order to influence events.

 Influence can be used in a positive or a negative way. When used positively, we can expect benefi cial outcomes.
Th ere are different types of power tactics used in organizations.

Individual and Intragroup Strategies

 In an empirical study of how managerial employees infl uence others (including superiors, subordinates, and co-
workers) and the conditions under which one tactic is more suitable han other, Kipnis and his colleagues (1984)
concluded that seven tactics could be identified.

 Assertiveness: This would entail setting a deadline for others to comply with a request, ordering others to do what
they were asked to do, emphasizing the importance of complying with the request, and repeatedly reminding
others of their obligation to perform.
 Friendliness or ingratiation: This is designed to make the person favourably disposed to comply with a request.
It could amount to flattery by lavishing praise on the person prior to the request, exaggerating the importance of
complying with the request, acting in a humble and friendly way when seeking the person’s cooperation, and
waiting until the person is in a receptive mood before striking.

 Rationality: This amounts to using facts and information in a logical way so that the request for action is seen to
be detailed and well prepared. The rationale for the request is given together with a statement of what is required
of the person. The originator of the request is portrayed as a competent individual.

 Sanctions: This amounts to the use of coercive power, whereby organizational rewards and punishments are
activated—for example, a promise of an increase in salary or a promotion or a threat to give a person an
unsatisfactory performance appraisal.

 Higher authority: This consists of eff orts to secure support from people further up the organizational hierarchy
and could be exemplifi ed by securing the informal sup_x0002_port of superiors and others in higher positions

 Bargaining: This could amount to exchanging favours and benefi ts through a process of negotiation. Also, the
person seeking the favour may remind the other person of benefi ts that the former has bestowed on her in the past.
 Coalition: This consists of getting help from others in the organization, by building up alliances with
subordinates and co-workers. There is strength in numbers, which is evident when employees join trade unions.
Coalitions are more likely to be formed where interdependency exists between organizational units and where
broad-based support is necessary for the implementation of decisions.
Keys and Case (1990) discuss the tactics most frequently used and those most eff ective in their impact on
supervisors, subordinates, and peers. They outline fi ve steps necessary to develop and maintain
managerial influences:

1. Develop a reputation as a knowledgeable person or as an expert.

2. Balance the time spent in each critical relationship according to the work needs rather
than on the basis of habit or social preference.

3. Develop a network of resource persons who can be called on for assistance.

4. Choose the correct combination of infl uence tactics for the objective to be achieved
and for the target to be infl uenced.

5. Implement infl uence tactics with sensitivity, fl exibility, and adequate levels of
com_x0002_munication.
Situational Influences
 The choice of a power tactic is influenced by the following situational factors

 Relative power: Managers who control valuable resources or who occupy a position of dominance use a greater
variety of tactics when compared to a manager with less power. Assertiveness and directive strategies generally
come into play where there is a refusal or a reluctance to comply with a request. In contrast, the manager with
less power is more likely not to persevere with trying to influence others when resistance is experienced.

 Manager’s objectives: Managers attempt to match tactics to objectives in their dealings with both superiors and
subordinates. When the objectives are to derive benefits from superiors, there tends to be reliance on friendliness
or ingratiation. By contrast, if the objectives are to get a superior to accept new ideas, the most likely tactic is to
use reason.

 Manager’s expectation of success: The degree of success in influencing either superiors or subordinates in the
past is a strong determinant of the tactic to be used currently. Where managers have been successful in exerting
influence, they are likely to use simple requests to obtain compliance. By contrast, where the success rate is low,
they are tempted to use the tactics of assertiveness and sanctions.
 Organizational culture: This is one of most important situational variables. For example, some cultures are
supportive of a friendly approach, whereas others may favour reason. Apart from organizational culture, ethnic
background may also influence the choice of a tactic.

Intergroup Power Tactics

 Intergroup power is related to influence and dependence. When one group can exert influence over the other, the
former has power over the latter. This power is determined by three factors.

 Uncertainty absorption: Within organizations, there are specialized groups performing a variety of functions, for
example, industrial relations, pay, and bargaining. When complex issues arise, the expertise of an appropriate
specialist group can be brought to resolve the problems, and in the process, these groups absorb the uncertainty
normally associated with such matters. Consequently, the specialist group gains some power over the user of its
services.

 Substitutability: In the example just given, if the user of the service can obtain a substitute provider (for
example, an external consultant), then the power of the specialist can be reduced or eliminated. However, in
practice, it might not be possible to substitute internal providers with external providers where an available
internal facility exists.
 Integrative importance: When a group’s services are needed to a significant extent by other groups within
the organization in order that the latter can function effectively, the provider has a lot of intergroup power.
The level of power would be less if the services provided by the group are needed only to a rather limited
extent.

 Thompson (1967) has identified some of the cooperative tactics used on occasion by groups in order to
expand their power. These are referred to as contracting, co-opting, and coalescing.

 Contracting, which does not necessarily culminate in a formal legal agreement, is a tactic arrived at
between two or more groups to regulate future actions. For example, a management group not wishing to
maintain a confrontational stance with a trade union, which is likely to undermine its position, signs an
agreement of cooperation with the union.

 Co-opting is a process whereby others are admitted to the membership of a group, in order to avoid threats
to the group’s stability or survival.

 Coalescing comes about when there is a joint venture between two groups. There is strength in pooling
resources for the benefit of the organization. This would be particularly beneficial when two groups combine
their eff orts, rather than engaging in wasteful competition.
 Indian Perspective on Power
 In all cultures, a larger power differential results in greater influence requiring less direct efforts by the more
powerful person.

 A powerful person in all cultures employs a number of ways over a period of time to make the less powerful
identify with him and to comply with his wishes on their own. The process of internalization, however,
occurs somewhat differently in different cultures.

 In the vertical collectivist Indian culture, the internalization process is fostered during primary socialization.
Children learn to obey, respect, and behave as elders expect them to do just as elders feel obliged to take care
of children’s needs and to mould their thoughts and behaviour for their proper development.

 A hierarchical asymmetrical power relationship is formed spontaneously serving the interests of both.
Ideally, the sneh (affection and nurturing) of a senior or more powerful person is reciprocated with shradha
(deference) of a younger one allowing the power to flow freely both ways.
 The less powerful persons seek guidance, influence, and inspirations from a more powerful person, thereby,
acknowledging his superiority. The superior too grants them patronage and protection that lets them feel
powerful in the deflected power of the superior.

 Power in the traditional Indian view is ideally expressed through ‘giving’ (daan); but ‘ giving’ by Indian
superiors, according to McClelland (1975), is a way of demanding more: a . . . renunciation, yielding, and
self-sacrifices often serve only to serve a strong urge to power.

 McClelland’s formulation of ’giving’ as a power ploy reflects the Western theory of exchange where ‘giving’
obliges the recipient and, if not reciprocated, makes the latter feel indebted and, therefore, inferior.

 But daan in the traditional Indian view is a dharma (duty) that simply creates a social norm of giving away
important resources to the deserving ones, and thereby establishing influence relationships that are bi-
directional.

 Giving away important resources, however, is confined to in-groups. Indians compete intensely with out-
group members, grab whatever resources that enhance their power, which in turn is used to corner more
resources that Indians give generously to those who are close to them in order to nurture networks of in-
group relationships that too add to their power and prestige.
 In between the two extremes of clearly accepted in-groups and recognized out-groups, there exists a grey
zone where Indians deploy complex combinations of pseudo-nurturance,·fake deference and ingratiating and
manipulating behaviour.

 Power is part of human nature. people in different cultures vary in the intensity of their need for power.
Indians, compared to many other nationalities, are found to have a higher need for power.

 Three major factors are held responsible for attenuating Indians need for power:

1. Hierarchical world view.

2. Social comparison.
3. Poverty syndrome.

 The hierarchical world view of Indians according to which the whole cosmos and everything within it are
believed to be arranged hierarchically·being superior to some and subordinate or inferior to others.

 As a result, Indians tend to locate themselves on the various dimensions of hierarchies by indulging in
continuous comparison with others in all comparable as well as incomparable matters.
 People naturally find themselves superior on some dimensions and inferior on others. This results in
greater salience of the need to leverage their power position where they are lacking.

 The poverty syndrome further accentuates the need to acquire and exert power. Poverty in India is so
extreme and pervasive that even those who are not poor live in the fear of becoming poor and the fear
seeps into their ’subconscious, suppressed but not all together, to emerge in self remembered dreams’.

 Hence, they need power to grab resources in order to hedge their fear of poverty. Power helps to
acquire more resources, which enhances power further.

 In the largely collectivist culture of India, the main sources of power are bonds of relationships with
people occupying important positions having authority, skills, knowledge, and information.

 So, a strong need for power must lead to networking with such resource persons for bringing them into
one’s in-group.

 In sum, the hard reality gives rise in the minds of Indians to a strong need for power that leads to
acquiring, monopolizing, and hoarding resources by exploiting others, networking for mutual
advantages, and giving resources to in-group members.
 Power In Action
 When employees in organizations convert their power into action, Those with good political skills have the ability
to use their bases of power effectively.

Definition of Organizational Politics

 Political behavior in organizations consists of activities that are not required as part of an individual’s formal role
but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organizatior.

 Political behavior is outside specified job requirements. It requiressome attempt to use power bases. It includes
efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision making.

 political behavior is a major part of organizational life.

 Many managers report some use of political behavior is both ethical and necessary, as long as it doesn’t directly
harm anyone else. They describe politics as a necessary evil and believe someone who never uses political behavior
will have a hard time getting things done. Most also indicate they had never been trained to use political behavior
effectively.
 Organizations are made up of individuals and groups with different values, goals, and interests.

 Abundant resources can satisfy the goals, but it is limited, not everyone’s interests can be satisfied

 Maybe the most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization that most of the
“facts” used to allocate the limited resources are open to interpretation.

 Because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity—where facts are rarely fully objective and
thus are open to interpretation—people within organizations will use whatever influence they can to taint the
facts to support their goals and interests. That, of course, creates the activities of politicking.

 If all members of that organization hold the same goals and interests, if organizational resources are not scarce,
and if performance outcomes are completely clear and objective, then it is possible for an organization to be
politics-free.
CONFLICT
 Conflict is a perception

 Conflict: Conflict is a disagreement between two or more parties, such as individuals, groups, departments,
organizations or countries, who perceive that they have incompatible concerns

 as a process that begins when one party perceives another party has or is about to negatively affect something
the first party cares about.

 Confl icts exist whenever an action by one party is perceived as interfering with the goals, needs or actions of
another party. Confl icts can arise for several reasons, some of them are:

1. Incompatible goals
2. Diff erences in the interpretation of facts
3. Negative feelings
4. Variations in values and philosophies
5. Disputes over shared success

 Conflict is an inherent part of organizational life. Indeed, some level of conflict is probably necessary for
optimal organizational functioning.
 The term confl ict sounds negative, but in some cases, it can actually stimulate creative problem solving
and improve the situation for all concerned parties.

 The outcome of a conflict is the criterion for determining whether the confl ict is functional or
dysfunctional, that is, whether it has positive or negative outcomes for the concerned parties.

 Conflict is inevitable and has the potential to be dysfunctional, but if managed constructively, it can be
functional and enhance performance.

 Task conflict is more constructive than process or, especially, relationship conflict.
 Conflict Process

 The conflict process has five stages: (1) potential opposition or incompatibility, (2) cognition
and personalization, (3) intentions, (4) behavior, and (5) outcomes.
Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility

 The first step in the conflict process is the appearance of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise.

 These conditions need not lead directly to conflict, but one of them is necessary if conflict is to surface.

 Conditions of conflict is communication, structure, and personal variables.

Communication

 Communication can be a source of conflict. This arises from semantic difficulties misunderstandings,
and “noise” in the communication channels.

 Differing word connotations, jargon, insufficient exchange of information, and noise in the
communication channel are all barriers to communication and potential antecedent conditions to
conflict.

 The potential for conflict increases when either too little or too much communication takes place.
 An increase in communication is functional up to a point, after which it is possible to overcommunicate, with
a resultant increase in the potential for conflict.

Structure

 The term structure in this context includes variables such as size of the group, degree of specialization in the
tasks assigned to group members, jurisdictional clarity, member–goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward
systems, and the degree of dependence between groups.

 The larger the group and the more specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict.

 Tenure and conflict have been found to be inversely related; the potential for conflict is greatest when group
members are younger and when turnover is high.

 The greater the ambiguity about where responsibility for actions lies, the greater the potential for conflict to
emerge.
 Diversity of goals among groups is also a major source of conflict. Reward systems, too, create
conflict when one member’s gain comes at another’s expense.

 If a group is dependent on another group (in contrast to the two being mutually independent), or if
interdependence allows one group to gain at another’s expense, opposing forces are stimulated.

Personal Variables

 potential sources of conflict is personal variables, which include personality, emotions, and values.

 Personality does appear to play a role in the conflict process: some people just tend to get into
conflicts a lot.

 In particular, people high in the personality traits of disagreeableness, neuroticism, or self -

monitoring are prone to tangle with other people more often, and to react poorly when conflicts
occur. Emotions can also cause conflict.
Stage II: Cognition and Personalization

 conditions cited in Stage I negatively affect something one party cares about, then the potential for opposition or
incompatibility becomes actualized in the second stage.

 A conflict is a perceived conflict does not mean it is personalized.

 “A may be aware that B and A are in serious disagreement . . . but it may not make A tense or anxious,
and it may have no effect whatsoever on A’s affection toward B.”

 It is at the felt conflict level, when individuals be_x0002_come emotionally involved, that they
experience anxiety, tension, frustration, or hostility.

 Stage II is important because it’s where conflictissues tend to be defined, where the parties decide
what the conflict is about.19 The definition of a conflict is important because it typically delineates
the set of possible settlements.
 Emotions play a major role in shaping perceptions.

 Negative emotions allow us to oversimplify issues, lose trust, and put negative interpretations on the other
party’s behavior.

 Positive feelings increase our tendency to see potential relationships among the elements of a problem, to take
a broader view of the situation, and to develop more innovative solutions.

Stage III: Intentions

 Intentions intervene between people’s perceptions and emotions and their overt behavior. They are decisions
to act in a given way.

 Intentions as a distinct stage because we have to infer the other’s intent to know how to respond to his or her
behavior.

 Many conflicts escalate simply because one party attributes the wrong intentions to the other.

 There is also typically a great deal of slippage between intentions and behavior, so behavior does not always
accurately reflect a person’s intentions
 We can understand a person’s intention by using two dimensions—cooperativeness (the degree to which
one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns) and assertiveness (the degree to which one party
attempts to satisfy his own concerns).

 we can identify five conflict-handling intentions:

(1) competing (assertive and uncooperative)

(2) collaborating (assertive and cooperative)
(3) avoiding (unassertive and uncooperative)
(4) accommodating (unassertive and cooperative)
(5) compromising (midrange on both assertiveness and cooperativene)

 Competing: When one person seeks to satisfy her own interests regardless of the impact on the other
parties in the conflict, that person is competing.

 Collaborating: When parties in conflict each desire to fully satisfy the concerns of all parties, there is
cooperation and a search for a mutually beneficial outcome. In collaborating, the parties intend to solve a
problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various points of view. If you attempt to
find a win–win solution that allows both parties’ goals to be completely achieved, that’s collaborating.
 Avoiding: A person may recognize a conflict exists and want to withdraw from or suppress it.

 Accommodating: A party who seeks to appease an opponent may be willing to place the opponent’s interests
above his own, sacrificing to maintain the relationship.Supporting someone else’sopinion despite your
reservations about it.

 Compromising: In compromising, there is no clear winner or loser. Rather, there is a willingness to ration
the object of the conflict and accept a solution that provides incomplete satisfaction of both parties’ concerns.
The distinguishing characteristic of compromising, therefore, is that each party intends to give up something.

 Intentions are not always fixed. During the course of a conflict, they might changeif the parties are able to see
the other’s point of view or respond emotionally to the other’s behavior.

Stage IV: Behavior

 This is where conflicts become visible. The behavior stage includes the statements, actions, and reactions
made by the conflicting parties, usually as overt attempts to implement their own intentions.

 As a result of miscalculations or unskilled enactments, overt behaviors sometimes deviate from these original
intentions.
 CONFLICT - INTENSITY CONTINUM

 Conflicts that reach the upper ranges of the continuum are almost always dysfunctional. Functional conflicts
are typically confined to the lower range of the continuum.
Stage V: Outcomes

 The action–reaction interplay between the conflicting parties results in consequences.

 Outcomes may be functional, if the conflict improves the group’s performance, or dysfunctional, if it hinders
performance.

Functional Outcomes

 Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions, stimulates creativity and
innovation, encourages interest and curiosity among group members, provides the medium through
which problems can be aired and tensions released, and fosters an environment of self-evaluation and
change.

 The evidence suggests conflict can improve the quality of decision making by allowing all points to
be weighed, particularly those that are unusual or held by a minority.
 Conflict is an antidote for groupthink. It doesn’t allow the group to passively rubber-stamp decisions that
may be based on weak assumptions, inadequate consideration of relevant alternatives, or other debilities.

 Conflict challenges the status quo and therefore furthers the creation of new ideas, promotes reassessment
of group goals and activities, and increases the probability that the group will respond to change.

 Groups that are extremely polarized do not manage their underlying disagreements effectively and tend to
accept suboptimal solutions, or they avoid making decisions altogether rather than working out the
conflict.

 Groups whose members have different interests tend to produce higher-quality solutions to a variety of
problems than do homogeneous groups.

 Team members with greater differences in work styles and experience also tend to share more information
with one another.
Dysfunctional Outcomes

 Uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve common ties and eventually
leads to the destruction of the group.

 Among the undesirable consequences are poor communication, reductions in group cohesiveness,
and subordination of group goals to the primacy of infighting among members.

 All forms of conflict appear to reduce group member satisfaction and trust.

 When active discussions turn into open conflicts between members, information sharing between
members decreases significantly.

 At the extreme, conflict can bring group functioning to a halt and threaten the group’s survival.
 Differences in
Incompatible
Cultural Perception
Goals
Barriers
Interdependence

Incompatible
Personalities
Sources
of Jurisdictional
Ambiguity
Conflict

Specialization Communication
Scarcity of Distortions
Resources

Status
Differences
Differences in
Values
Sources of Conflict
 Confl ict is a permanent part of any organization, a good manager tries to understand the sources from which it
emanates.

 Different sources of confl ict have been identifi ed in organizations

Scarcity of Resources

 Whenever resources are to be shared by many groups, departments, or individuals in organizations,

the chances of confl icts increase.

 Th e problem gets escalated when these resources are scarce.

 Scarce resources result in conflict because it motivates people to indulge in unhealthy competition
between each other in order to obtain maximum resources to achieve their objectives
Specialization

 A high degree of specialization oft en leads to higher disagreements between people in an organization.

 A person who has a high degree of specialization in a particular area seldom has awareness about other areas and
is likely to disagree with the viewpoints of others.

 A high level of specialization also causes high diff erentiation among people leading to conflict.

Interdependence

 Interdependent work requires people to depend on one another to accomplish goals

 Interdependence is the degree to which interaction among parties must be coordinated in order for them to
perform adequately.

 The degree of interdependence can range from total dependence to total independence.

 When one party has the power to manipulate and control the activities of the other party to the extent of aff ecting
their outcomes, it is a state of total dependence.
 If two parties have no impact on each other’s existence, it is a state of total independence.

 If two parties mutually decide on their responsibilities and coordinate their schedules to ensure eff ectiveness,
they are considered to be interdependent.

 Th ere are three different types of interdependent relationships: reciprocal, sequential, and pooled.

 Reciprocal interdependence: When the output of two parties is also the input of each other, it is termed
reciprocal interdependence. It can be thought of as a symbiotic relationship. The potential for conflict is high
because it requires a greater degree of coordination between the parties. Eff ectiveness will depend upon good
communication and joint decision making.

 Sequential interdependence: When the output of one party becomes the input for the other party, it is termed
sequential interdependence. There is one-way movement of information, output, and services causing anxiety to
the receiving party as the receiving party’s performance is entirely dependent upon the input from the supplying
party.

 Pooled interdependence: Th is happens when two parties are independent of each other but make a contribution
to the organization that aff ects its performance. Th is is the weakest form of interdependence except for reliance
on a common resource or authority. The potential for confl ict exists when there is scarcity of resources provided
by the headquarters.
Incompatible Goals

 Work fl ows smoothly without any major hindrance when work groups have compatible goals

 when the goals of work groups are not compatible, there are chances of conflicts developing between the groups
involved.

 This incompatibility may be the result of mutually exclusive goals, that is, when one party’s goal achievement is
perceived as threatening to another, the resulting confl ict is likely to result in a win–lose outcome.

 This incompatibility may be the result of diff erent time orientations.

 When diff erent departments in an organization have diff erent time frames to judge their eff ectiveness, it may
result in viewing the goals as incompatible

Status Differences

 Status diff erences among employees is one of the major reasons for confl icts in organizations. It happens because
organizations are typically identifi ed by hierarchical structures with a dis_x0002_tinct superior–subordinate
relationship.
 Superiors tend to enjoy certain intangible benefi ts that may become a cause of resentment for subordinates.

 Sometimes, the subordinate may be in a better position because of his competence and ability to solve
problems.

 He may not be permitted to do so as the superior may be autocratic and, therefore, in a more commanding
position.

 This compounds the potential for confl ict in their relationship. As organizations are moving towards a fl atter
structure and a team-based approach, the problem of hierarchy-based confl ict may get reduced.

Jurisdictional Ambiguity

 risdictional ambiguity results when there are unclear lines of responsibility within an organization

 In such organizations, when problems arise, there may be no one to take responsibility and the “blaming
others” game continues.

 Workers tend to pass the buck or avoid dealing with the problem.
 It happens because either they are not clear as to who has to solve the problem or they are not concerned about it.
Confl ict emerges over assigning responsibility for the problem.

Incompatible Personalities

 People diff er from each other to a large extent in terms of their personality characteristics, it can become a major
cause of confl icts in organization. For example, abrasiveness

 People high on abrasiveness are quite unaware of the feelings of others. Since they are themselves perfectionists,
they are highly critical of others’ eff orts and create stress and discomfort for others in the organization.

Differences in Perception

 Personality diff erences play a major role in creating diff erences in the perception of people.

 Perceptions of individuals diff er in terms of their expectations and beliefs.

 If the expectation of an individual does not match with his attainment, it leads to a distortion in his perception,
thereby generating confl ict.
Differences in Values

 Each individual has his own set of values and ethics which are dependent on his background and experiences.

 The diff erences in values lead to heightened disagreements and conflicts in organization as most people rely on
their own standards and convictions

Communication Distortions

 Communication is identifi ed as one of the major sources of interpersonal confl icts in organizations.

 Problems in communication could be due to miscommunication (wrong interpretation of the message sent) or
communication failure (inability to communicate because of physical, emotional, or structural reasons).

 Difficulty in understanding the language or faults in the channel can distort the information to a great extent,
thereby leading to argument and conflict.

 Sometimes, conflicts arise because the mindset of the receiver may be a barrier. If the receiver has preconceived
notions and ideas, he generally does not listen to the sender with an open mind, leading to confl ict between the
two.
Cultural Barriers

 Culture is the glue which binds the members of a group or organization together.

 Culture differentiates people from each other and has a boundary-defi ning role too.

 People from two cultures working together may not be able to comprehend each other’s perspectives,
therefore, leading to disagreement and conflict.

 Certain behaviours acceptable in one culture may be viewed as taboo in another culture.

 If an organization comprises people of diff erent cultures working together, such diff erences may lead to
inconsistent behaviours and clashes among people.
Types of Conflict

Intrapersonal Conflict Interpersonal Conflict

Role-related Intrapersonal
Conflicts Intragroup Conflict

Goal-related Conflicts Intergroup Conflict

Interorganizational Conflict Hidden Conflicts

 Conflict in organizations manifests itself in diff erent forms.

 There are three types of conflict: personal, group, and organizational. All these types can be further classified
in terms of being “intra,” meaning within, and “inter,” meaning across.

 These conflicts are interrelated and affect each other in organizations

Intrapersonal Conflict

 Interpersonal conflict is the result of tensions and frustrations within the individual.

 It happens because the person is not clear about his role; he sets two mutually exclusive goals for himself

 The person who occupies the role becomes the role incumbent, and there are others surrounding the person
and having certain expectations from him.

 Since it is practically impossible to live up to everyone’s expectations, the role incumbent starts experiencing
frustration and anxiety from within. These ultimately lead to intrapersonal conflict.
Role-related Intrapersonal Conflicts

 Intrarole Conflict: When an incumbent receives conflicting messages from different role senders, he experiences
intrarole conflict.

 Interrole Conflict: The conflict a person experiences because of the multiple roles he has to play in life is termed
interrole conflict.

 Person–role Conflict:This takes place when a person in a role has to perform activities which do not fall in his
value system.

Goal-related Conflict

 Approach–approach Conflict: It happens when the incumbent is faced with two goals, both of them equally
attractive but cannot be enjoyed together.

 Approach–avoidance Conflict: This conflict arises when a person has to choose between two goals both
important, one attractive and the other unattractive, therefore, avoidable.

 Avoidance–avoidance Conflict: This conflict is faced by an incumbent who has to make a choice between two
equally unattractive, but important goals
Interpersonal Conflict

 Interpersonal conflict occurs when two people’s attitudes, behaviour, and actions are in opposition.

 Personality clashes lead to interpersonal confl icts in organizations. Interpersonal conflicts also result when there
is a lack of clarity in terms of understanding one’s role in a given situation with respect to another person.

 When a person in the role set receives a message that is either unclear or incompatible, it causes role conflict. It
can happen because of several reasons:

 A single person may send incompatible or diff erent messages to the role incumbent.Two persons may send
incompatible or totally opposite messages to the role incumbent.

 The person occupying the role may not be in a position to completely satisfy the demands of the role because of
pressures from another role demand

 When the role sender sends messages that are incompatible with the incumbent’s set of values.Interpersonal
confl ict may also occur because of lack of clarity experienced by the role incumbent with respect to his roles.

 The lack of clarity about a role or role ambiguity, leads to aggressive actions and hostile communication,
withdrawal from the role, or an attempt to clarify the ambiguity.
Intragroup Conflict

 It refers to the disagreements between the group members on certain issues, thereby leading to ineffectiveness
in its functioning

Intergroup Conflict

 Conflicts between teams and groups are termed intergroup conflicts.

 They result because of opposition, disagreements, and disputes between the teams.

 It can have both positive and negative consequences. On the positive side, the intergroup conflict increases the
cohesiveness among the group members, thereby generating enhanced commitment and loyalty towards the
group.

 On the negative side, it distances people from each other in organizations and enhances the gap between teams
and departments.

 The teams start seeing each other as the enemy and become hostile to each other. When the number of negative
relationships among members is high, the probability of intergroup confl ict increases.
 A heightened level of intergroup confl ict can be dysfunctional for organizations. In organizations, when groups
compete for a common goal in situations of scarce resources, such conflicts are likely to result in aggression and
hostility towards each other.

 By encouraging intergroup or interdepartmental activities so that a desirable level of trust can be established. This
trust will allow members to openly exchange ideas and resources with each other and will result in high level of
cooperation among them.

Interorganizational Conflict

 Conflict occurring between two organizations is called inter-organizational conflict.

 The amount of conflict generated may depend on the extent to which the organizations create uncertain
conditions for competitors, suppliers or customers and try to access or control the same resources.

 It would also depend upon the amount of encouragement given by the organization to communicate with each
other, attempt to balance power in the marketplace, and develop procedures for resolving existing conflicts.

 Attempts to manage interorganizational confl ict so that it has a positive impact on organizational performance
may result in the formation of strategic alliances and partnerships
Hidden Conflicts

 Some confl icts in organizations may be covert, or hidden. They may manifest in the form of private grievances that employees
have against their managers.

 Hidden confl ict is irrational, that is, it may not have any sound logic behind it because it may be spontaneous, impulsive, and
emotional.

 Hidden conflict is generally expressed in the form of informal disputes that tend to ignore hierarchy and position in their
resolution.

 There may be disagreements over certain issues like distribution of bonus or incentives, but these are never discussed explicitly.

 The outcomes of hidden, or covert, confl ict can be sabotage or other signs of disloyalty towards authority. They may
sometimes happen outside the public view.

 Sometimes, they result in passive resistance or may be a part of normal, daily activities in the organization at a low intensity.

 Managers should be sensitive to hidden confl icts as the aft ermath of this could be damaging to the organization in the long
run. If not managed appropriately, it may lead to overt confl ict and aff ect organizational functioning and performance.

 A more collegial and informal way of dealing may be required for dealing with employees who experience hidden confl icts in
organizations.
 Functionality and Dysfunctionality of Conflict
 Functional conflicts and dysfunctional conflicts are the two dimensions or the outcomes of the conflicts.
Functional conflict has positive effects on the conflicts whereas dysfunctional conflict has negative effects

Functional Conflict: Positive Effects

 Functional conflict is also known as constructive conflict. Such conflict will have positive effects on
individuals, groups and organizations.

 Such conflict is useful in order to solve problems related to individuals and groups. Functional conflict is
important for effective performance due to the following reasons:

 It ventilates tension from the organization.

 It increases individual's efforts at work.

 It helps thinking analytically.

 It provides foundation for organizational change and development.

 It provides an individual a chance to think again, undertake self introspection and have a second look at the
existing things, like procedures, policies, equipment, behaviors etc.

 It leads to innovation and at times to new direction. It is, therefore, even necessary for the survival and growth
organizations.

 It helps to seek classification and generate search behavior

 When conflict is developed, attention is immediately drawn to the malfunctioning parts of a system. It is an
indication that the situation calls for improvement. Conflict is, therefore, an essential portion of a cybernetic
system.

 At times, it is also used as a means to certain ends and to create confusion or set subordinates against each
other in order to maintain the interested parties own position. It may not be a positive outcome in the strict
sense of the term from the organizational point of view, but it is certainly a management strategy toward of
problems temporarily. It may be viewed as an unavoidable cost of the pursuit of one's aspirations.
 Long standing problems, which continue to agitate people's mind in surface, they are able to release their tensions
and unburden themselves. They display creativity in identifying solutions and dealing with problems.

 It serves as a cementing force in a group and incredible unity is witnessed even in a heterogeneous group at times
of tension.

 It energizes people, leads to mild stimulation and one is at one's best in times of crisis. It helps them test their
capacities.

Dysfunctional Conflict: Negative Effects

 Dysfunctional conflict is also known as destructive conflict. Many times conflict may be detrimental and
disastrous.

 Such conflict has negative effect on individuals, groups and the organizational levels. The effects might be
diverting energies, hurting group cohesion, promoting interpersonal hostilities and creating negative working
environment.
 Due to the dysfunctional conflict and its negative effects, employees become dissatisfied with the working
environment and as a result, absenteeism will increase and productivity will decline. A few dysfunctional effects
of rising conflict include:

 Increasing conflict will result in delays in meeting schedules, decrease in the quality of goods and services and
finally will increase customer complaints.

 It is undesirable if it creates a climate of distrust and suspicion among people, if some people feel are defeated
and demanded and it develops antagonism instead of spirit of cooperation.

 In the absence of smooth communication at the workplace, there will be problems in coordinating activities.

 With the increasing conflict in the organization, people start to divert themselves from the real work schedule
and keep less interest and show less energy, and this will ultimately affect the achievement of organizational
goals.
 The increasing negative emotions at the workplace can be quite stressful.

 When conflict does not lead to solution of a problem, it is unproductive and investment of time and effort
goes waste

 As a consequence of conflict, there may be intensification of internalization of sub-unit goals which may
result in the neglect of overall organizational goals.

 It is seriously harmful if it distracts attention from basic organizational objectives and makes people work for
their defeat.

 When management loses objectivity and treats disagreement as equivalent to disloyalty and rebellion, an
opportunity for creativity should be deemed to have been lost. It may even pour oil over troubled waters,
exploit differences to strengthen itself and weakens others, and accept resolutions capable of different
interpretation.
Classification of Conflict

1 2 3 4
Intra Individual Interpersonal Intergroup Organizational
1. Individual level conflict

• An individuals joins any organization basically to satisfy his different needs. he faces a conflict
withon himself when he perceives that organization is not satisfying his needs in accordance with
his percevied standards.

• As a result he becomes tension ridden and remain frustrated. Individual conflict can be divide
into two types.

A. Intra individual conflict

B. Inter personal conflict

1. Intra individual conflict

• It refers conflict within an individual. intra individual conflict arises from frustration, goal conflict and
role conflict.
1. Frustration

• It occurs when a motivated drive blocked before a person reaches a desired goal.

• for example, a thirsty person wants to get a glass of water. but there is a closed door before him to get water.
here he is prevented by the closed door get water. he becomes frustrated, and reacts physically or symbolically
by attacking the barrier. the frustrated individual adopts any of the defence mechanism like aggression,
withdrawal, function, resignation and compromise.

• aggression refers to the attack of the barrier physically or symbolically. withdrawal refers to backing away
from the barrier. function refers to the continous effort to break the barrier. compromise refers to the search for
a new goal. conflict occurs in all these defence mechanisms situations.

2. Goal conflict

• The second source of intra individual conflict is goal conflict. it means the existence of two or more
competing goals. goal conflict occurs when the attainment of one goal avoids the possiblity of attaining
another goal. it may be of three types
 Approach - approach conflict

This conflict arises when an individual is motivated to approach two or more positive but mutually exclusive
goals. Eg: a young graduate receives appointment letter of two excellent jobs. then an intra individual confict
arises. this type of goal conflict has little impact on organization

 Approach- Avoidance Conflict

Here the individual is motivated to approach a goal with has both positive and negative characteristics.

 Avoidance- Avoidance conflict

Here a person is faced with two negative goals and he may not choose either of them and may simply leave
the situation.

3. Role conflict

• Third source. Sometimes an individual needs to play several roles simultaneously, but finding time and
resources inadequate to do so. Authority conflict is another type of role conflict.
2. Inter-personal conflict

 It arises between two individuals having competition for acheiving scarce things such as status, power position,
promotion or resources in an organizations.

 The most important reason for interpersonal conflict is the clash of egio states of individuals. The following are
the other various reasons for inter-personal conflict.

a) Perasonality difference : employees of the organization is different from person to person. they come from
different backgrounds, have different values, perception, culture, attitude, nature etc.

b) Ego States: This is the persons way of thinking, feeling, behaving at any particular time. if ego states are
complimentary, the conflicting situation amy arise.

c) Value and Interest Difference: People may give different importance to different values.

d) Difference in perception: No two people understand a problem alike due to their personlaity differences. it will
lead to inter personal conflict.
e) Power and position difference: If people think that there is differences in distribution of position and power, they
will resist itr and ultimately it will lead to interpersonal conflict.

f) Resource limiataion: The scarcity of resources leads to inter personal conflict.

3. Inter group conflict

It is also called organizational conflict. it refers to the conflict between two groups; department, sections in an
organization. most of the departments in the organization compete for the alocation of scarce resources and power. the
following are the sources of inter group conflict.

1. Incompatible goals : difference in group goals can easily led to group conlict.

2. Task interdependence: it refers to the dependence of one unit on another for resources or information. when the
interdependence increases, the chance for conflict also increases.

3. Resource allocation: each department tries to secure a large share of the scarces resources, and this will result in
conflict.
4. Comeptitive incentive and reward system: better performance can be achieved through competition. reward
systems are adopted to reward better performance. when task are independent, then competition will hurt co operation
among members. it will lead to low performance. interr group conflict may arise when the reward plan is attached to
individual group performance rather that over all group performance.

5. Line and Staff conflict: it occurs when staff personnel do not posses authority over line personal.

6. Difference in value perception: The goal set for each member of each department are accompanied by difference in
attitudes, values and perception.

7. Other reasons: ation

a) Heterogeneity of members: education, age, status, family background etc of members in an organization
decreases interpersonal relationship. it leads to inter personal conflict.

b) communication distortion: inadequate comminication results in conflict because the members do not know each
others job

c) participative decision making: workers and management together participate in decision making process. there are
more chances of conflict in such cases.

d) Functional conflict: there may be conflict between the different functional departments.
4.Organizational Conflict
1. Inter organizational Conflict
The basis of inter organizational conflict are essentially the same as the basis of inter group conflict.
incompactable goals, over status, prestige etc, are present in inter organizational conflict also.

2. Intra organizational conflict

There are mainly three types internal conflict in an organization. they are:

 Horizontal conflict: it refers to conflict between employees or departments at them hierarchical level in an
organization. each department tries to achieve these goals.

 Vertical conflict: it is a form of superior subordinate relationship results into verstical conflict. it ususally occurs
when the superior attempts to control the behaviour of his subordinate. subordinate resist such control. he feels
that his superior tries to control activities outside the scope for his control and he perceives conflict with his
superior. more differnce between supeior and subordinate may create more conflict and it will cause in efficency
to the organization.
 Line and staff conflict: it refers to a pattern in which staff specialists advise managers to perform their
duties. in an organization there are two types of authorities namely line authority and staff authority.

 These authorities should support each other and work harmoniously to achieve organizational
objectives. However there are frequent conflict between these authorities.

 Line managers who are responsible to achieve organizational objectives believe that staff people are
working against them. they also perceive that the staff people do not carry any responsibility but enjoys
authority. they feel that staff people encroaches their authority.

 At the same time staff people feel that line managers do not make use of staff people, their advice is
not taken into consideration. all these believes and attitudes towards each other will leads to conflict
Resolution of Conflict

• According to Thomas (1992), people handle interpersonal conflict in five ways.

• The styles are identifi ed by their locations on two dimensions:

(i) concern for self

(ii) concern for others.

• The desire to satisfy your own concerns depends on the extent to which you are assertive or unassertive in
pursuing personal goals.

• The five interpersonal conflict-handling styles represent various combinations of assertiveness and cooperation.
Although there is a natural tendency towards one or two of these styles, the individual may use all of them as the
context and the people involved change.
 Forcing or Collaborating
dominating style
style

Avoiding Accommodating
style Compromising
style style
1. Avoiding Style
• Th is enables a person to stay away from confl ict, ignore disagreements, or remain neutral. This approach refl ects
an aversion to tension and frustrations and may involve a decision to let a confl ict work itself out.

• Because ignoring important issues oft en frustrates others, the consistent use of the avoiding style usually results in
unfair evaluation by others.

• Th is style may be desirable when:

• The issue is minor or only of passing importance and it is not worth the individual’s time or energy to deal with the
conflict.

• The individual does not have enough information to handle the confl ict at that time.

• The individual’s power is so less in relation to the other person’s that there is no chance of causing change.

• Others can effectively resolve the confl ict.

• The issue is symptomatic of other deeper issues. Th e individual may not be prepared to deal with these deeper and other
complex issues. Th erefore, it is better to avoid the issue for the moment and adopt a distant wait-and-see approach
2. Forcing or Dominating Style
• It refers to assertive and uncooperative behaviours and represent a win–lose approach to interpersonal confl
ict.

• Those who use the forcing approach try to attain their own goals without concern for others. This style
includes aspects of coercive power and dominance.

• It may help a person achieve individual goals, but as with the avoiding style, forcing tends to result in an
unfavourable evaluation by others.

• Individuals who favour this style assume that confl ict resolution means that one person must win and the
other must lose. When handling confl ict between subordinates or departments, forcing-style leaders may
threaten or actually use demotion, dismissal, negative performance evaluations, or other punishments to gain
compliance.

• When conflict occurs between peers, group members using the forcing style can try to get their own way by
appealing to the leader.
• The forcing style may be necessary in the following conditions:

• Emergencies require quick actions.

• Unpopular courses of action must be taken for long-term organizational eff ectiveness and survival,
for example, cost cutting and dismissal of employees for unsatisfactory performance.

• A person needs to take action for self-protection and stop others from taking advantage of her.

3. Accommodating Style

• This refers to cooperative and unassertive behaviour. Accommodation may represent an unselfish act, a long-
term strategy to encourage cooperation by others, or submission to the wishes of others.

• While some favourably evaluate individuals using the accommodating style, others may perceive them as weak
and submissive. When using the accommodating style, an individual can act as though the confl ict will go
away in time and can appeal for cooperation.

• The person will try to reduce tensions and stress by reassurance and support. This style shows concern for the
emotional aspects of confl ict but little interest in working on its substantive issues.
The accommodating style can be eff ective in the short run when:

• Th e individual is in a potentially explosive emotional-confl ict situation.

• Maintaining harmony and avoiding disruptions are important in the short run.

• Confl icts are based primarily on the personalities of individuals and cannot be easily
resolved.

• Th e issue is far more important to the other party.

• You want the other party to learn from their mistakes of insisting on their ways.

• You want to earn social credit by giving in at that moment, so that you can cash in on the credit of
being reasonable at a more opportune time
4. Collaborating Style

• It refers to strong, cooperative, and assertive behaviours. It is the win–win approach to interpersonal conflict
handling. A person using collaboration desires to maximize joint results.

• People who use this style tend to:

• See confl ict as natural, helpful, or even leading to a creative solution if properly handled.

• Exhibit trust in others.

• Recognize that when confl ict is resolved to the satisfaction of all, it should lead to commitment to the
solution.

• An individual who uses the collaborating style is often seen as dynamic and is evaluated favourably by others.
With this style, confl ict is recognized openly and evaluated by all who are concerned.

• Sharing, examining, and assessing the reasons for the conflict should lead to the development of an alternative
that eff ectively resolves it and is fully acceptable to everyone involved.
• Collaboration is most practical when there is:

• Suffi cient interdependence to justify expending the extra time and energy needed to solve individual
diff erences.

• Suffi cient parity in power among individuals so that they feel free to interact candidly, regardless of
their formal superior–subordinate status

• Potential for mutual benefi ts, especially in the long run, in resolving the dispute through a win–win
process.

• Suffi cient organizational support for investing the necessary time and energy in resolving disputes in
this manner.

• A framework, especially those set by the top management, for encouraging or discouraging
collaboration, through norms, rewards, and punishments for the organization
5. Compromising Style
• This refers to behaviours at an intermediate level of cooperation and assertiveness. People using this style
engage in a give-and-take strategy and can make a series of concessions.

• Compromising style is widely used and commonly accepted as a means of resolving conflict. An individual
who compromises with others tends to be favourably evaluated.

• Explanations that favour the compromising style include the following facts:

• It refl ects a pragmatic way of handling conflicts.

• It helps maintain good relations for the future.

• Unlike the collaborating style, the compromising style does not maximize mutual satisfaction. Compromise
achieves moderate but partial satisfaction for each person.
This style is appropriate when:

• Agreements enable each person to be better off , or at least not worse off , than if no agreements were
reached.

• Achieving a total win–win agreement is not possible.

• Confl icting goals or opposing interests block agreement on a person’s proposal.

Effectiveness of Various Styles

• Research on using various interpersonal confl ict-handling styles shows that collaboration tends to be the
characteristic of:

• More-successful rather than less-successful individuals.

• High-performing rather then medium- and low-performing organizations.

• People tend to perceive collaboration in terms of constructive use of confl ict. Collaboration seems to result in
positive feelings in others, as well as favourable self-evaluations of performance and abilities.

• In contrast to collaboration, forcing and avoiding often have negative effects. These styles tend to be associated
with less-constructive use of confl ict, negative feelings from others, and unfavourable evaluation of
performance and abilities.

• The eff ects of accommodation and compromise appear to be mixed. Accommodation sometimes results in
positive feelings from others, but these individuals do not favourably evaluate the performance and abilities of
those using the accommodating style.

• The use of the compromising style is followed by positive feelings from others
Grievance
• A complaint that has been formally prersented to a management representative or to a union official.

• According to J.M. Jucius, “A grievance is any discontent or dissatisfaction whether expressed or not, whether
valid or not, arising out of anything connected with the company which an employee thinks, believes or even
feels to be unfair, unjust or inequitable”.

• A grievance is a sign of employee’s discontent with job and its nature. The employee has got certain aspirations
and expectations which he thinks must be fulfilled by the organisation where he is working. When the
organisation fails to satisfy the employee needs, he develops a feeling of discontent or dissatisfaction.

• when a complaint remains unattened and the employee concerned feels a sense of lack of justice and fair play,
the dissatisfaction grows and assumes the status of grievance.

• usually grievance relate to problems of interpretation of perceived non- fulfillment of one’s expectation from the
organization.
Types of Grievances
Type # 1. Visible Grievances or Hidden Grievances:

When the grievances are clearly visible to the others is called visible grievances. But it is not necessary that all
times these are visible then these are called hidden one. It is called hidden grievances.

Type # 2. Real or Imaginary:

The grievances may be real or imaginary also. These may be called genuine or imaginary too. When a grievance is
due to a valid reason and related to the terms of employment only. The management or concerned party responsible
for redressing of grievance is called real, genuine or factual grievance. Second, imaginary grievance is that when it
is there not for any valid reason. The management is not at fault. It is called imaginary only.

Type # 3. Expressed or Implied:

There may be expressed or implied grievances. When an employee felt the grievance and expressed or reports to
the management in written or oral forms, is called express because it has been made clear. When it is not made
clear but from the situation it can be inferred or judged that there is a grievance. That type of grievance is called
implied grievance.
Type # 4. Oral or Written:

According to the way of expression, the grievances can be oral or written. When orally it is reported or expressed
then it is called oral grievance. An employee makes a written complaint then it becomes written grievance. Entirely
according to their expression the grievances are classified.

Type # 5. Disguised Grievances:

Sometime the grievances take place but the employees do not know the reasons of grievances. The causes of
grievances are unknown. These are called disguised grievances. This type of grievances take place due to mental
pressure or frustration due to other factors and not related to work.

Type # 6. Individual or Group Grievances:

The grievances may be related to individual employee or a group of employees. In group we may include team,
department, etc. When an individual is affected then it is called individual grievance. When a group is affected due
to the grievances and reported then it becomes a group grievance. Other factors for formation of types are not
considered other than party affected.
Type # 7. Union Grievances:

The union presents the grievances to the management on behalf of member employees then it becomes union
grievance. It is presented in the interest of everyone in the union and not for individual employee. When the
employees felt that the terms of employment are violated then union takes the initiative in reporting of the
grievances. The union presents the case for collective agreements in this case.

Type # 8. Policy Grievances:

When a grievance is related to policy of the company relating to terms of employment is called policy grievance.
The terms of employment may include appointment, training, compensation, promotion and transfer, rewards and
incentives, bonus, allowances, etc. When these are violated by the management and reported by employees’ union
then it becomes a policy grievance.
Reasons for Grievance

• Economic: wage fixation, wage computation, overtime, bonus, employees feel they are getting less than what they
ought to get

• Working environment: poor working conditions, defective equipment and machinery tools materials

• Supervision: disposition of the boss towards the employee, percei notions of favoritism, nepotism, bias etc

• Work group : strained relations or incompatibiltiy with peers, feeling of neglect, obstruction and victimization.

• Work organization: rigid and unfair rules, too much less work responsibility, lack of recognition.

Effect ogrievances

loss of interest in work, lack of moral and commitment, poor quality of production, low productivity, increase in
wasrtage and costs, increase in employee turnover, increase in the incidence of accidents, indiscipline, unrest, etc.
Process of Grievence Handling
1. Timely Action – Management should ventilate the grievances as and when they arise. They should be nipped in
the bud. For this purpose, supervisors should be trained in recognizing and handling the grievances promptly.

2. Acknowledgement of Grievance – Once the grievance is filed, management should register it and grievant
should be assured that it would be attended to.

3. Identifying the Problem – The supervisor has to diagnose the problem.

4. Collecting Facts – Once the problem is figured out, the supervisor should collect all relevant facts and profile
relating to the grievance.

5. Analyzing the Cause – Supervisor has to get to the root of the problem. It involves studying various aspects of
grievance like employee’s past history, frequencies of occurrence, management practices, union practices etc.
Thus, identification of the cause helps the management to take remedial actions.

6. Taking Decision – Various alternative courses of action are worked out. These are evaluated in view of their
consequences on the aggrieved employee, the union and the management. Final decision suited to a given situation
is arrived at.
7. Implementing the Decision – The decision taken should be communicated to the grievant and implemented by the
authority.

Step – 1 – Aggrieved employee explains the grievance to the immediate supervisor. He may meet the officer
personally or he may be accompanied by union representative. The supervisor takes suitable action. If the aggrieved
employee is satisfied, the matter is over. Otherwise he may go to the next step.

Step – 2 – The aggrieved may meet the section head or the head of the department or the representative from HR
department. Thus, the officer concerned gives his decision considering all relevant facts within a specified timeline.

Step – 3 – It the grievance is not redressed to the full satisfaction of the grievant, then the matter is referred to
grievance committee represented by the management and the union. The committee members deliberate on the issue
and arrive at the decision on consensus basis.

Step – 4 – If the decision awarded by the grievance committee is not acceptable to the grievant, the matter is
referred to arbitration.

Step – 5 – This is the final step in grievance procedure. An arbitrator is appointed with the mutual consent of the
management and union. Both the parties must agree that they are bound by the decision of the arbitrator.
Handling a grievance: Points to be kept in mind

1. Every grievance must be given due respect and considered important.

2. A grievance should not be postponed with hope that people will “see the light” themselves.

3. A grievance should be put in writing.

4. A relevant facts about a grievance should be gathered by management and their proper records should be
maintained.

5. The employee should be given free time off to pursue his grievance.

6. Management should take a list of all solutions and later evaluate them one by one in term of their total effect on
the organisation.

7. Decision once reached should be communicated to the employee and acted upon by the management.

8. Follow-up must be done by the management to determine whether action taken by it has favourably changed the
employee’s attitude or not.
Negotiation
 Negotiation is about getting the best possible deal in the best possible way.

 Negotiation permeates the interactions of almost everyone in groups and organizations.

 Eg: managers negotiate with employees, peers, and bosses; salespeople negotiate with customers; purchasing
agents negotiate with suppliers.

 negotiation as a process that occurs when two or more parties decide how to allocate scarce resources.

The Negotiation Process

negotiation as made up of five steps:

(1) preparation and planning,

(2) definition of ground rules,
(3) clarification and justification,
(4) bargaining and problem solving, and
(5) closure and implementation.
1. Preparation and Planning

• Before you start negotiating, need to do homework. What’s the nature of the conflict? What’s the history leading
up to this negotiation? Who’s involved and what are their perceptions of the conflict? What do you want from the
negotiation? What are your goals?

2. Definition of Ground Rules

• Once you’ve done your planning and developed astrategy, you’re ready to begin defining with the other party the
ground rules and procedures of the negotiation itself. Who will do the negotiating? Where will it take place? What
time constraints, if any, will apply? To what issues will negotiation be limited? Will you follow a specific
procedure if an impasse is reached? During this phase, theparties will also exchange their initial proposals or
demands.

3.Clarification and Justification

• When you have exchanged initial positions, both you and the other party will explain, amplify, clarify, bolster,
and justify your original demands. This step needn’t be confrontational. Rather, it’s an opportunity for educating
and informing each other on the issues, why they are important, and how you arrived at your initial demands.
Provide the other party with any documentation that helps support your position.
4. Bargaining and Problem Solving

• The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give-and-take in trying to hash out an agreement. This is
where both parties will undoubtedly need to make concessions.

5. Closure and Implementation

• The final step in the negotiation process is formalizing the agreement you have worked out and developing any
procedures necessary for implementing and monitoring it. For major negotiations—from labor–management
negotiations to bargaining over lease terms to buying a piece of real estate to negotiating a job offer for a senior
management position—this requires hammering out the specifics in a formal contract. For most cases, however,
closure of the negotiation process is nothing more formal than a handshake.
Types of Negotiation

1. Distributive Bargaining (win - lose)

• Hard - bargaining negotiatrion or positional negotiation

• gain which one party makes at the expense of the other party

• it operates under zero-sum conditions

• there is a giving out; or scattering of things. it often referred to as “the fixed pie”

• it usually involves people who have never had a previous interactive relationshipd, nor are they likely to
do so again in the near future
2. Integrative Bargaining (win - win)

• Interest based bargaining

• strategy focuses on developing mutually benefical agreements based on the interest of the
disputants

• it also known as principled negotiation, cooperative bargaining or win-win negotiation is a type or

style of negotiation in which the parties cooperate to achieve a satisfactory result for both.

• the parties adopt an attitude aimed at solving the problem and seek a favourable outcome for both.

• the goal of this negotiataion is to create as much value as possible for oneself and for the other
party.

• it usually occurs in negotiations where there are several things to negotiate.

Johari Window

• a simple and useful tool for self-awareness, personal development, group development and
understanding relationships

• developed by american psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in the 1950’s, calling it Johari
after combining their first names, Joe and Harry

• The four quadrants constitute the Johari Window are :

1. Open self: The motives, feelings and behaviours about which an individual is aware and is ready to
share with others are represented by open self. (what is known by the perswon about him/ herself and
is also known by others)
2. Blind self: It is the state in which motives, feelings and behaviour information is known to others but the
individuals is not aware of them. (what is unknown by the person about him/herself but which others
know)

3. Hidden self: This quadrant includes those motives, feelings and behaviours which are hidden from others but
individual himself/ herself is arware of them. (what the person knows about him/herself that others do
not know)

4. Unknown self: This state where neither others nor the individuals are aware of the information is represented
by this quadrtant. (what is unknown by the person about him/herself and is also unknown by others )
Benefits of Johari Window

• It can be used as a self assessment tool to increase individuals understanding of themselves. it may be an
exploration of the skills they possess- or their personal and professional characteristics

• it encourages reflection - enabling individuals and teams to consider strengths and weaknesses not only from
their own point of view but from their managers, colleagues and customers perspectives

• as well as being used by individuals, the johai window can be applied by a group to identify team skills and
characteristics.

Drawbacks
• As compared to other techniques such as SWOT etrc, the scope of this is quite limited for ascertaning future
course of action

• Though disclosure is appreciated in groups as it enhances trust, it may prove hurtful if it does wrong or is
inappropriate

• A positive attitude must be maintained among group members and individuals sensitivity must be kept in mind.
 Empowerment and Participation
1. The nature of empowerment and participation

• Any process that provides greater autonomy to employees through sharing of relevant information and the
provision of control over factors affecting job performance.

• it helps remove the conditions that cause powerlessness while enhancing employee feeling self efficacy

• authorizes employees to cope with situations and enables them to take control of problems as they arise

• When people are allowed to work with minimal interference from their superiors and are given the authority and
responsibility to make decisions, they are said to be empowered.

• Employees can be empowered by ensuring their participation in decision-making. Participation is defined as the
mental and emotional involvement of people in the activities of the group, which encourages them take
responsibility for and contribute to the achievement of group goals.
Participation

• It is the mental and emotional involvement of people in group situations that encourages them to contribute to
group goals and share responsibility for them.

• Three important ideas of participation

1. Involvement: The employee while participating in problem solving or decision making or achievement of a
particular goal should feel involved at both mental and emotional levels. Thus participation does not merely mean
task involvement, but ego involvement of the employee is also necessary. Participation without ego involvement
of the employee is termed as ‘Pseudoparticipation’. The managers should thus be careful to ensure that the
whole self of the employee is involved and just not his/her skills in performing the task.

2. Contribution: Participation encourages people to contribute their skills and resources to the successful
completion of tasks. It provides the employee with empowerment to be creative and innovative while achieving
the goals assigned to them. Participation does not mean consenting to a particular decision or problem solving
strategy. In consenting, the manager has already come up with a decision or a strategy and merely seeks approval
of the employees. But in participation the employees are involved and contribute to the whole process of decision
making or problem solving right from the start.
3. Responsibility: Participation provides an opportunity to the employees to take responsibilities.
This not only enhances self involvement but also increases self efficacy of the employees. Feeling of
responsibility in turn will encourage the employees to be further involved and contribute to the
achievement of the organisational goal.

• Participation proves advantageous for the organization in many ways. It improves the quality and
quantity of output.

• It also improves the motivation levels of employees, decreases the rate of attrition and
absenteeism, and improves communication within the organization. Other lesser tangible benefits
are decreases in the number of conflicts, lower stress levels, greater commitment to goals, and
lower resistance to change

• The participants should be able to exchange their ideas effectively with each other and they should
not perceive the process as a threat to their position or status. The degree of participation also
depends on the area of job freedom for that particular department.
How participation works

In many situations, participative propgrams result in mental and emotional involvement that produces
generally favorable outcomes for both the employees and the organization
 Depending on the situation, whether, it demands problem solving, decision making or achievement of a
particular task the participation programme can be launched.

 Once this programme is launched, it is important to ensure that the employees feel involved,both mentally and
emotionally, have adequate scope and freedom to contribute and feel responsible towards the outcome of the
activity.

 This inDepending
turn will ensure higher
on the output,whether,
situation, better quality and creative
it demands suggestions,
problem solving,acceptance of changeorand a
decision making
conflictand stress freeof
achievement environment.
a particular task the participation programme can be launched. Once
this programme is launched, it is important to ensure that the employees feel involved,
both mentally and emotionally, have adequate scope and freedom to contribute and
Programms for participation
feel responsible towards the outcome of the activity. This in turn will ensure higher
output, better quality and creative suggestions, acceptance of change and a conflict
 The most common participation programs are consultative management, suggestion programs, quality circles
and stress free environment.
and TQM, self-managing teams etc. One or more of such programs can be used within the same organization.

Participative and Consultative Management

 The organisation and especially the managers involved in promoting participation should adopt both
participative and consultative management.
 Participative management means that sufficient strategies, programmes and practices are employed in order to
empower the employees and encourage participation amongst them.

 Consultative management means that the superiors or managers provide adequate information, support and
motivation to their subordinates to come up with suitable suggestions. Thus before participation is employed it is
important that the organisation creates conducive environment for successful implementation.

Suggestion Programmes

 These are formal plans strategised by the organisation to promote expression of suggestions and view points
amongst the employees. Certain awards and prizes are also given to best suggestions.

 This does not merely mean making available a suggestion box at cafeteria or work place. But the organisation
should have a concrete plan to ensure that large number of employees do contribute their suggestions to relevant
issues regarding the organisation.

Quality Circles

 Quality circles are a group of people who discuss and develop solutions issues that relate to quality, productivity or
costs. These circles meet regularly in order to generate suggestions with regard to varied issues. They provide
employees with opportunities to personal development and feeling of achievement.
Total Quality Management (TQM)

 Various organisations adopt TQM in their organisations in order to involve their employees in continuous
improvement of their operations. Utmost importance is given to quality of product and services under TQM.

 As TQM is a formal programme that requires direct participation of each employee, it might be necessary to
provide the employees with training with regard to the concept and implementation of TQM.

Self Managing Teams

 Self Managing Teams or self directed teams can also be used to promote participation in organisations. In these
teams there is no external supervision carried out.

 The team members can carry out their activities implement decisions and evaluate results on their own. This
ensures participation of team members and as there is no supervision the members develop a sense of
responsibility towards the functioning of the team and achievement of the team objective and are empowered in
the process.
Survey Feedbacks

 In survey feedback data about an organisation or one of its departments is collected with the help of a
questionnaire and feed back is provided. This data is then used to identify problems in an organisation and
develop suitable intervention strategies to deal with the problem.

 Survey feedback enhances participation from employees at various hierarchical levels. The participation is
encouraged amongst employees right from planning stage of survey feedback to the intervention development
stage.

Search Conferences

 These are conferences are organised for a duration of two to three days and is attended by twenty five to thirty
employees. Employees for participation in such conferences are selected based on their potentialities,
knowledge and expertise.

 The conference constitutes of plenary sessions as well as group discussions. Search conferences can boost
participation amongst the employees as they are encouraged to take part in such conferences and provide
suggestions and possible solution to the impending problems in the organisation

.
Important considerations in participation
i) Adequate time should be available before participation is encouraged

As the employees will require sufficient time in order to come up with a suitable suggestion or strategy.
Thus participation cannot be used in emergency situations.

ii) Consider benefits of participation before hand

It is also important to consider before hand that the benefits of participation outweigh the costs involved.
Only then participation can be termed as effective.

iii) Ensure employee view participation

Care should be taken to ensure that the employee view the process of participation positively at the same
time find it interesting and significant.

iv) To tap the Trade union attitude towards participation

Even the attitude of trade unions in a particular organisation need to be focused and worked upon before
encouraging participation.
v) Ensure open communication amongst employees

It is extremely important to promote open communication amongst the employees and between superiors
and employees in order to promote participation. As without such a condition the employees will hesitate
or fail to communicate their suggestions and view points. The employees should not feel threatened to
express a particular view or suggestion.

vi) Orient employees about goal of participation

The employees should be oriented with regard to the goal and area of participation. So that they do not
violate the area of job freedom of any other department or employee.
Assertive Behvaiour

 Assertive behavior is “Behavior which enables a person to act in his own best interests, to stand up for
himself without undue anxiety, to express his honest feeling comfortably, or to exercise his own rights
without denying the rights of others.”

 Assertiveness is the expression of one’s feelings, beliefs, opinions, and needs in a direct, honest and
appropriate manner. Such assertive behavior will reflect a high regard for one’s own personal rights as well as
the rights of others

 Assertive people are direct, honest, and expressive. They feel confident, gain self-respect, and make others
feel valued. By contrast, aggressive people may humiliate others, and unassertive people elicit either pity or
scorn from others. Both alternatives to assertiveness typically areless effective for achieving a desired goal
during a conflict.
INTERPERSONAL ORIENTATION

 Each person tends to exhibit one of four interpersonal orientations a dominant way of relating to people. That
philosophy tends to remain with the person for a lifetime unless major experiences occur to change it.

 Although one orientation tends to dominate a person's transactions, other orientations may be exhibited from
time to time in specific transactions.That is, one orientation dominates, but it is not the only position ever taken.

 Interpersonal orientations stem from a combination of two viewpoints. First, how do peopleview themselves?
Second, how do they view other people in general? The combination of either a positive response (OK) or a
negative response (not OK) to each question results in four possible interpersonal orientations:

• I'm not OK— You're OK.

• I'm not OK— You're not OK.

• I'm OK— You're not OK.

• I'm OK— You're OK.

Facilitating smooth relations

 Good interpersonal relationships among co-workers and across organizational levels take time,efforts,
knowledge and skill.

 One key skill involves interpersonal facilitation-the capacity to focus on other’s personal needs, sensitivities
and idiosyncrasies and then work to keep conflict under control and collaboration high among team members.

 Managers with well-developed interpersonal facilitation skills often engage in one or more ofthe following
behaviors:

 Building on their emotional intelligence

 Learning about co-workers' personal lives

 Making mental notes about employee likes and dislikes, values, interests, and preferences

 Monitoring other people's degree of job involvement, mood level, commitment, and satisfaction.

 Developing and applying their facilitative skills in a variety of social settings

Stroking
 Stroking is defined as any act of recognition for another. It applies to all types of recognition, such as physical,
verbal, andnonverbal contact between people.

 In most jobs the primary method of stroking is verbal, suchas "Pedro, you had an excellent sales record last
month." Examples of physical strokes are a pat on the back and a firm handshake.

 Strokes may be positive, negative, or mixed. Positive strokes feel good when they are received,and they
contribute to the recipient's sense of being OK.

 Negative strokes hurt physically or emotionally and make the recipient feel less OK about herself or himself.

 An example of a mixed stroke is this supervisor's comment: "Oscar, that's a good advertising layout, considering
the small amount of experience you have in this field."
 There also is a difference between conditional and unconditional strokes. Conditional strokes are offered to
employees if they perform correctly or avoid problems. A sales manager may promise an employee that "I will
give you a raise if you sell three more insurance policies."

 Unconditional strokes are presented without any connection to behavior. Although they may make a person feel
good ("You're a fine employee") they may be confusing to employees because they do not indicate how more
strokes may be earned. Supervisors will get better results if they give more strokes in a behavior modification
framework, where the reward is contingent upon the desired activity.
THANKS