Math 111, section 6.

1 Sets and Set Operations

notes by Tim Pilachowski
Our first topic is one which will (hopefully) clarify the ideas underlying probability.
Definition: A set is

The individual objects in a set are called

Every set has three properties.

1.

2.

3.

Sets are usually represented by capital letters, such as A, B, C, etc. Notationally, a set is indicated using braces
(squiggly brackets). The elements of a set can be defined as a descriptive sentence, list, or equation.
G = the set containing the letters “x”, “ö”, “A”, and the integers “0”, “9”, “12” = {0, x, ö, 9, 12, A}

H = the set of colors of lights in a standard traffic signal =

I = the set of “solutions to the equation x2 = 4” = {x| x2 = 4} read “the set of elements x such that x 2 = 4 ”.
This version is called set-builder notation.
So, as a list, I =

J = the set of positive even numbers =

The symbol ∈ means “is an element of”.

Examples A: Let G, H, I, and J be as defined above.

The symbol ∉ means “is not an element of”:

Examples A (continued): Let G, H, I, and J be as defined above.
Two sets A and B are called equal, i.e. A = B, when they have exactly the same elements. When a set is defined
by listing its elements the list may be in any order.
Examples B: Let H = {red, yellow, green}

If a set has no members, it is called the empty set or the null set, and is denoted either by empty braces, { }, or
by the symbol ∅ .
Important note:

One set A is a subset of another set B if every element found in set A is also in set B. Another way to say this is
that there is nothing found in A which is not also found in B.
Examples C: Let I = {x | x2 = 4} = {– 2, 2}, J = {2, 4, 6, 8, …}, and K = {4, 8, 12}.

Note the difference between a “subset” and a “proper subset”, in both concept and notation.
Theorems about subsets:

Examples C revisited: Let I = {x | x2 = 4} = {– 2, 2}, J = {2, 4, 6, 8, …}, and K = {4, 8, 12}. List all of the
subsets of I. List all of the subsets of K. (Note that set J would have an infinite number of subsets.)
We’ll be considering three fundamental set operations.
From two given sets A and B we can make a new set that consists of all the elements of A and all the elements
of B. This new set is called the union of A and B and is represented by the symbol A ∪ B . (The union symbol is
not the letter U.)
Example D: Let Q = {a, b, c, d} and let R = {c, d, e}.

The union of two sets is defined in symbols as follows: A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B} . Note that this is a non-
exclusive use of the word “or”: the elements can be in A, or in B, or possibly in both A and B.
Other notes:

From two given sets A and B we can make a new set that consists of all the elements that belong to both A and B
at the same time. This new set is called the intersection of A and B and is represented by the symbol A ∩ B .
Example D (continued): Let Q = {a, b, c, d} and let R = {c, d, e}.

The intersection of two sets is defined in symbols as follows: A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B} .

Other notes:

Two sets whose intersection is empty are called disjoint, i.e. two sets A and B are disjoint if and only if
A∩B = ∅ .
Before addressing the operation of complement, it is necessary to define a universal set, containing all the
individual objects under consideration. For example, if the sets being studied consist of men, women, boys, and
girls in a population, then the universal set is everyone in the population. In a primary school mathematics
classroom, the universal set contains only positive rational numbers. In a typical algebra classroom, the
universal set contains all real numbers, positive and negative, rational and irrational. The letter U (not the union
symbol ∪ ) is used to denote the universal set for a given situation.
The complement of a set A is the set of all elements in the universal set that are not members of A, and is
represented by the symbol Ac . It is defined in symbols as follows: Ac = {x | x ∈ U and x ∉ A} .
Example E. Let U = the set of positive whole numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, … } and J = the set of positive even
numbers = {2, 4, 6, 8, …}.
Complement literally means “that which completes”, and if you combine a set with its complement, you get
everything, i.e. the universe.
Other notes:

Venn diagrams provide a visual means of considering sets, even when the particular elements may not be
known. In a Venn diagram a rectangle represents the universe set under consideration and circles within the
rectangle represent sets within the universe. The operations above would be diagrammed as follows:

A∪ B A∩ B A ∩ B = ∅ (one way)

A ∩ B = ∅ (another way) Ac A⊂ B

Venn diagrams can also be used with three (or more) sets.

Example F: Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate first ( A ∪ B ) ∩ C then ( A ∪ B ) ∩ C c .

On your own: Use a Venn diagram to show that ( A ∪ B ) ∩ C ≠ A ∪ (B ∩ C ) .

(A ∪ B) ∩ C (A ∪ B) ∩ C c A ∪ (B ∩ C )
Your text introduces the distributive laws for unions and intersections
A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = ( A ∪ B ) ∩ ( A ∪ C ) and A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C )
as well as De Morgan’s Laws
( A ∪ B )c = Ac ∩ B c and ( A ∩ B )c = Ac ∪ B c
but none of these will be useful enough in this course for you to worry about memorizing them. Proving them
for yourself, using Venn diagrams, can be a good exercise.

Examples G: Consider the universe U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k}

and sets M = {a, b, c, d}, N = {b, c, d, e, f, g}, and P = {g, h, i}.

Mc =
M ∪N =
M ∩N =

M ∪P =
M ∩P =

N ∪ Pc =

N ∩ Pc =

(
M ∩ N ∪ Pc = )
(
M ∪ N ∩ Pc = )
Now let T = {c, e, b, d}. What can we say about T in relationship to M, N, and M ∩ N ?

Example H: Let U = the members of a freshman class at UMCP, A = the set of students who have academic
scholarships, B = the set of students who are athletes, and C = the set of students who live on campus.
Describe each set below [parts a) through e)] in words.
a) Ac

b) B ∩ C

c) A ∩ Bc

d) A ∪ B

e) B ∪ C c
Write the set that represents (symbolically) each statement f) through k) below, then also draw a Venn diagram
to illustrate each set.
f) the set of students who do not live on campus g) the set of athletes who have academic scholarships
A A
B B

C C

h) the set of athletes who don’t live on campus i) the set of students who have academic scholarships or
live on campus.
A A
B B

C C

j) the set of athletes who have academic k) the set of athletes who have academic scholarships
scholarships and who live on campus who do not live on campus
A A
B B

C C

Some closing notes: The symbols ∪ and ∩ for union and intersection are pretty much standard; other
symbology is not. While some texts in set theory use our notation Ac for complement, others use A or A′ .

Important note: The ideas presented here about sets have parallels in the rest of the work done in the rest of the
class on probability.