Unit: 1 Properties of Fluid

 Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids
(liquids or gases) at rest as well as in motion.
 The fluid mechanics may be divided into three parts: Statics, kinematics and dynamics.
 The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The study of fluids in motion, where
pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are
also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics.

1.1 General introduction of fluid

A fluid may be defined as follows:

 “A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing.” Or

 “A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to external shearing
force.”

A fluid has the following characteristics:

1. It has no definite shape of its own, but conforms to the shape of the containing vessel.
2. Even a small amount of shear force exerted on a liquid/fluid will cause it to undergo a
deformation which continues as long as the force continues to be applied.

Types of Fluids: The fluids may be classified into the following five types:

1. Ideal fluid, 4. Newtonian fluid,

2. Ideal plastic fluid. 5. Non-Newtonian fluid, and
3. Real fluid

1. Ideal Fluid: A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known as an

ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some
viscosity.

2. Real Fluid: A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All the fluids, in
actual practice, are real fluids.

Fig: Types of Fluids

3. Newtonian Fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the
rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as a Newtonian fluid.
4. Non-Newtonian Fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not proportional to the
rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.

5. Ideal Plastic Fluid: A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear
stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as ideal
plastic fluid.

1.2 Density, specific volume, specific weight and specific gravity

1. Density or Mass Density: Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the
mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It is
denoted by the symbol ρ (rho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre,
i.e., kg/m³.

Mathematically, mass density is written as

ρ=

The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm³ or 1000 kg/m³

2. Specific Weight or Weight Density: Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the
ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid
is called weight density and it is denoted by the symbol w.

Thus mathematically,

w= = =ρ×g

since, ρ =

w=ρ×g

The value of specific weight or weight density (w) for water is 9.81 × 1000 Newton/m³ in SI
units.

Specific Volume: It is defined as volume per unit mass of fluid. It is denoted by v.

Mathematically, it is expressed as

Specific volume = = =

Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m³/kg. It is

commonly applied to gases.
Specific Gravity: Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of the liquid to the
specific weight of a standard fluid. It is dimensionless and has no units. It is represented by
S.

For liquids, the standard fluid is pure water at 4°C.

∴ Specific gravity = =

Thus weight density of a liquid = S × Weight density of water

= S x 1000 x 9.81 N/m³

The density of a liquid = S x Density of water

= S × 1000 kg/m³.

If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to
specific gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example, the specific gravity
of mercury is 13.6, hence density of mercury = 13.6 × 1000 = 13600 kg/m³.
1.3 Fluid viscosity

Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance
'dy' apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say u and u + du as shown in Fig.
the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid
layers.

In simple terms, viscosity determines how “thick” or “sticky” a fluid is. For example:

 Honey has high viscosity  Water has low viscosity

Fig: Velocity variation near a solid boundary.

The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a
shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of
velocity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol τ (Tau).

Mathematically,

τ ∝ (du/dy)

or τ = μ (du/dy)

where µ (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of
dynamic viscosity or only viscosity. (du/dy) represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear
deformation or velocity gradient.

From above equation, we have μ = τ/(du/dy)

Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain.

Units of Viscosity:

 In S.I. Units: N.s/m2

 In M.K.S. Units: kgf.sec/m2
 The unit of viscosity in C.G.S. is also called poise

Types of Viscosity

 Viscosity in fluids is generally categorized into two main types:

1. Dynamic Viscosity (Absolute Viscosity)

Definition: It is the measure of a fluid's internal resistance to flow when an external force is
applied.

It relates the shear stress in a fluid to the velocity gradient (rate of change of velocity across
fluid layers).

Formula (from Newton’s Law of Viscosity):

𝜏=𝜇

Where:

 τ = Shear stress (N/m² or Pa)

 μ = Dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)
 = Velocity gradient (1/s)

Units of Dynamic Viscosity:

 In SI Unit: Pascal-second (Pa·s) or N·s/m²

 In CGS Unit: Poise (P)
 1 Pa·s = 10 Poise

2. Kinematic Viscosity: Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio between the dynamic
viscosity and density of fluid. It is denoted by ν (called nu).

Mathematically, v = =

Units of kinematic viscosity:

 In SI units: m2/s
 In M.K.S. units: m2/sec.
 In C.G.S. units the kinematic viscosity is also known as stoke ( = cm2/sec.)
 One stoke = 10–4 m2/s

Newton’s Law of Viscosity

This law states that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the
rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity.

Mathematically, τ = µ

The fluids which follow this law are known as Newtonian fluids. And the fluids which does
not follow this law are known as Non-Newtonian fluids.
1.4 Surface tension and capillarity
 Surface tension is the property of a liquid by which its free surface behaves like a
stretched elastic sheet. Or

 It is defined as the property of the liquid by virtue of which it occupies the minimum
surface area. Or

 Surface tension is the force per unit length acting along the surface of a liquid due to
molecular cohesion.

 It occurs due to cohesive forces between liquid molecules at the surface.

 Molecules inside the liquid are attracted equally in all directions.

 Molecules at the surface experience a net inward force → this creates surface tension.

Formula: 𝜎=

Where:

σ = Surface tension (N/m) L = Length over which force acts

F = Force acting along the surface

Effects of Surface Tension:

 Small insects (e.g., water striders) walk on water.

 Water droplets form spherical shapes to minimize surface area.
 Capillary rise in thin tubes.

Cohesion (Cohesive Force)

 It is defined as the force of attraction between the same molecules of the substance. For
example, force of attraction between the water molecules.

Adhesion (Adhesive Force)

 It is defined as the force between the two different molecules. The force of attraction
between the water and beaker molecules is one example of adhesive force.

Capillarity: Capillarity is a phenomenon by which a liquid (depending upon its specific

gravity) rises into a thin glass tube above or below its general level. This phenomenon is due
to the combined effect of cohesion and adhesion of liquid particles.
 Fig: capillary rise

Fig. shows the phenomenon of rising water in the tube of smaller diameters.

Expression for capillary rise

Let,

d = Diameter of the capillary tube,

Let h = height of the liquid in the tube.

θ = Angle of contact of the water surface,

σ = Surface tension force for unit length, and

w = Weight density (ρg).

The weight of liquid of height h in the tube = (Area of tube × h) × ρ × g = d2 ×h×w

Vertical component of the surface tensile force = (σ × Circumference) × cos θ

= σ × πd × cos θ

Now,

Vertical component of the surface tensile force = The weight of liquid of height h in the tube

πd.σ cos θ = d2 ×h×w

∴ h=

For water and glass: θ ≈ 0.

Hence the capillary rise of water in the glass tube,

h= =
Expression for Capillary Fall

If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the
general level of the outside liquid as shown in Fig.

Fig: capillary fall

Let h = Height of depression in tube.

Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First one is due to
surface tension acting in the downward direction and is equal to σ × πd × cos θ.

Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of pressure at
a depth 'h' × Area

=p× d² = gh × d² {: p = gh}

Equating the two, we get

σ × πd × cos θ = gh × d²

h=

Value of θ for mercury and glass tube is 128°.

Compressibility and Bulk modulus

 Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity, K which is defined as

the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.

Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in Fig.

Let V = Volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder

p = Pressure of gas when volume is V

Let the pressure is increased to p + dp, the volume of gas decreases from V to V - dV.

Then increase in pressure = dp

Decrease in volume = -dV

∴ Volumetric strain = , -ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure.

∴ Bulk modulus K =

K=

Compressibility =

1.6 Related numerical examples