Introduction

Mechanics is defined as the science that describes and predicts the conditions of rest or motion of
bodies under the action of forces. It consists of the mechanics of solid (rigid bodies, and
deformable) bodies, and the mechanics of fluids.

• Deformations are studied in a course in mechanics of materials, which is part of the mechanics
of deformable bodies. The third division of mechanics, the mechanics of fluids, is subdivided
into the study of incompressible fluids and of compressible fluids. An important subdivision
of the study of incompressible fluids is hydraulics, which deals with applications involving
water.
• The mechanics of solid rigid bodies is subdivided into statics and dynamics. Statics deals with
bodies at rest; dynamics deals with bodies in motion.
• In this text, we assume bodies are perfectly rigid. In fact, actual structures and machines are
never absolutely rigid; they deform under the loads to which they are subjected. However,
because these deformations are usually small, they do not appreciably affect the conditions of
equilibrium or the motion of the structure under consideration.
• You need to know statics to determine how much force will be exerted on a point in a bridge
design and whether the structure can withstand that force. Determining the force a dam needs
to withstand from the water in a river requires statics. You need statics to calculate how much
weight a crane can lift, how much force a locomotive needs to pull a freight train, or how
much force a circuit board in a computer can withstand.
• The concepts of dynamics enable you to analyze the flight characteristics of a jet, design a
building to resist earthquakes, and mitigate shock and vibration to passengers inside a vehicle.
The concepts of dynamics enable you to calculate how much force you need to send a satellite
into orbit, accelerate a 200,000-ton cruise ship, or design a toy truck that doesn’t break. You
will not learn how to do these things in this course, but the ideas and methods you learn here
will be the underlying basis for the engineering applications you will learn in your work.
Fundamental Concepts and Principles
The basic concepts used in mechanics are space, time, mass, and force. These concepts cannot be truly defined; they
should be accepted on the basis of our intuition and experience and used as a mental frame of reference for our study
of mechanics.
• The concept of space is associated with the position of a point P. We can define the position of P by providing
three lengths measured from a certain reference point, or origin, in three given directions. These lengths are
known as the coordinates of P.
• To define an event, it is not sufficient to indicate its position in space. We also need to specify the time of the
event.
• We use the concept of mass to characterize and compare bodies on the basis of certain fundamental mechanical
experiments. Two bodies of the same mass, for example, are attracted by the earth in the same manner; they
also offer the same resistance to a change in translational motion.
• A force represents the action of one body on another. A force can be exerted by actual contact, like a push or a
pull, or at a distance, as in the case of gravitational or magnetic forces. A force is characterized by its point of
application, its magnitude, and its direction; a force is represented by a vector.

In newtonian mechanics, space, time, and mass are absolute concepts that are independent of each other. (This is not
true in relativistic mechanics, where the duration of an event depends upon its position and the mass of a body varies
with its velocity.) On the other hand, the concept of force is not independent of the other three.

The study of elementary mechanics rests on six fundamental principles, based on experimental evidence.
• The Parallelogram Law for the Addition of Forces. Two forces acting on a particle may be replaced by a single
force, called their resultant, obtained by drawing the diagonal of the parallelogram with sides equal to the given forces.

• The Principle of Transmissibility. The conditions of equilibrium or of motion of a rigid body remain unchanged if
a force acting at a given point of the rigid body is replaced by a force of the same magnitude and same direction, but
acting at a different point, provided that the two forces have the same line of action (Sec. 3.1B).
• Newton’s Three Laws of Motion. Formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the late seventeenth century, these laws can
be stated as follows:
• FIRST LAW. If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the particle remains at rest (if originally at rest)
or moves with constant speed in a straight line (if originally in motion) .
• SECOND LAW. If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero, the particle has an acceleration
proportional to the magnitude of the resultant and in the direction of this resultant force.
F=ma
where F, m, and a represent, respectively, the resultant force acting on the particle, the mass of the particle, and the
acceleration of the particle expressed in a consistent system of units.
• THIRD LAW. The forces of action and reaction between bodies in contact have the same magnitude, same
line of action, and opposite sense.
 1. Engineering Mechanics II (Dynamics) of solid rigid bodies
Dynamics Focuses on analyzing the motion of bodies and the forces causing that motion.
In engineering mechanics (dynamics), the main objective is to study kinetics, which focuses on the
relationship between forces and motion. The concept of kinematics is learned as a necessary tool to support
this goal. Since kinetics relies on motion information such as velocity and acceleration, kinematics is
included within kinetics not as a separate goal, but as a foundational step in understanding and solving
dynamics problems.
1.1 Types of motion of solid rigid bodies (translation , rotation, general plane)
As you will see, the various types of rigid-body motion can be conveniently grouped as follows:
• Translation. A motion is said to be a translation if any straight line inside the body maintains the same
orientation during the motion. In a translation, all of the particles forming the body move along parallel paths.
If these paths are straight lines, the motion is called rectilinear translation (Fig. 15.1); if the paths are curved
lines, the motion is called curvilinear translation (Fig. 15.2).

• Rotation About a Fixed Axis. In this motion, the particles forming the rigid body move in parallel planes
along circles centered on the same fixed axis (Fig. 15.3). If this axis, called the axis of rotation, intersects
the rigid body, the particles located on the axis have zero velocity and zero acceleration.

Be careful not to confuse rotation with certain types of curvilinear translation. For example, the
plate shown in Fig. 15.4a is in curvilinear translation, with all of its particles moving along parallel
circles, whereas the plate shown in Fig. 15.4b is in rotation, with all of its particles moving along
concentric circles (common center of rotation for different points). In the first case, any given
straight line drawn on the plate maintains the same direction, whereas in the second case, the
orientation of the plate changes throughout the rotation. Because each particle moves in a given
plane, the rotation of a body about a fixed axis is said to be a plane motion.
General Plane Motion. Many other types of plane motion can occur, i.e., motions in which all the particles of the
body move in a single plane. Any plane motion that is neither a rotation nor a translation is referred to as general
plane motion. Figure 15.5 shows two examples of general plane motion.

In engineering mechanics (dynamics), when we're analyzing the motion of solid rigid bodies, sometimes we're only
interested in how the whole body moves from one place to another (i.e., translational motion). Even though the
object is physically a solid rigid body, we can simplify it by treating it as a particle.

1.2 Why We Treat Rigid Bodies as Particles (Sometimes)?

In dynamics, we often approximate even solid rigid bodies as particles when:
• Their Rotation is Negligible or Unimportant
If the rotational motion (spinning, turning) of a rigid body doesn’t affect the outcome of a problem like its
trajectory or how it collides —then we can model it as a particle to simplify calculations.
Common Scenarios Where This Happens:

Scenario Why Particle Assumption is Used

🚗 A car driving in a straight line If we only care about its speed or stopping distance, not how it rotates.
🎯 A projectile (e.g., ball, bullet) Treated as a particle when air resistance and spin are neglected.
🚀 A spacecraft in orbit When calculating path or velocity, we often treat it as a point mass.
Main Reasons for This Approach:

• Simplifies Math: No need for torque, moments of inertia, or angular motion equations.
• Focuses on Translation Only: We can analyze directly without extra rotational terms.
• Still Accurate Enough: If the body doesn’t rotate or its rotation has no practical effect, the particle
model gives a good approximation.
Rigid body dynamics is a more complete model that contains everything particle dynamics has, and
more (rotation, moment of inertia, etc.). But sometimes the problem is simple enough that you don’t need
the full rigid body tools(rotation + translation) ,particle (translation only) dynamics is enough.

1.3 Kinematics and kinetics

What is Kinematics?
• Kinematics is the study of motion — position, velocity, acceleration — without worrying about
what causes the motion.
• It's purely descriptive.
Example: A car speeds up from 0 to 60 km/h in 5 seconds. That’s kinematics
What is Kinetics?
• Kinetics studies why the body moves — it connects motion with the forces and masses that
cause it.
• It uses Newton’s laws, energy, and momentum to explain the motion.
So, what’s the relationship?
• Kinematics is a tool or foundation for kinetics.
• You can’t solve a kinetics problem (which involves force) unless you know how the object
moves — that’s kinematics!
• In this way, kinematics is a part of kinetics — it provides the motion info needed to relate back
to force.

Based on the above concepts the engineering dyamics course divided in to 5 chapters (including
introductions). To understand the chapters and their applications more concepts more ,see at the a
classic slider-crank or four-bar linkage type mechanism, which is composed of:

1. Slider/Piston
2. Connecting Rod
3. Crank
4. Rocker Arm

Now, let’s place each link into the right chapter of a Dynamics course.
DYNAMICS COURSE CHAPTER MAPPING:

Link Type of Motion Relevant Chapter

1. Piston (Slider) Rectilinear Translation (No Kinetics of Particles / Rigid
rotation, pure straight-line Bodies in rectilinear
motion) Translation
2. Connecting Rod General Plane Plane Kinetics of Rigid Bodies
Motion(Simultaneous rotation – Force & Acceleration
+ translation) Kinematics of Rigid Bodies
3. Crank Rotation about Fixed Axis() Kinetics of Rigid Bodies –
Rotation about Fixed Axis
4. Rocker Arm Curvilinear Translation Kinematics of particles/ Rigid
Bodies on curvilinear
translation
 Chapter 2: Kinematics of a particle (Translational motion of rigid bodies )

The use of the word particles does not mean that our study is restricted to small objects;
rather, it indicates that in these first chapters we study the motion of bodies possibly as
large as cars, rockets, or airplanes without regard to their size or shape. By saying that we
analyze the bodies as particles, we mean that we consider only their motion as an entire
unit; we neglect any rotation about their own centers of mass. In some cases, however, such
a rotation is not negligible, and we cannot treat the bodies as particles.

We first consider single particle and analysis its motion as rectilinear motion ; that is we
determine the position, velocity, and acceleration of a particle at every instant as it moves
along a straight line. Under this we then consider two important particular cases, namely,
continuous motion (single mathematical function is enough to describe the motion) and
erratic motion(more than one mathematical equation is needed and solved using graphical
method).

In the second part of this chapter, we analyze the motion of a particle as it moves along a
curved path. We define the position, velocity, and acceleration of a particle as vector
quantities and introduce the derivative of a vector function to add to our mathematical
tools. We consider applications in which we define the motion of a single particle by the
rectangular components, we examine the motion of a particle relative to a reference frame
in translation. Finally, we analyze the curvilinear motion of a particle in terms of
components other than rectangular. we introduce the tangential and normal components of
an object’s velocity and acceleration and then examine the radial and transverse
components.

We then discuss the simultaneous motion of several particles and introduce the concept of
the relative motion of one particle with respect to another and absolute motion (constrained
motion ).
2.1 Rectilinear translation and curvilinear translation

Understanding the difference between rectilinear translation and curvilinear translation is

key in engineering mechanics – dynamics when analyzing motion. Let’s break this down
conceptually, methodologically, and from a problem-solving perspective:

1. Conceptual Difference

Aspect Rectilinear Translation Curvilinear Translation

Definition Motion along a straight line. Motion along a curved path.
Linear (e.g., elevator going
Path Curved (e.g., a car going around a bend).
straight up).
All points move in parallel All points move in the same curved path
Body Movement
straight lines. direction, maintaining orientation.
Constant direction (if speed
Velocity Direction Changing direction even if speed is constant.
is constant).
Vector approach is crucial due to direction
Approach scalar form is often enough
changes.
Number of direction and 1D (typically x, y, or z- 2D or 3D (rectangular, polar, cylindrical, or
Coordinate used to specify the axis) spherical coordinates
motion at time
Application Simple lifting mechanisms car turning, projectile motion

Problem-Solving Tips

Rectilinear:
• Focus on direction (signs matter).
• Use scalar equations.
• Sketch motion on a line.
Curvilinear:
• Understand motion in components.
• Identify coordinate system that best fits the path.
• Carefully resolve vectors and directions.

Common Misunderstanding

• People often confuse curvilinear translation with rotation — but in translation (whether straight
or curved), the object does not rotate; it maintains its orientation.
 2.1.1 Rectilinear motion analysis
In rectilinear motion, a particle moves along a straight path. Since the direction remains constant, the
analysis primarily concerns changes in the magnitude of velocity and acceleration. This scalar approach
simplifies calculations, as there's no need to account for directional changes.

Governing Equations for Different rectilinear Acceleration Scenarios

Type of Motion Applicable Equations Notes

Continuous Constant Acceleration These equations, often referred
to as the "kinematic equations,"
motion are valid only when
acceleration is constant with 2
time independent and 1 time
dependent equation. They are
commonly used in problems
involving uniformly
accelerated motion.
Variable acceleration When acceleration varies with
time, calculus becomes
essential. Velocity is obtained
by integrating acceleration
over time, and position is
found by integrating velocity.

Erratic Use graphical S-t given Erratic motion involves abrupt

changes in velocity or
motion methods: • Velocity from slope of position-time graph S-t acceleration, making analytical
• acceleration from slope of velocity -time graph V-t solutions challenging.
We have 5 general V-t Given Graphical analysis, using plots

cases • Displacement from area under v-t graph of motion parameters, provides
a practical approach to
• acceleration from slope of V-t graph understanding such motion.

s-t, V-t, a-t, v-s, a-s a-t

• veloncity from area of a-t graph.
V-s
• Acceleration from slope of v-s diagram multiplied by
velocity
a-s
• half of change in velocity square from area under a-s
diagram.
2.1.2 Curvilinear Motion: Incorporating Direction with magnitude changes

Conversely, curvilinear motion involves a particle moving along a curved path, resulting in continuous
changes in direction. Here, both the magnitude and direction of velocity and acceleration vary,
necessitating a vectoral analysis to fully describe the motion.

Describing Direction in Curvilinear Motion

To effectively analyze curvilinear motion, it's essential to describe the particle's direction using
appropriate coordinate systems. Three commonly used systems are:

1. Rectangular Coordinates (x-y or x-y-z): Standard Cartesian coordinates useful for general
motion analysis.
2. Normal and Tangential Coordinates (n-t): This system aligns with the particle's path, where:
o The tangential component corresponds to the direction of motion.
 o The normal component points towards the center of curvature, accounting for
directional changes.
3. Polar Coordinates (r-θ): Ideal for motions involving circular or rotational paths, utilizing radial
and angular components.

Employing these coordinate systems allows for a comprehensive vector analysis of curvilinear motion,
capturing both magnitude and directional variations.
Strategic Selection of Coordinate Systems
Choosing the appropriate coordinate system simplifies the analysis:
• Rectangular coordinates are ideal for problems with linear motion and constant directions.
• Polar coordinates are suited for planar motions with radial symmetry.
• Normal-tangential coordinates are effective for analyzing motion along curved paths.
1. Curvilinear motion analysis using rectangular coordinates
The summary of the curvilinear motion analysis using rectangular coordinates is shown below.
2. Curvilinear motion analysis using normal and tangent coordinates
The summary of the analysis of curvilinear motion using normal and tangent coordinates is shown below.
3. Curvilinear motion analysis using polar coordinates
The summary of analysis curvilinear motion using polar coordinates is shown below.
 System of particles
• When two or more particles are present in our system and we want to see the relationship between them.
• They can be related in two ways: (independent) Relative motion and dependent) constrained or absolute )motion.