UNIT I : INTRODUCTION

Brief History of Graph Theory :- Graph Theory started in 1736 with Leonhard Euler,
who solved the
Konigsberg Bridge Problem. He introduced the
concept of vertices
(points) and edges (lines). Graph theory is now widely
used in many fields.

Application of Graph :- There are many uses of Graph -

1. Computer Science - like Networking, Search Engines, Compiler Design etc.
2. Operations Research - Shortest Path Problems,
3. Mathematics - Combinatorics and Topology
4. Artificial Intelligence
5. Google Maps, Scheduling and Resource Allocation

Graph :- Graph is a collection of non-empty set of vertex and edges.

=> It is represented as G(V, E).
Finite Graphs :- A graph with a finite number of vertices and edges.
Infinite Graphs :- A graph with an infinite number of vertices and/or edges.

Matrix representations :-
a) Adjacency Matrix : A matrix that shows direct connections between vertices.
=>For the undirected graphs : The matrix is symmetric.
=> All connected graph 1 other wish 0. Directed graph is note symmetric matrices.
b) Incidence Matrix : A matrix showing which vertices are connected to which
edges.

Degree :- No. of total edges are connected/incident on any vertex is called degree
of Graph.
For Undirected Graph - Σdeg(Vi) = 2e
Directed Graph - Σdeg-(Vi) + Σdeg+(Vi) = 2e

Out-degree: Number of outgoing edges (in directed graphs).

In-degree: Number of incoming edges (in directed graphs).

Note :- Sum of degree of any graph is always even.

Operations on graphs :-
1. Union and Intersection
2. Complement of a graph
3. Subgraphs
4. Graph Isomorphism

Isolated Vertex :- A vertex with no edges connected.(no edges connected). Degree =

0.

Pendant Vertex :- A vertex with degree one (connected by a single edge). Degree =
1

Null Graph :- A graph with no edges, only vertices. It is called Null or edgeless
graph.

UNIT II : TREES, CONNECTIVTTY & PLANARITY

Tree :- A tree is a connected acyclic (no cycle) undirected graph and connected.
=> If there are n vertices, a tree has exactly n – 1 edges.

Spanning trees :- Spanning tree of a graph G is a subgraph that includes all

vertices of G.
 Fundamental circuits :- A fundamental circuit is formed by adding one edge to a
spanning tree.
=> This creates a single cycle.

Spanning trees in a weighted graph :- In a weighted graph, each edge has a

weight/cost.
Goal: Find a Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) — tree with minimum total weight.
Examples of Algorithms:
1. Prim’s Algorithm
2. Kruskal’s Algorithm

Cut sets :- A cut set is a set of edges whose removal disconnects the graph.
=> Minimal cut set: No proper subset of it disconnects the graph.

Properties of Cut Sets :- Every cut set must contain at least one edge from every
spanning tree.
=> Cut sets and circuits are dual: If an edge belongs to a cycle, it cannot belong
to every cut set.

All cut sets fundamental circuits :- From a spanning tree, we can generate -
=> All fundamental circuits (by adding one edge to the tree).
=> All cut sets (by removing one edge from the tree)

Connectivity :- A graph is connected if there's a path between every pair of

vertices.
Connectivity (k): Minimum number of vertices whose removal disconnects the graph.
1-connected = can be disconnected by removing 1 vertex

Separability :- A graph is separable if the removal of a vertex (called a cut-

vertex) increases
the number of components.
=> If no such vertex exists, graph is non-separable.

Network flow :- A network is a directed graph where each edge has a capacity (max
flow).
Goal: Maximize flow from source (s) to sink (t).
Uses algorithms like:
1. Ford-Fulkerson
2. Edmonds-Karp

1-lsonlorphism :- Two graphs are isomorphic if they :

=> Have same number of vertices & edges.
=> Same adjacency relationships.
=> Essentially the same graph with different labels.

1-lsonlorphism and 2-lsomorphism :-

=> 1-Isomorphism: Basic isomorphism of two graphs with vertex-edge structure
preserved.
=> 2-Isomorphism: Isomorphism of subgraphs or partitions of a graph (more
structural).

Combinational :- Combinatorial: Deals with counting, arrangement, and structure of

graph elements.

Planar Graph: Can be drawn on a plane without edges crossing.

Example : K4 is planar. K5 and K3,3 are non-planar (proved using Kuratowski's
Theorem

Geometrical Graph :- A geometrical graph is a graph drawn in the plane such that :
=> Vertices are distinct points in the plane
=> Edges are straight-line segments connecting these points

UNIT - III :- Matrices, Colouring and Directed Graph

Chromatic Number :- The minimum number of colors needed to color the vertices of a
graph
such that no two adjacent vertices have the same
color.
=> It is Usually denoted by χ(G). e.g. - For a triangle (3-cycle), χ(G) = 3.

Chromatic partitioning :- Dividing the set of vertices into disjoint independent

sets, where
each set is assigned a unique color.
=> Each partition contains vertices that are not connected directly.

Chromatic polynomial :- A function P(G, λ) that counts the number of ways to color
a graph G
using λ colors such that adjacent vertices
have different colors.
Ex. For a path of 2 vertices, P(G, λ) = λ(λ−1)

Matching :- A set of edges without common vertices.

=> Perfect Matching: Every vertex is matched (i.e., paired).
=> Maximum Matching: The largest possible matching.
=> Applications: Job assignments, pairing problems.

Covering :- Vertex Cover: A set of vertices such that every edge in the graph is
incident to at least one
vertex from the set.
=> Edge Cover: A set of edges such that every vertex is incident to at least one
edge.
=> Goal: Find the minimum cover.

Four color problem :- Every planar graph (map) can be colored with at most four
colors such that no
two adjacent regions share the same color.

Directed graph :- A graph where edges have direction (from one vertex to another).
=> Notation: Arcs (→) instead of undirected edges (—).

Types of Directed graph :-

=> Simple Digraph: No loops or multiple arcs.
=> Multigraph: Multiple directed edges between two vertices.
=> Weighted Digraph: Each arc has a weight (e.g., cost, distance).
=> Complete Digraph: Every pair of vertices is connected by a directed edge.

Digraph and Binary relations :- A digraph can represent a binary relation (R) on a
set A.
=> Example: (a, b) ∈ R ⇔ directed edge from a → b

Directed paths :- A sequence of vertices where each consecutive pair is connected

by a directed edge.

Connectedness :-
Strongly Connected: There is a directed path from every vertex to every other
vertex.
Weakly Connected: If the underlying undirected graph is connected.

Unit - IV :- Permutation & Combinations

 Fundamental Principle of Counting :- If one event can occur in m ways and another
in n ways,
then both events can occur
in m × n ways.
Ex. Choosing a shirt (3 ways) and pants (4 ways) → Total = 3 × 4 = 12 outfits

𝑃(𝑛,𝑟)=𝑛!(𝑛−𝑟)!
Permutation :- Arrangement of objects in a specific order.
Without repetition:
With repetition: (n)r
Ex. Number of ways to arrange 3 out of 5 books:

Combinations :- Selection of objects (order does not matter).

Formula : C(n,r)= n!/(n−r)!r!

Binominal Theorem :- Expands expressions of the form (𝑎+𝑏)𝑛(a+b) n

Ex. Number of ways to choose 2 fruits out of 4: (a+b)

Formula : n =∑ k=0n C(n,k)a n−k b k

Combinations with repetition :- Used when objects can be repeated.

Formula : C(n+r−1,r).
Example:

𝐶(5+3−1,3)=𝐶(7,3)=35
Choose 3 Chocolates from 5 types (repeats allowed):

Combinatorial Number :- Another term for Binomial Coefficients:𝐶(𝑛,𝑟).

=> Read n and choose r.
=> Represented in Pascal’s Triangle.

Principle of inclusion :- and exclusion :-

Used to count the number of elements in union of sets by avoiding double-counting.
∣For 2 sets : ∪A∣B∣=∣A∣+∣B∣−∣A∩B∣
∣For 3 sets : ∪A∪B∣C∣=∣A∣+∣B∣+∣C∣−∣A∩B∣−∣A∩C∣−∣B∩C∣+∣A∩B∩C∣

Derangements :- Permutations where no element appears in its original position.

Denoted by D(n).
Formula :

Arrangements with forbidden Positions :- Special case of derangement where

specific positions are
restricted. Use inclusion-exclusion to remove
invalid arrangements.
Example:
3 people not allowed to sit in their own chairs → count valid arrangements (same as
derangement).

Handshaking Theorem :- “The sum of degrees of all vertices in an undirected graph

is equal to twice
the number of edges.”
For an undirected graph ∈ ∣∣ : ∑𝑣∈𝑉deg(𝑣)=2∣𝐸∣
=(,)

-: Unit - V : Generating Function :-

Generating Function :- A generating function is a formal power series that encodes

sequence 𝑎0,𝑎1,𝑎2,… as: G(x)=a0 +a1 x+a2 x2 +a3 x3 + ......

a

Ex. For sequence - 1,1,1,1,…, G(x)=1+x+x 2 +x 3 +⋯= 1/1−x.

Partitions of integers :- A partition of a positive integer is a way of writing it

as a sum of positive
integers, ignoring order.
Exponential generating function :- An Exponential Generating Function (EGF) is a

a sequence 𝑎0,𝑎1,𝑎2, using a power series, where each term is divided by the
way to represent

factorial of its degree.

Summation operator :- The summation operator, denoted by the Greek letter Sigma
(Σ), is
used to represent the sum of a sequence of terms.

Recurrence relation :- An equation that defines a sequence recursively using

previous terms.
Ex. - an=an-1 + 3

Ex an =2an−1 , with 𝑎0=1a 0 =1

First order Recurrence Relation :- an =c⋅a n−1 +f(n).

Ex. Fibonacci: 𝐹𝑛=𝐹𝑛−1+𝐹𝑛−2 , with 𝐹0=0, 𝐹1=1

Second order :- an =c1 an−1 +c2 an−2 +f(n)

Solution of Recurrence Relation :-

1. Iterative Method
2. Characteristics Method
3. Generating Function

Non-homogeneous recurrence relations :-

Method of generation function :-

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