Energy 285 (2023) 129500

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

An intelligent optimal charging stations placement on the grid system for

the electric vehicle application
S.P.R. Swamy Polisetty a, b, *, R. Jayanthi a, M. Sai Veerraju b
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, 608002, India
b
Department of EEE, SRKR Engineering College, Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, 534204, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: X Ou In smart cities, electrified vehicle plays a vital role. Due to the number of electric vehicles increasing rate, the
optimised deployment of the charging station without maximum loss and voltage imbalance is required. Many
Keywords: existing strategies studied for the optimal charging station deployment result in higher power utilisation, power
Electric vehicle charging station loss, harmonic distortion and voltage imbalance. Therefore a novel Dove-based Recursive Deep Network
Optimal placement
(DbRDN) was planned to implement. The DG grid system is initially created by integrating hybrid wind, solar and
Power loss
hydropower sources. Subsequently, the DbRDN is designed for the optimal location for the placement of the EV
Harmonic distortion
Balanced and unbalanced distribution system charging station by analysing load and line data. Moreover, the efficiency of the developed system is evaluated at
both the balanced and unbalanced conditions and the outcomes are computed in terms of power loss, harmonic
distortion, voltage imbalance, error and accuracy. The results are compared with prevailing techniques to
validate the improvement score.

1. Introduction attention [10]. In the past, scientists have set many goals in this field,
including minimizing power loss, reducing load variation, maximising
Electric Vehicles (EVs) were establishing traction as a response to payload capacity, reducing loading variation, and eliminating Renew­
increased environmental concerns, decreasing excess oil sources, and able generation costs [11]. Each of these criteria leads to the valleys of
rising operational fuel costs [1]. EVs would produce electric power the system load curve being filled [12]. A detailed analysis assessing the
because they are powered by electric engines [2]. If not controlled effects of various Electric charging procedures aiming to straightfor­
appropriately, the excess supply from EVs would strain the system [3]. wardly transfer EV demands to valley times on the transmission network
Uncontrolled loading of electric vehicles has increased power dissipa­ load profile needs to be conducted [13]. Consequently, the foremost
tion, peak usage, volt restriction breaches, and connection congestion objective of the present research is to evaluate the effect of various
[4]. Coordination of EV recharging schedules can alleviate the detri­ Recharging procedures on the distributed system’s sudden load pattern
mental effects of unregulated Charging stations [5]. Integrated sched­ [14]. Presently, across the large majority world, energy manufacturers
uling was based on the premise that EVs were inactive for part of the and power suppliers face the challenges of increased demand for elec­
specific duration; hence their burden is adjustable and may be moved in tricity flows, the decreased price of grid supply, and more excellent
the period [6]. reliability [15]. However, there was an increase in alternate energy
Furthermore, EV mobility was utilised in the coordinated program­ sources, which has led to a rise in the global production power in­
ming, and they’re loaded in as it maximises the utilisation of the stallations capacity [16].
geographic environment [7]. The infrastructure of the EV charging Continuously increasing demand for electric energy has resulted in
system is shown in Fig. 1. The purpose of the coordinated schedule of increased interconnection among utility companies to make the trans­
EVs is to find the optimum discharging/Charging of EVs to achieve a mission of electricity generation [17]. However, due to robust regula­
particular goal [8]. The purpose of synchronised EV planning could be tory and financial measures, the development of new protocols and
formulated from the perspectives of several users [9]. In recent, the extension of existing ones thus becomes increasingly challenging [18].
needs of the controller in an EV network have received considerable Therefore, units are designed to run near their boundaries [19]. Several

* Corresponding author. Department of Electrical Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, 608002, India.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.P.R.S. Polisetty), [email protected] (R. Jayanthi), [email protected] (M. Sai Veerraju).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.129500
Received 27 June 2023; Received in revised form 5 September 2023; Accepted 27 October 2023
Available online 28 October 2023
0360-5442/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

optimal area selection models, like artificial neural mechanism [21], models is shown in Table 1. The discussed related works experienced
optimisation framework [22], etc., have been executed to minimise fuel some disadvantages, such as higher power consumption, increased
usage and make the electric charging system aware. However, the power processing time and system complexity because of the hybrid algo­
utilisation is extensive in the unbalanced power flow condition, which rithms. The presented model reduced the system complexity through the
degraded the EV charging optimal placement performance. The pro­ integration of the neural network and optimisation and also reduced the
posed study introduced the intelligent optimal placement strategy for EV processing time. In addition, the system achieved greater accuracy in
applications to address this demerit. predicting the optimal location and significantly reduced the power loss
harmonic distortion and enhanced the voltage stability to the desired
level.
1.1. Objective and contributions of the study The remaining section of the research work is arranged as follows:

In the increased environmental pollution situation due to the higher

use of automobiles and the limited fossil fuel, the use of electric vehicles Table 1
is the better solution for transportation. The charging station is the main State-of-the-art system comparison.
requirement of the electric vehicle operation. However, sometimes the
Author Algorithm Advantages Disadvantages
charging station faces increased power loss due to voltage imbalance
and harmonic distortion, which has preceded the higher power cost. Xiong et al. Nested k-level Finest optimal power Not workable for a
[25] quantum response allocation realistic
Recent studies such as the two-phase fuzzy approach, hybrid optimisa­ model environment
tion models, frog leach learning method, and algorithms such as genetic, Pal et al. Differential High exactness score Increased time
firefly, and ant bee [5] etc. were created for the optimal placing of the [23] evolution and for finding the requirement
charge station. But they do not constrain the power loss issues. To Harris Hawk optimal location
optimisation
diminish these issues, the present study has been created. The main
Deb et al. Combined teaching Higher accuracy High complexity
objective of this research is to minimise the power loss and harmonic [24] learning and score
distortion of the electric vehicle application by placing the charging chicken swarm
station in an optimal region. The main contribution of this study is ar­ optimisation
ranged below: Fokui et al. Hybrid bacterial Attained the desired Long computation
[22] foraging and power loss and time
particle swarm harmonic distortion
• Primarily, the grid-integrated Hybrid Solar and Small Hydro and algorithm
Battery energy storage systems (BESS) are developed. Then the Bilal et al. Hybrid grey wolf Improved detection High power
designed DG system is tested with 19 and 25 bus systems. [21] and particle swarm accuracy utilisation rate
Jitendra Transient search obtained the low convergence
• Consequently, to find the optimal placement, a novel DbRDN is
et al. framework optimum power and misplacement
designed with the required forecasting features. [38] factor of the EVCS
• Moreover, the designed model’s robustness is evaluated in both Ajit et al. optimised fuzzy Improved the voltage Increased design
balanced and unbalanced conditions. [37] method stability and profile. complexity
• Finally, the results of the developed method are computed and It also achieved
higher accuracy.
related to other traditional methods in the name of power loss, error, Nandhini a modified improved the voltage Not suitable for the
THD and accuracy. et al. teaching-learning profile grid-linked EVCS
[36] model
The comparison of the state-of-the-art optimal placement obtaining

Fig. 1. EV charging grid system.

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

Section 2 discusses the related results with merits and limitations. Sec­ power loss and improve voltage stability and profile. It also achieved
tion 3 describes the existing methodology. Section 4 gives an elaborate higher accuracy in finding the optimal placements. However, the fuzzy
explanation of the proposed method. Section 5 provides the details logic is difficult to design.
about experimental studies and comparisons. Section 6 concluded with Jitendra et al. [38] modelled the transient search framework for the
the conclusion and future work, respectively. EVCS placing with the diminished active and reactive power loss. It is
tested in the environment of unbalanced and multi-DGs and evaluated
2. Related work using IEEE 25 bus structure. It also obtained the optimum power factor
by the accurate allocation of EVCS. However, the algorithm suffers from
A few recent works related to the EVCS placement are discussed as low convergence and misplacement of the EVCS. In the existing litera­
follows: tures, the use of only optimisation reduced the convergence rate and also
Predicting the optimal power flow region is crucial for optimal EV decreased the optimal location prediction accuracy. Also, a hybrid of
placement in a power grid system. So, Bilal et al. [21] have introduced optimizations increased the design complexity. In the proposed, the
the artificial neural model for forecasting the optimal region in the DG optimisation is activated in the neural network for better learning of the
system. Here, the detection accuracy was immensely improved than the bus data and accurate location prediction. The system also reduced the
traditional mathematical calculations. However, the neural system time complexity suitable for the realistic environment.
needed more duration to train the grid parameters, which resulted in a
high power utilisation rate. 3. System model and problem statement
Besides, Fokui et al. [22] have introduced the randomly selected
method for finding the optimal power location in the grid system. Here, The interest in EV applications is widely spread worldwide. The in­
the optimal area of EV placement is determined by evaluating the crease in EVs created a need for an efficient and well-planned charging
random grid-chosen sites. The constraints considered for selecting the system. However, some significant issues have denied the usage appli­
optimal placement are distortion and loss. While estimated, if the power cation by their impacts [20].
loss and harmonic distortion are in the desired range, that cell is iden­ Some issues are high harmonic distortion, voltage imbalance, and
tified as the optimal placement. However, it scored high duration. power loss. Power costs become more elevated if these issues are
Pal et al. [23] have established the optimal EV Charging grid system consumed than the EV system demands. Considering these, several
at any disturbance level. Hence, this optimal EV system is tested with optimal algorithms were introduced in mathematical and digital ways
different uncertainty levels. After testing the power grid system with for selecting the optimal EV placement application. Hence, establishing
varying levels of uncertainty, the optimal region was found, and the EVs the optimal EV placement in balanced and unbalanced conditions might
were placed successfully. This system reported a high exactness score for reduce those issues. These issues and the requirement have motivated
finding the optimal location. But, the time requirement is still high this present study to implement this intelligent optimal EV placement.
compared to other traditional models. Hence, it leads to gain high power The structure of the system model with the problem is mentioned in
costs. Fig. 2.
The optimal algorithm is more effective for forecasting the optimal
region mathematically. Considering these advancements, Deb et al. [24] 3.1. Modeling of wind DGs
have established the optimal chicken algorithm to gain the optimal part
in the grid system to lower the EV system slightly. The optimal location The wind speed behavior is detected by the Weibull probability
is more exact, earning the total accuracy score. However, implementing distribution model. The Weibull equation for predicting wind speed is
the optimal method is relatively complicated compared to traditional expressed in Eqn. (1).
techniques. ( ) ( t )xt
Xiong et al. [25] have compared the EV placement to measure the Wd =
xt st s
.exp − t (1)
operational performance of each technique. In that analysis, the neural
t
y y t y
approaches yielded the finest detection outcome, and the optimal
mechanism earned the finest optimal power allocation processed. By the Here Wd is the Weibull distribution function, st is the speed of the wind
end of the comparative study, the neural model and the optimal algo­ at time t, xt and yt are the shape and scale parameters. The scale and
rithm are recommended for the finest optimal power location. But those shape parameters can be calculated by Eqns. (2) and (3).
models are not workable for a realistic environment. ( t)
α
Nandhini et al. [36] provided a new modified teaching-learning xt = tw (2)
βw
procedure for the optimal placement and sizing of the EVCS at the DC
microgrid. The model is designed concerning voltage stability, power αtw
loss and reliability as an objective function. Here the objective functions yt = (3)
Γ(1 + (1/xt ))
are solved in the 123 and 33 bus architecture. The power loss on both the
medium and large scale has been reduced. The optimal size and place­ In the presented study, the scale and the shape parameters of the
ment of the EVCS improved the voltage profile of the system. However, Weibull distribution are considered as 6 m/s and 1.4 m/s, respectively.
the system needs further study for processing the EVCS when it is linked Accordingly, the daily wind speed of the DGs is computed by the Weibull
to the hybrid utility grid. distribution. The wind speed computing process can be controlled by the
Ajit et al. [37] proposed an optimised fuzzy method for the place­ fast-forward selection procedure. The daily random speed of the wind is
ment of the EVCS. The model is tested in the 69-bus systems using the generated on an hour’s basis. The formulation for the wind power
RAO-3 procedure. The system also obtained the solution for the optimal calculation using the generated wind speed is given in Eqn. (4).
placement of the DGs and DSTATCOMs. The model aimed to reduce

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

⎧ ( t )
⎪
⎪ s − sci
⎪ w s − s ⥄ for⥄⥄sci ≤ st ≤ sr
⎪
⎨
P . ⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄
r ci
t
Pw (s ) = for⥄⥄⥄sr ≤ st ≤ sco ⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄ (4)
⎪
⎪ Pw
⎪
⎪ for⥄⥄⥄st ≤ sci , st ≥ sco ⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄
⎩
0

here sci denotes, the cut-in speed sco indicates the cut-out speed and sr calculated as kW/m2. Similar to the wind power model, the irradiance
represents the cut-out speed. The wind power is calculated as, and the value generation is controlled by the fast-forward steps. Also, the solar
wind speed is calculated as m/s [33]. DG power calculated using the generated irradiance values is explained
in Eqn. (8).
3.2. Modeling of solar DGs Ps (it ) = κ.HPV .it (1 − 0.005(RPV − 25)) (8)
Thus solar power pattern per unit for the solar irradiance scenario is
The sun irradiance behavior is evaluated by the Beta probability
examined [33].
distribution function. The beta distribution function for the solar irra­
diance calculation over the time t is shown in Eqn. (5),
3.3. Modeling of EVCS
Γ(γt + ηt ) t γt − 1
(5)
ηt − 1
Bd = .(i ) .(1 − it )
Γ(γt ).Γ(ηt ) EVs are very good storage systems because they incorporate the
battery for storing the received energy, but the capacity of the storage
here the Beta distribution function is defined as Bd it representing the system is limited. When EVs are connected to the grid system, they
solar irradiance respective to time ηt and γt denotes the shape and scale should work in the demand of the EVCS. EVs are not always in contact
parameters of the Beta function. The shape and scale parameters of the with the grid, so the user does not concern about the power system’s
Beta function can be calculated using Eqns. (6) and (7). influences. The EVCSs do not operate constantly, which makes the plan
) t
( t
) uncertain. These uncertainties are described as follows; the time dura­
t ωs 1 + ωs
(
t
γ = 1 − ωs . − 1 (6) tion of each EV connected to the grid system, distance travelled and SOC
t σs
level of the EVs. This results from the influence of the EVs on the grid.
ωts .γt Therefore, it is essential to model the EVCS with the above uncertainties.
ηt = ( ) (7) In order to simulate the real model of EVCS with the mentioned un­
1 − ωts
certainties, there is a need for a reasonable and logical model along with
The shape (γ t ) and scale (ηt ) parameters of the Beta function are the probabilities. The probabilities taken into consideration are travel­
estimated using the mean (ωts ) and standard deviation (σts ). In this ling distance, travelling duration, charging time and battery capacity. In
detailed study, the shape and scale parameters of the Beta function are this environment, the total EVCS number is mentioned as
considered as 2.57 and 1.6. The random solar irradiance values are Vi {i = 1, 2, 3.....n} and the study time is considered as Ti {i = 1, 2, 3.....t}.
generated by the built extrinsic approach. The irradiance of the solar is The travelled distance (Di ) and capacity (Ci ) are the independent

Fig. 2. System model with the problem statement.

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

variables. Here the Truncated distribution is employed where φ is the ( )

normal distribution function, μ is the mean and σ is the standard devi­ SOCti = X2 SOCt−i 1 + Δt(dischrate ) × 100%, ⥄⥄⥄∀i ∈ Vi , ∀t ∈ Ti (17)
ation. The Truncated distribution function is given in Eqn. (9).
( ) here SOCiint indicates the initial EVs SOC and Δt represents the time step.
1
Φ l− μ chrate and dischrate are the EV batteries’ charge and discharge rates.
Finally, the energy absorption of the EVCS is calculated as given in Eqn.
δ σ
f (l; μ, σ) = ( ) ( ) (9)
Φ j−σμ − Φ k−σ μ (18).
⎧
⎪ ∑Vi
⎪
⎪ Edch = pre⥄Ti × Ci × SOCinti i
− SOCmin , ⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄∀Δtdch
here l is the random variable that is in the desired range of (j, k). The ⎪
⎨ i
independent variables and the other dependent variables, such as the E=
⎪ ∑Vi
⎪
arrival and departure time of the EVCS, have been calculated by the ⎪
⎪
⎩ Ech = i
pre⥄Ti × Ci × SOCmax i
− SOCint , ⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄∀Δtch
expressions given in Eqn. (10)–(14). i

(18)
i
Te.A i
= Tx.R i
+ TA.t , ⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄∀i ∈ Ti (10)
here Ech and Edch represents the charging and the discharging energy
i
Tx.A i
= Te.A i
+ Tpark , ⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄∀i ∈ Ti (11) SOCimin and SOCimax indicates the minimum and the maximum SOC level.
In this article, by modelling the EVCS, its relation and probability can
i
Te.R i
= Te.A i
+ TR.t , ⥄⥄⥄⥄⥄∀i ∈ Ti (12) make use of Monte Carlo simulation. Also, the mean values of all pa­
{ } rameters are obtained at the output [32].
pre⥄TRi = 1 : Tx.R
i i
∪ Tx.R i
+ TA.t i
+ ⥄⥄Tpark i
⥄ + TR.t : 24 (13)
4. Proposed methodology
{ }
pre⥄TAi = i
Tx.R i
+ TR.t : i
Tx.R i
+ TA.t i
+ Tpark (14)
In the transportation sector, electric vehicle plays an important role.
The energy drain in the vehicle makes a disturbance for travelling. So to
i i
here Te.A and Tx.A specifies the entrance and the exit time of Adam EVCS, overcome this charging station has been introduced to inject energy into
i i i
Te.R and Tx.R represents the entrance and exit time of the Res EVCS, TR.t the vehicle. However, it is fully utilised when the charging station is
i i
and TA.t denotes the EVs travelled time, Tpark is the parked time and placed correctly. So, to predict the optimal region of the EV placement in
pre⥄TAi , pre⥄TRi points to the parking area. Another uncertainty of the the DG grid system, a novel Dove-based Recursive deep Network
EVCS model is the SOC level. This parameter can be calculated by the (DbRDN) was planned to implement.
formulations given in Eqn. (15)–(17). Initially, the DG was created for the 19 and 25 bus systems to
( ) recognise the optimal placement of EV, and the dove best solution
i
SOCint = 1−
Di
× 100%, ⥄⥄⥄∀i ∈ Vi (15) process was activated to find the optimal location. The proposed ar­
Dm chitecture is exposed in Fig. 3. Finally, the robustness of the novel so­
( ) lution is validated along with past associated studies with different
SOCti = X1 SOCt−i 1 + Δt(chrate ) × 100%, ⥄⥄⥄∀i ∈ Vi , ∀t ∈ Ti (16) performance metrics.

Fig. 3. Proposed architecture.

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

4.1. Process of proposed DbRDN values of parameters are reduced by the optimal placement of the
created hybrid DG system using the dove function at the testing bus
The proposed DbRDN combines the function of a recursive neural architecture. Gradually increasing the optimal order of DGs minimizes
network and dove optimisation [31]. Here, the behaviour of the Dove is the power loss and harmonic distortion value. The recursive part of the
utilised to recognise the optimal location for the placement of the EV deep network processes the addition of DGs at the optimal place. It is
charging station. It traces the best sites for placing the EVCS in the DG checked for both balanced and unbalanced conditions. Thus the DbRDN
system to achieve a minimum power loss, voltage imbalance and low model makes the overall system more efficient with shallow power loss,
harmonic distortion. The region with more food crumbs is the best so­ voltage imbalance and harmonic distortion.
lution in dove optimisation. Similarly, the presented model in the DG
Algorithm 1. DbRDN
grid system chose the best location considering the load data and line
Start
data. Here the load data depends on the number of vehicles at the
{
respective bus points. The proposed DbRDN is operated under a The Objective function (.)
multi-objective framework, with multi-objective functions including {
diminishing power loss, voltage imbalance and harmonic distortion. The Minimize→fa , fb , fc
// fa -power loss, fb - voltage imbalance and fc - harmonic distortion
multi-objective part of the proposed system is described in Eqn. (19).
}
f (o) = min[fa , fb , fc ] (19) DG system designing ()
{
D→(h, w, s)
here f(o) is the objective function, which fa denotes the power loss, fb the
//DG grid integrated with solar, wind and hydro source
voltage imbalance and fc the harmonic distortion. The DG system was // The DG is created for bus architecture
designed for the 19 and 25 bus systems. The DG system is integrated }
with the hybrid hydro, wind and solar power system to test the pre­ Optimal placement finding ()
{
sented technique. Additionally, the BESS is placed for storing the
Read line and load data.
collected energy and electric vehicles are initialized. The DG system d = 1, 2, ......N
integration process is illustrated in Eqn. (20). //analyse the load data
f(wd )
D = [h, w, s] (20) //power loss, voltage imbalance and harmonic distortion are calculated by the doves’
fitness function
here h, w⥄⥄and⥄⥄s represent the hydro, wind and solar power sour­ Ol →argmax[f(Sd )]
ces. Here the DG grid system is created and activates the features of // The location with fitness function is selected as the optimal placement for EVCS
}
DbRDN. The presented approach analyses the line and load data of the
}
bus system to estimate the power loss, harmonic distortion and voltage End
imbalance at each point of the bus architecture using Dove’s fitness
function expressed in Eqn. (21).
The procedures executed in the designed model were detailed in
f (wd ), d = 1, 2, ......N (21)
Algorithm 1. The MATLAB code was conducted based on these step
here d represents the line and load data, N the total counts of line and processes, and the results were verified. The algorithm incorporated all
load data and w the no. of branches at the bus architecture. Then the mathematical function parameters in the pseudo-code format. The
optimal location prediction is processed by Dove’s best solution function hybrid DG system is created in the selected bus architecture. The pro­
by analyzing the initialized load data. Here the best position is identified posed DbRDN system is activated and sets the objective functions. The
by the satiety degree of the Dove at each point of the bus. The most system reads the bus data and selects the optimal location for the
satisfied Dove position is selected as the optimal region. In the presented placement of the EVCS based on the fitness process of the Dove. The best
approach, the Dove’s satiety degree is updated considering the value of location is predicted based on the degree of the voltage imbalance and
the power loss, THD, and voltage imbalance calculated by analyzing the THD. The flow diagram of the presented scheme is detailed in Fig. 4.
bus data. The data analysis function has been described in Eqn. (22).
( ) 5. Results and discussions
fa , fb , fc
A(wd ) = ηo × (22)
wd A novel proposed DbRDN and the hybrid DG grid system are
designed and tested on the MATLAB environment running on Windows
here A represents the analysing function and ηo denotes the analysing 10 OS. It is tested by the two test systems, namely the 25 and 19 bus
variable. From this equation, the parameter values were calculated. The systems. Also, the objective parameters, including power loss, voltage
proposed system selects the optimal location based on the estimated imbalance, harmonic distortion, voltage imbalance, accuracy, and error,
parameters with a low value (i.e. best fitness function). The satiety de­ are calculated. The simulation parameters used for testing the proposed
gree updating and location prediction function is described in Eqns. (23) architecture are recorded in Table 2.
and (24).

Sd = λwd + e[(fa ,fb ,fc )− p]

(23) 5.1. Case study

Ol = argmax[f (Sd )] (24) A case study was conducted to study the working efficiency of the
DbRDN and identify how accurately the optimal location was selected.
here Sd is the satiety degree updating function, λ is the power loss, THD, Here, tested the DbRDN for balanced and unbalanced conditions for the
and voltage imbalance testing variable, p which indicates the bus points, bus architecture 19 and 25. These bus systems are chosen because no
wd is the total possible site at the DG grid system, f is the fitness function majority of the work has been done using these two systems. Also, they
and Ol represents the optimal placement determining variable. Thus the effectively analyse the transient stability of the hybrid electric power
optimal location for the order of the EV charging station is found based systems. Also, it exhibits some advantages such as increased system
on the proposed DbRDN. Finally, the parameters such as power loss, flexibility, preventing open current circuits and reduced saturation. The
voltage imbalance and harmonic distortion are estimated after placing optimal location finding starts with the analysis of load and line data.
the EV charging station at the optimal location. Further, the estimated The load and line data analyzed by the proposed system are referred

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

Fig. 4. Flowchart DbRDN.

approach, possibilities of installing 1–3 DGs were considered. Here only

Table 2
3 DGs are installed due to the limited capability of the variable power
Simulation setups.
factors. However, by installing the 3DGs itself, the system attained the
Parameters Description desired optimal values for the real and reactive power loss, so more DG is
OS Windows 10 not considered for the present study. The result in reactive and actual
Platform MATLAB power loss in the two bus systems for both balanced and unbalanced
Version R2021a
conditions after the optimal placement of the charging station using the
Optimisation Dove
Number of population 50 DbRDN model is described below.
Number of iterations 100
Case 1. IEEE 19 bus in unbalanced load condition
Base kV 11 kV
Base MVA 1 MVA The efficiency of the DbRDN system, an unbalanced IEEE 19 bus
system, is checked under five conditions with three phases. The one-line
from Ref. [26]. Here the line and load data is obtained by considering diagram for the 19-bus architecture with one EVCS is shown in Fig. 5. In
the arrival and departure time of the EVs. The arrival time is the EVs the 19-bus architecture, the optimal EVCS placement is node 6. The
charging started time, and the departure time is the charging completion actual power loss obtained at the 19 bus with one EVCS in the absence of
time. The total capacity of the EVCS used is 150 kW. The maximum the DG system is 8.5981 kW, 8.5919 kW, and 8.4387 kW for phases A, B
capacity of the EVCS can come up to 360 kW. For testing the proposed and C. Similarly, the reactive power loss attained for the same case is
model, the average capacity value is taken. The value 150 kW is 1.7995kVAR, 1.7345kVAR and 1.7852kVAR for each phase.
considered from Ref. [35]. To verify the effectiveness of the designed The one-line diagram for the 19 bus architecture with single EVCS
and DG has illustrated in Fig. 6. The actual loss of power obtained at the

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

Fig. 5. One line structure of the 19-bus architecture with one EVCS.

Fig. 6. One line structure of the 19-bus architecture with single EVCS and DG.

19 bus with single DG and EVCS system is 5.5788 kW, 8.5919 kW, and two DG is shown in Fig. 7. The actual power loss obtained is 4.7673 kW,
8.4387 kW for the 3 phases. Similarly, the reactive power loss attained 4.6912 kW, and 4.7882 kW for phases A, B and C. The reactive power
for the same case is 4.2013 kVAR, 4.1762 kVAR and 4.1354 kVAR for loss attained for the same case is 2.2268 kVAR, 2.2391 kVAR and 2.2504
each step. The total capacity placed DG grid system at three steps is kVAR for each phase. The total capacity of the DG grid system placed in
46.3984 kW, 41.0465 kW and 38.9788 kW. In the given figure, the DG is node 18 at three steps is 46.3984 kW, 41.0465 kW and 38.9788 kW.
placed at bus node 19. Also, the power of the DG placed in node 5 is 48.0075 kW, 38.9077 kW,
The one-line diagram for the 19 bus architecture with 1 EVCS and and 49.153 kW for 3 phases.

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

Fig. 7. One line structure of the 19-bus architecture with 1 EVCS and 2 DG.

Fig. 8. One line structure of the 19-bus architecture with 1 EVCS and 3 DG.

The one-line diagram for the 19-bus architecture with 1 EVCS and 13 at three steps is 45.5317 kW, 41.2282 kW and 43.5397 kW. The
two DG is shown in Fig. 8. The actual power loss obtained is 3.7764 kW, power of the DG placed in node 8 is 40.1282 kW, 34.5215 kW, and
3.902 kW, and 3.7882 kW for phases A, B and C. The reactive power loss 46.1267 kW for three phases. Also, the ability of the DG placed in node 5
attained for the same case is 1.44 kVAR, 1.5057 kVAR and 1.4484 kVAR is 48.1282 kW, 32.1265 kW, and 34.5157 kW for three steps. Here the
for each phase. The total capacity of the DG grid system placed in node real and reactive power losses are minimized.

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

Table 3 reference values.

Power losses in 19 bus systems for different cases in an unbalanced condition. The one-line structure of the 25-bus system with the optimal place­
Cases EVCS EVCS DGs DG Real Reactive ment of the single DG and EVCS is shown in Fig. 10. Here, the optimal
location power location power power power placement is predicted as bus 6, and the DG is at bus 15. The actual
(kW) (kW) loss at loss at power loss gained is 41.9831 kW, 40.8461 kW and 43.2446 kW, and the
3phases, 3phases,
reactive power loss at 3 phases is 37.4467kVAR, 41.1792kVAR, and
kW kVAR
38.538kVAR.
Without – – – – 4.1478 1.7995 The one-line architecture of the 25 bus system by optimal placement
EVCS (A) (A)
4.2092 1.7345
of 1 EVCS and 2 DGs is shown in Fig. 11. Here, the optimal order of two
(B) (B) DGs is 5 and 13. The actual power loss values are 34.3739 kW, 35.5225
4.1403 1.7852 kW, and 40.1675 kW, and the reactive power loss values are
(C) (C) 36.5979kVAR, 37.5786kVAR and 39.2602kVAR. The capacity of the DG
With 1 6 150(A) 8.5981 4.2013
–
at bus 13 at three phases is 373.5444 kW, 361.6624 kW, 380.9103 kW,
EVCS 150(B) (A) (A)
150(C) 8.5919 4.1762 and the DG at bus 5 is 361.4313 kW, 368.6563 kW, 362.5672 kW.
(B) (B) The one-line structure of the IEEE 25 bus architecture with 1EVCS
8.4387 4.1354 and 3 DGs is shown in Fig. 12. Here, the optimal placements of the 3 DGs
(C) (C) are 14, 24 and 8. The EVCS optimal place is the same as before. The total
With 1 6 150(A) 19 46.3984 5.5788 2.4337
EVCS 150(B) (A) (A) (A)
capacity of the DG placed at bus 14 is 369.0307 kW, 360.4363 kW, and
and 150(C) 41.0465 5.532(B) 2.428(B) 350.2451 kW. The actual power loss attained for each phase is 30.7127
one (B) 5.5876 2.4959 kW, 31.6928 kW and 33.1277 kW, and the reactive power loss values are
DG 38.9788 (C) (C) 32.8496kVAR, 31.3863kVAR and 37.9553kVAR.
(C)
The overall achieved power losses in the three phases at five different
With one 6 150(A) 18 43.4346 4.7673 2.2268
EVCS 150(B) (A) (A) (A) cases are validated in Table 4. It shows that in each case, the reactive and
and 150(C) 36.9039 4.6912 2.2391 actual power loss values are reduced with the increase of the DG
two (B) (B) (B) numbers. Thus the bus system with the optimal placement of one EVCS
DGs 41.0845 4.7882 2.2504 and three DGs attained a low power loss value in three phases.
(C) (C) (C)
5 48.0075 Case 3. IEEE 19 bus in balanced load condition.
(A)
38.9077 The Proposed DbRDN system is tested in the balanced 19-bus
(B) approach, and their resultant power loss values are tabulated in
49.153
Table 5. The reactive and actual power loss in no EVCS is 3.4975 kW and
(C)
With one 6 150(A) 13 45.5317 3.7764 1.44(A) 3.4975kVAR. The power losses at the 19 bus system with one optimally
EVCS 150(B) (A) (A) 1.5057 placed EVCS are 6.2609 kW and 2.8403kVAR. In one EVCS and DG, the
and 150(C) 41.2282 3.902(B) (B) power loss is 4.7045 kW and 2.0428kVAR. The power losses of the bus
three (B) 3.7882 1.4484 system with two optimally placed DGs are 3.6744 kW and 1.5682kVAR.
DGs 43.5397 (C) (C)
Also, after the three optimally placed DGs, the EVCS’s real and reactive
(C)
8 40.1282 power loss is reduced to 3.098 kW and 0.93175kVAR.
(A)
34.5215
Case 4. IEEE 25 bus in balanced load condition.
(B)
The Proposed DbRDN system is tested in the balanced 19-bus
46.1267
(C)
approach, and their resultant power loss values are tabulated in
4 48.1282 Table 6. The reactive and power loss in no EVCS is 50.2519 kW and
(A) 47.7985kVAR. The power losses at the 19 bus system with one optimally
32.1265 placed EVCS are 61.1889 kW and 62.8685kVAR. In one EVCS and DG,
(B)
the power loss is 41.0015 kW and 36.1008kVAR. The power losses of the
34.5157
(C) bus system with two optimally placed DGs are 32.8238 kW and
33.1098kVAR. Also, after the three optimally placed DGs, the EVCSs’
real and reactive power loss is reduced to 29.7169 kW and
The overall attained real and reactive power loss values under the 29.2164kVAR.
five conditions are tabulated in Table 3. Here the actual loss values of the
bus system without the EVCS and the DG are 4.1478 kW, 4.2092 kW and Case 5. IEEE 33 bus balanced load condition.
4.1403 kW for each varying phases A, B and C., and the reactive power Additionally, the proposed model is tested in the IEEE 33 large dis­
loss obtained for each step is 1.7995kVAR, 1.7345kVAR and 1.7852 tribution system to check its efficacy. The system is tested in the
kVAR. These values are taken as reference values for the power loss. The balanced condition of the bus system. The real and the reactive power
increasing number of DG systems reduces the power loss at each con­ loss in the 33 bus system with the optimally placed EVCS and DGs are
dition with the optimal placement of CS. tabulated in Table .7. The reactive and power loss in no EVCS is 54.2519
Case 2. IEEE 25 bus in unbalanced load condition kW and 48.7285kVAR. The power losses at the 19 bus system with one
optimally placed EVCS are 62.1889 kW and 63.8665kVAR. In one EVCS
The one-line diagram of the 25-bus architecture is drawn in Fig. 9. and DG, the power loss is 43.0015 kW and 37.1108kVAR. The power
The real and reactive power of the 25-bus system at three phases is losses of the bus system with two optimally placed DGs are 35.8138 kW
53.5279 kW, 56.2381 kW, 42.6559 kW and 57.5629kVAR, and 32.1058kVAR. Also, after the three optimally placed DGs, the
52.6279kVAR and 55.0299kVAR. EVCSs’ real and reactive power loss is reduced to 27.7159 kW and
The EVCS optimal placement is at bus 6. The actual power loss at the 28.2264kVAR.
optimal placement of 1EVCS at three phases is 63.3103 kW, 67.7035
kW, and 62.8437 kW. The reactive power loss attained is 67.4654kVAR, Case 6. IEEE 33 bus unbalanced load condition.
71.6904kVAR, and 68.9016kVAR. The power loss is reduced from the Also, the system is checked in the 33 bus system with the unbalanced

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

Fig. 9. One-line architecture of the 25 bus architecture with 1 EVCS

Fig. 10. One line structure of the 25-bus architecture with 1 EVCS and DG.

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

Fig. 11. One line structure of the 25-bus architecture with 1 EVCS and 2 DG.

Fig. 12. One line structure of the 25 bus architecture with 1 EVCS and 3 DGs.

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

Table 4
Power losses in 25 bus systems in different cases in an unbalanced condition.
Cases EVCS Power of EVCS at 3 DGs Power of DG at 3 phases (kW) Real power loss at Reactive power loss at
location phases (kW) location 3phases, kW 3phases, kVAR

Without EVCS – – – – 53.5279(A) 57.5629(A)

56.2381(B) 52.6279(B)
42.6559(C) 55.0299(C)
With 1 EVCS 6 150(A) – – 63.3103(A) 67.4654(A)
150(B) 67.7035(B) 71.6904(B)
150(C) 62.8437(C) 68.9016(C)
With one EVCS and one 6 150(A) 15 364.4418(A) 377.1109(B) 41.9831(A) 37.4467(A)
DG 150(B) 379.6852(C) 40.8461(B) 41.1792(B)
150(C) 43.2446(C) 38.538(C)
With one EVCS and two 6 150(A) 5 361.4313(A) 34.3739(A) 36.5979(A)
DGs 150(B) 368.6563(B) 35.5225(B) 37.5786(B)
150(C) 362.5672 40.1675(C) 39.2602(C)
13 373.5444(A)
361.6624(B)
380.9103(C)
With one EVCS and 6 150(A) 8 355.7571(A) 30.7127(A) 32.8496(A)
three DGs 150(B) 364.6146(B) 31.6928(B) 31.3863(B)
150(C) 371.1282(C) 33.1277(C) 37.9553(C)
24 352.2166(A)
379.306(B)
363.0905(C)
14 369.0307(A)
360.4363(B)
350.2451(C)

reactive power losses are 37.4467kVAR, 42.2792kVAR, and

Table 5
38.538kVAR. The real power losses of the bus system with 1 EVCS and 2
Power losses in 19 bus systems in different cases in balanced condition.
DGs are 34.3739 kW, 35.5225 kW and 41.2675 kW, and the reactive
Cases EVCS EVCS DGs power of Real Reactive power losses are 36.5979kVAR, 37.5786kVAR, and 39.2012kVAR.
location Size size DG (kW) power power loss,
Similarly, the real power losses of the bus system with 1 EVCS and 3 DGs
(kW) loss, kW kVAR
are 31.7227 kW, 32.0928 kW and 33.2277 kW, and the reactive power
Without 3.4975 3.4975
– – – –
losses are 32.8496kVAR, 32.3803kVAR, and 37.9553kVAR.
EVCS
With one 6 150 – – 6.2609 2.8403
EVCS
With one 6 150 19 48.2365 4.7045 2.0428
5.2. Comparative analysis
EVCS
and one In this part, to study the efficiency of the suggested model, the
DG metrics such as voltage stability, THD and loss of the system are used as
With one 6 150 18 51.298 3.6744 1.5682
measurement terms to evaluate and compare with existing methods such
EVCS 5 49.2598
and two as Particle Swarm based Optimal Placement (PSbOP) [27], Improved
DGs Lightning Search Method (ILSM) [28], Optimised Re-Phasing Technique
With one 6 150 13 50.0879 3.098 0.93175 (ORPT) [29], Quantum based Dragonfly Optimisation (QbDO) [30],
EVCS 8 42.2708 Hybrid Chicken Teaching learning based Model (HCTbM) [24], Particle
and 4 48.6002
three
Swarm (PS) [24], and Differential Evolution (DE) [24]. The comparison
DGs is described as follows.

5.2.1. Total harmonic distortion (THD)

load condition. It considered three phases for the unbalanced load THD is the standard current and voltage variation due to the fre­
condition A, B and C. The real and reactive power loss gained for the quency variation within the DG grid system. It is the measure of
unbalanced bus system is tabulated in Table .8. The actual power loss at distortion presented in the waveforms. It is caused by the conversion of
the three phases with 1 EVCS is 63.3213 kW, 67.7135 kW and 62.8437 AC to DC by nonlinear loads. This harmonic distortion maximises the
kW and the reactive power losses are 67.4054kVAR, 72.6914kVAR, and current flow at the DG system, which increases the temperatures of
68.9126kVAR. The real power losses at the three phases with 1 EVCS conductors and transformers. The THD can be calculated by the
and 1 DG are 42.9832 kW, 41.8402 kW and 43.2446 kW, and the expression given in Eqn. (25).

Table 6
Power losses of IEEE 25 bus system for different cases in balanced condition.
Cases (25) EVCS location Power of EVCS (kW) DGs locations Power of DG (kW) Real power loss, kW Reactive power loss, kVAR

Without EVCS – – – – 50.2519 47.7985

With one EVCS 6 150 – – 61.1889 62.8685
With one EVCS and one DG 6 150 19 364.571 41.0015 36.1008
With one EVCS and two DGs 6 150 18 367.0146 32.8238 33.1098
5 367.7593
With one EVCS and three DGs 6 150 13 369.0553 29.7169 29.2164
8 370.8648
4 376.894

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

Table 7
Power losses of IEEE 33 bus system for different cases in balanced condition.
Cases (25) EVCS location Power of EVCS (kW) DGs locations Power of DG (kW) Real power loss, kW Reactive power loss, kVAR

Without EVCS – – – – 54.2519 48.7285

With one EVCS 6 150 – – 62.1889 63.8665
With one EVCS and one DG 6 150 19 365.575 43.0015 37.1108
With one EVCS and two DGs 6 150 18 369.0146 35.8138 32.1058
5 367.7593
With one EVCS and three DGs 6 150 13 368.0553 27.7159 28.2264
8 372.8698
4 375.894

Table 8
Power losses of IEEE 33 bus system for different cases in an unbalanced condition.
Cases EVCS Power of EVCS at 3 DGs Power of DG at 3 phases (kW) Real power loss at Reactive power loss at
location phases (kW) location 3phases, kW 3phases, kVAR

Without EVCS – – – – 53.5279(A) 57.5629(A)

56.2382(B) 52.6279(B)
42.6559(C) 55.1299(C)
With 1 EVCS 6 150(A) – – 63.3213(A) 67.4054(A)
150(B) 67.7135(B) 72.6914(B)
150(C) 62.8437(C) 68.9126(C)
With one EVCS and one 6 150(A) 15 364.4428(A) 377.2219(B) 42.9832(A) 37.4467(A)
DG 150(B) 379.6852(C) 41.8402(B) 42.2792(B)
150(C) 43.2446(C) 38.538(C)
With one EVCS and two 6 150(A) 5 362.4323(A) 34.3739(A) 36.5979(A)
DGs 150(B) 308.6563(B) 35.5225(B) 37.5786(B)
150(C) 362.5672 41.2675(C) 39.2012(C)
13 373.5444(A)
362.6024(B)
381.9213(C)
With one EVCS and 6 150(A) 8 355.7572(A) 31.7227(A) 32.8496(A)
three DGs 150(B) 364.6240(B) 32.0928(B) 32.3803(B)
150(C) 372.2282(C) 33.2277(C) 37.9553(C)
24 352.2206(A)
379.3160(B)
363.1915(C)
14 369.1317(A)
361.4303(B)
351.2452(C)

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√∑
√ n
√ (vh + ih )
√
THD = h=2 × 100 (25)
v1 + i1

here h denotes the harmonic order, v and i represent the voltage and
current.
The existing optimal placement replica ILSM gained the harmonic
distortion rate at 4.89 %, and the method PSbOP achieved distortion at
2.4 %. The proposed system at 19-bus system earned a low harmonic
distortion rate of 2.21 %, and 25-bus systems attained 2.2 % of harmonic
distortion. Compared to the existing approaches, the proposed method
achieves a low THD rate at both tested bus systems. The harmonic
distortion comparison is detailed in Fig. 13 and Table 9. The lower value
of THD results in higher power factors, lower peak current and higher
efficiency. The overheating of the vehicle station makes the application
less efficient. But the decrease of the peak current in the proposed sys­
tem will make the charging system less heat and avoid temporary or
permanent faults of the charging stations, which make the electric
vehicle application more robust.
Fig. 13. Comparison of THD
5.2.2. Voltage imbalance
The voltage variation in the power system is defined as voltage Table 9
imbalance. It occurs when the magnitude of the voltage and phase angle THD comparison statistics.
differences between them are not the same. It measures the voltage Methods Total Harmonic Distortion (%)
differences between the 3 phases in unstable conditions. It can be
PSbOP 2.4
calculated by the formula given in Eqn. (26).
ILSM 4.89
Proposed (19 bus) 2.21
Proposed (25 bus) 2.2

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

DbRDN attained a meagre rate of voltage imbalance when compared to

the existing methods. The comparison of the voltage imbalance rate for
the current approach is illustrated in Fig. 14 and Table 10. The decrease
of the voltage imbalance reduced the unwanted power loss and
enhanced the system efficacy at a low cost. Life expectancy is also
influenced by the voltage imbalance. However, these issues are reduced
in the presented system.

5.2.3. Simulation time

It is the time required for the presented algorithm to identify the
optimal location.
The existing model HCTbM completed the optimal location-finding
process within 31.5 s. The algorithm PS and DE achieved 18.63 s and
9.8 s simulation time; simultaneously, the proposed techniques
completed the process in 9.4 s. The execution time of the proposed
system for the optimal location finding is lower than the other studied
techniques; the simulation time comparison is described in Fig. 15 and
Table 11. The convergence speed and search rate of the proposed
DbRDN model are increased; therefore time complexity of the system is
reduced. The proposed DbRDN model identified the optimal location for
Fig. 14. Voltage imbalance comparison.
EVCS within a short period of time.

Table 10
5.2.4. Convergence graph
Voltage imbalance comparison statistics.
The convergence rate is the measure of how fast the designed algo­
Methods Voltage Imbalance (%) rithm attained the assigned objective problems. Here the convergence
QbDO 3 rate of the proposed DbRDN is tested in both the 19 and 25-bus archi­
ORPT 1.298 tecture. Also, the measured rate is compared with other existing algo­
Proposed (19 bus) 1.25
rithms studied for the optimal placement of the EVCS in the grid system.
Proposed (25 bus) 1.22
The convergence rate comparison for both the 19 and 25 bus systems is
given in Fig. 16.
The designed hybrid framework prevents all the shortcomings and
attains a better convergence rate. Additionally, it effectively handles the
optimisation problem because it offers rapid convergence and has the
ability to handle problems comprising discrete and integer variables and
fewer control parameters. The model achieved faster convergence
because it does not fall into local optimum problems. Also, the evidence
for faster convergence than other traditional algorithms is shown in
Fig. 17.

5.3. Discussion

Here, initially, the DG system was designed. Furthermore, the

DbRDN is activated to analyse the load and line data, and the operation
parameter values are estimated through the fitness function. The pro­
posed DbRDN used the Dove best solution function for tracking the
optimal location in the bus for the EVCS and DGs placement to diminish
power loss, voltage imbalance and harmonic distortion. The recursive

Fig. 15. Simulation time comparison.

Table 11
Simulation time comparison statistics.
Methods Simulation time (s)

HCTbM 31.5
PS 18.63
DE 9.28
Proposed (19 bus) 8.3
Proposed (25 bus) 8.3

Maximum⥄⥄⥄deviation
VI = (26)
average⥄⥄voltage⥄⥄⥄of ⥄⥄three⥄⥄phases
The voltage imbalance of the existing methods, such as QbDO and
ORPT, is 3 % and 1.298 %. The proposed system achieved 1.25 % and
1.22 % voltage imbalance rates for the 19 and 25 bus systems. The novel Fig. 16. Convergence curve of real power loss in 19 bus system.

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S.P.R.S. Polisetty et al. Energy 285 (2023) 129500

Dr. R. Jayanthi: Data curation, Writing – original draft. Dr. M. Sai

Veerraju: Visualization, Investigation.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from funding agencies in the

public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Declaration of competing interest

Authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

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