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Network Notes 2

The document outlines the basics of networking and transmission, detailing the transformation of data into electromagnetic signals, the differences between analog and digital signals, and key concepts like bandwidth, data rate, and throughput. It also explains modulation techniques, encoding schemes, and the differences between circuit and packet switching, emphasizing the efficiency of packet switching. Additionally, it covers multiple access techniques such as FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages in communication systems.

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mahmoudessa8200
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13 views6 pages

Network Notes 2

The document outlines the basics of networking and transmission, detailing the transformation of data into electromagnetic signals, the differences between analog and digital signals, and key concepts like bandwidth, data rate, and throughput. It also explains modulation techniques, encoding schemes, and the differences between circuit and packet switching, emphasizing the efficiency of packet switching. Additionally, it covers multiple access techniques such as FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages in communication systems.

Uploaded by

mahmoudessa8200
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Networking & Transmission Basics

 To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.


 Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range;
digital signals can have only a limited number of values.
 The bandwidth is a property of a medium: It is the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies that the medium can satisfactorily pass.
 Data Rate or Bit rate is the speed at which data is transferred within path or channel. Data rate in
b/s = 1/duration of 1 bit
 Throughput is a measure of how many units of information a system can process in a given
amount of time.

Modulation

 It is the process of carrying a signal of a lower frequency (Information) on another signal of higher
frequency (Carrier). Modulation has a huge number of advantages, the most important are
summarized here :

Noise immunity: Higher frequency signals are more immune to noise than lower frequency signals.
Carrying the information on a high frequency carrier ensures that it will reach the destination with
minimum noise distortion.

Decreasing antenna length: It is known that the length of the antenna is proportional to the
wavelength of the signal. Carrying the information signal on a higher frequency (And thus; a
lower wavelength) carrier decreases the length of the antenna needed for transmission and
reception.
Reducing Interference: it is possible to send more than one signal in the air without their
interference as every signal can be carried on a different carrier frequency.
Encoding Schemes
It shows how to represent binary values 0 or 1

 Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage level as example below:

 Polar encoding uses two voltage levels (positive and negative).


 Types of Polar Schemes:

 In NRZ-L the level of the signal is dependent upon the state of the bit.
 In NRZ-I the signal is inverted if a 1 is encountered.

 RZ Encoding
 A good encoded digital signal must contain a provision for synchronization as existed in
Manchester and differential Manchester.
 In Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used for both synchronization
and bit representation.

 In differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used only for
synchronization. The bit representation is defined by the inversion or noninversion at the beginning
of the bit.

 In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative.


Circuit Switching and Packet Switching
 Long distance transmission is typically done over a network of switched nodes
 A collection of nodes and connections is a communications network • Data is routed by being
switched from node to node.
 Two different switching technologies : 1. Circuit switching 2.Packet switching
Circuit Switching
• Dedicated communication path between two stations
• Three phases —establish —Transfer —Disconnect
• Must have switching capacity and channel capacity to establish connection
• Must have intelligence to work out routing.
• Inefficient —Channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection —If no data, capacity wasted
• Set up (connection) takes time • Once connected, transfer is transparent
• Developed for voice traffic (phone).
Packet Switching:
 Basic Operation :
• Data transmitted in small packets —Typically 1000 octets —Longer messages split into series of packets —
Each packet contains a portion of user data plus some control info
• Control info —Routing (addressing) info • Packets are received, stored briefly (buffered) and passed on to
the next node —Store and forward.
• Line efficiency — Single node to node link can be shared by many packets over time — Packets queued and
transmitted as fast as possible
• Data rate conversion — Each station connects to the local node at its own speed — Nodes buffer data if
required to equalize rates
• Packets are accepted even when network is busy — Delivery may slow down
• Priorities can be used.
Switching Technique
• Station breaks long message into packets
• Packets sent one at a time to the network
• Packets handled in two ways —Datagram —Virtual circuit.
In Datagram
• Each packet treated independently -- Packets can take any practical route - Packets may arrive out of order --
Packets may go missing - Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover from missing packets.
In Virtual Circuit
• Preplanned route established before any packets sent • Call request and call accept packets establish
connection (handshake) • Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead of destination address • No
routing decisions required for each packet • Clear request to drop circuit • Not a dedicated path.
 Multiple Access techniques:
- When designing a communication system, special attention should be paid to the
multiple access technique that will be used as this system will be used by more than
one user. A multiple access technique is the method by which users of the service
will share the medium. The most common multiple access techniques are :
1. Frequency division multiple access (FDMA):

This technique is commonly used in narrowband communication systems where the


available frequency band is divided upon the number of users where each user uses a
different carrier frequency to transmit and receive on.

The following figure explains this concept as we can see that the spectrum is divided upon
the users with each user occupying the allocated spectrum continuously.

FDMA was used widely in first generation (1G) of mobile communications. However it is
also used in second (2G) generation of mobile communications in combination with
TDMA and in third generation (3G) in combination with CDMA.

The main disadvantage of FDMA lies in wasting the available frequency spectrum (which
is a limited resource) among users.

However its advantage is system simplicity and ease of reception.

2. Time division multiple access (TDMA):


In TDMA, every user is allocated the total frequency band but users transmit information at
separate times to prevent interference between users.

The following figure explains this concept as we can see that every user is given an interval
of time called the timeslot to transmit his information.
TDMA solved the problem of wasting the frequency spectrum; however the system design
is complex and needs a high level of synchronization.

3. Code division multiple access (CDMA):


In CDMA, every user occupies the total spectrum and takes the whole time to send
information but every user is given a separate code which allows the receiver to receive
the desired signal by knowing the code used for this signal at the transmitter.

The following figure shows that the signals actually interfere with each other in the air as
they are transmitted on the same frequency band and at the same time but the receiver
will be able to separate the desired signal by knowing its code.

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