Input Devices

The Input Devices are the hardware that is used to transfer transfers input to the
computer. The data can be in the form of text, graphics, sound, and text. Output device
display data from the memory of the computer. Output can be text, numeric data, line,
polygon, and other objects.

These Devices include:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Trackball
4. Spaceball
5. Joystick
6. Light Pen
7. Digitizer
8. Touch Panels
9. Voice Recognition
10. Image Scanner

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Keyboard:
The most commonly used input device is a keyboard. The data is entered by pressing
the set of keys. All keys are labeled. A keyboard with 101 keys is called a QWERTY
keyboard.

The keyboard has alphabetic as well as numeric keys. Some special keys are also
available.

1. Numeric Keys: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
2. Alphabetic keys: a to z (lower case), A to Z (upper case)
3. Special Control keys: Ctrl, Shift, Alt
4. Special Symbol Keys: ; , " ? @ ~ ? :
5. Cursor Control Keys: ↑ → ← ↓
6. Function Keys: F1 F2 F3....F9.
7. Numeric Keyboard: It is on the right-hand side of the keyboard and used for fast entry of
numeric data.

Function of Keyboard:
1. Alphanumeric Keyboards are used in CAD. (Computer Aided Drafting)
2. Keyboards are available with special features line screen co-ordinates entry, Menu
selection or graphics functions, etc.
3. Special purpose keyboards are available having buttons, dials, and switches. Dials are
used to enter scalar values. Dials also enter real numbers. Buttons and switches are
used to enter predefined function values.

Advantage:
1. Suitable for entering numeric data.
2. Function keys are a fast and effective method of using commands, with fewer errors.

Disadvantage:
1. Keyboard is not suitable for graphics input.

Mouse:
A Mouse is a pointing device and used to position the pointer on the screen. It is a small
palm size box. There are two or three depression switches on the top. The movement of
the mouse along the x-axis helps in the horizontal movement of the cursor and the
movement along the y-axis helps in the vertical movement of the cursor on the screen.
The mouse cannot be used to enter text. Therefore, they are used in conjunction with a
keyboard.

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Advantage:
1. Easy to use
2. Not very expensive

Trackball
It is a pointing device. It is similar to a mouse. This is mainly used in notebook or laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted, and by changing
fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Advantage:
1. Trackball is stationary, so it does not require much space to use it.
2. Compact Size

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Spaceball:
It is similar to trackball, but it can move in six directions where trackball can move in two
directions only. The movement is recorded by the strain gauge. Strain gauge is applied
with pressure. It can be pushed and pulled in various directions. The ball has a diameter
around 7.5 cm. The ball is mounted in the base using rollers. One-third of the ball is an
inside box, the rest is outside.

Applications:
1. It is used for three-dimensional positioning of the object.
2. It is used to select various functions in the field of virtual reality.
3. It is applicable in CAD applications.
4. Animation is also done using spaceball.
5. It is used in the area of simulation and modeling.

Joystick:
A Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to change cursor position on a monitor
screen. Joystick is a stick having a spherical ball as its both lower and upper ends as
shown in fig. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be changed in
all four directions. The function of a joystick is similar to that of the mouse. It is mainly
used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

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Light Pen
Light Pen (similar to the pen) is a pointing device which is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an
optical system placed in a small tube. When its tip is moved over the monitor screen,
and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and
sends the corresponding signals to the CPU.

Uses:
1. Light Pens can be used as input coordinate positions by providing necessary
arrangements.
2. If background color or intensity, a light pen can be used as a locator.
3. It is used as a standard pick device with many graphics system.
4. It can be used as stroke input devices.
5. It can be used as valuators

Digitizers:
The digitizer is an operator input device, which contains a large, smooth board (the
appearance is similar to the mechanical drawing board) & an electronic tracking device,
which can be changed over the surface to follow existing lines. The electronic tracking
device contains a switch for the user to record the desire x & y coordinate positions. The
coordinates can be entered into the computer memory or stored or an off-line storage
medium such as magnetic tape.

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Advantages:
1. Drawing can easily be changed.
2. It provides the capability of interactive graphics.

Disadvantages:
1. Costly
2. Suitable only for applications which required high-resolution graphics.

Touch Panels:
Touch Panels is a type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive transparent panel
covering the screen. A touch screen registers input when a finger or other object comes
in contact with the screen.

When the wave signals are interrupted by some contact with the screen, that located is
recorded. Touch screens have long been used in military applications.

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Voice Systems (Voice Recognition):
Voice Recognition is one of the newest, most complex input techniques used to interact
with the computer. The user inputs data by speaking into a microphone. The simplest
form of voice recognition is a one-word command spoken by one person. Each
command is isolated with pauses between the words.

Voice Recognition is used in some graphics workstations as input devices to accept

voice commands. The voice-system input can be used to initiate graphics operations or
to enter data. These systems operate by matching an input against a predefined
dictionary of words and phrases.

Advantage:
1. More efficient device.
2. Easy to use
3. Unauthorized speakers can be identified

Disadvantages:
1. Very limited vocabulary
2. Voice of different operators can't be distinguished.

Image Scanner
It is an input device. The data or text is written on paper. The paper is feeded to
scanner. The paper written information is converted into electronic format; this format is
stored in the computer. The input documents can contain text, handwritten material,
picture extra.

By storing the document in a computer document became safe for longer period of time.
The document will be permanently stored for the future. We can change the document
when we need. The document can be printed when needed.

Scanning can be of the black and white or colored picture. On stored picture 2D or 3D
rotations, scaling and other operations can be applied.

Types of image Scanner:

1. Flat Bed Scanner: It resembles a photocopy machine. It has a glass top on its top.
Glass top in further covered using a lid. The document to be scanned is kept on glass
plate. The light is passed underneath side of glass plate. The light is moved left to right.
The scanning is done the line by line. The process is repeated until the complete line is
scanned. Within 20-25 seconds a document of 4" * 6" can be scanned.

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2. Hand Held Scanner: It has a number of LED's (Light Emitting Diodes) the LED's are
arranged in the small case. It is called a Hand held Scanner because it can be kept in
hand which performs scanning. For scanning the scanner is moved over document from
the top towards the bottom. Its light is on, while we move it on document. It is dragged
very slowly over document. If dragging of the scanner over the document is not proper,
the conversion will not correct.

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Output Devices

It is an electromechanical device, which accepts data from a computer and translates

them into form understand by users.

Following are Output Devices:

1. Printers
2. Plotters

Printers:
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print data on paper.

Types of Printers: There are many types of printers which are classified on various
criteria as shown in fig:

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1. Impact Printers: The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon
and onto the papers are known as Impact Printers.

These Printers are of two types:

1. Character Printers
2. Line Printers

2. Non-Impact Printers: The printers that print the characters without striking against
the ribbon and onto the papers are called Non-Impact Printers. These printers print a
complete page at a time, therefore, also known as Page Printers.

Page Printers are of two types:

1. Laser Printers
2. Inkjet Printers

Dot Matrix Printers:

Dot matrix has printed in the form of dots. A printer has a head which contains nine pins.
The nine pins are arranged one below other. Each pin can be activated independently.
All or only the same needles are activated at a time. When needless is not activated,
and then the tip of needle stay in the head. When pin work, it comes out of the print
head. In nine pin printer, pins are arranged in 5 * 7 matrixes.

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Advantage:
1. Dot Matrix Printers prints output as dots, so it can print any shape of the character. This
allows the printer to print special character, charts, graphs, etc.
2. Dot Matrix Printers come under the category of impact printers. The printing is done
when the hammer pin strikes the inked ribbon. The impressions are printed on paper. By
placing multiple copies of carbon, multiple copies of output can be produced.
3. It is suitable for printing of invoices of companies.

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Daisy Wheel Printers:
Head is lying on a wheel and Pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy,
that's why called Daisy wheel printer.

Advertisement

Advantage:
1. More reliable than DMPs
2. Better Quality

Disadvantage:
1. Slower than DMPs

Drum Printers:
These are line printers, which prints one line at a time. It consists of a drum. The shape
of the drum is cylindrical. The drum is solid and has characters embossed on it in the
form of vertical bands. The characters are in circular form. Each band consists of some
characters. Each line on drum consists of 132 characters. Because there are 96 lines so
total characters are (132 * 95) = 12, 672.

Drum contains a number of hammers also.

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Chain Printers:
These are called as line printers. These are used to print one line at a line. Basically,
chain consists of links. Each link contains one character. Printers can follow any
character set style, i.e., 48, 64 or 96 characters. Printer consists of a number of
hammers also.

Advantages:
1. Chain or Band if damaged can be changed easily.
2. It allows printing of different form.
3. Different Scripts can be printed using this printer.

Disadvantages:
1. It cannot print charts and graphs.
2. It cannot print characters of any shape.
3. Chain Printers is impact printer, hammer strikes so it is noisy.

Non-Impact Printers:
Inkjet Printers:
These printers use a special link called electrostatic ink. The printer head has a special
nozzle. Nozzle drops ink on paper. Head contains up to 64 nozzles. The ink dropped is
deflected by the electrostatic plate. The plate is fixed outside the nozzle. The deflected
ink settles on paper.

Advantages:

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 1. These produce high quality of output as compared to the dot matrix.
2. A high-quality output can be produced using 64 nozzles printed.
3. Inkjet can print characters in a variety of shapes.
4. Inkjet can print special characters.
5. The printer can print graphs and charts.

Disadvantages:

1. Inkjet Printers are slower than dot matrix printers.

2. The cost of inkjet is more than a dot matrix printer.

Laser Printers:
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produces the dots needed
to form the characters to be printed on a page & hence the name laser printers.

The output is generated in the following steps:

Step1: The bits of data sent by processing unit act as triggers to turn the laser beam on
& off.

Step2: The output device has a drum which is cleared & is given a positive electric
charge. To print a page the modulated laser beam passing from the laser scans back &
forth the surface of the drum. The positive electric charge on the drum is stored on just
those parts of the drum surface which are exposed to the laser beam create the
difference in electric which charges on the exposed drum surface.

Step3: The laser exposed parts of the drum attract an ink powder known as toner.

Step4: The attracted ink powder is transferred to paper.

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Step5: The ink particles are permanently fixed to the paper by using either heat or
pressure technique.

Step6: The drum rotates back to the cleaner where a rubber blade cleans off the excess
ink & prepares the drum to print the next page.

Plotters
Plotters are a special type of output device. It is suitable for applications:

1. Architectural plan of the building.

2. CAD applications like the design of mechanical components of aircraft.
3. Many engineering applications.

Advantage:
1. It can produce high-quality output on large sheets.
2. It is used to provide the high precision drawing.
3. It can produce graphics of various sizes.
4. The speed of producing output is high.

Drum Plotter:
It consists of a drum. Paper on which design is made is kept on the drum. The drum can
rotate in both directions. Plotters comprised of one or more pen and penholders. The
holders are mounted perpendicular to drum surface. The pens are kept in the holder,
which can move left to the right as well as right to the left. The graph plotting program
controls the movement of pen and drum.

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Flatbed Plotter:
It is used to draw complex design and graphs, charts. The Flatbed plotter can be kept
over the table. The plotter consists of pen and holder. The pen can draw characters of
various sizes. There can be one or more pens and pen holding mechanism. Each pen
has ink of different color. Different colors help to produce multicolor design of document.
The area of plotting is also variable. It can vary A4 to 21'*52'.

It is used to draw

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1. Cars
2. Ships
3. Airplanes
4. Shoe and dress designing
5. Road and highway design

Graphics Software:
There are two types of Graphics Software.

1. General Purpose Packages: Basic Functions in a general package include those for
generating picture components (straight lines, polygons, circles and other figures),
setting color and intensity values, selecting views, and applying transformations.

Example of general purpose package is the GL (Graphics Library), GKS, PHIGS,

PHIGS+ etc.

2. Special Purpose Packages: These packages are designed for non programmers, so
that these users can use the graphics packages, without knowing the inner details.

Example of special purpose package is

1. Painting programs
2. Package used for business purpose
3. Package used for medical systems.
4. CAD packages

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Computer Graphics Tutorial

It is difficult to display an image of any size on the computer screen. This method is
simplified by using Computer graphics. Graphics on the computer are produced by using
various algorithms and techniques. This tutorial describes how a rich visual experience
is provided to the user by explaining how all these processed by the computer.

Introduction of Computer Graphics

Computer Graphics involves technology to access. The Process transforms and
presents information in a visual form. The role of computer graphics insensible. In today
life, computer graphics has now become a common element in user interfaces, T.V.
commercial motion pictures.

Computer Graphics is the creation of pictures with the help of a computer. The end
product of the computer graphics is a picture it may be a business graph, drawing, and
engineering.

In computer graphics, two or three-dimensional pictures can be created that are used for
research. Many hardware devices algorithm has been developing for improving the
speed of picture generation with the passes of time. It includes the creation storage of
models and image of objects. These models for various fields like engineering,
mathematical and so on.

Backward Skip 10sPlay VideoForward Skip 10s

Today computer graphics is entirely different from the earlier one. It is not possible. It is
an interactive user can control the structure of an object of various input devices.

Definition of Computer Graphics:

It is the use of computers to create and manipulate pictures on a display device. It
comprises of software techniques to create, store, modify, represents pictures.

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Why computer graphics used?
Suppose a shoe manufacturing company want to show the sale of shoes for five years.
For this vast amount of information is to store. So a lot of time and memory will be
needed. This method will be tough to understand by a common man. In this situation
graphics is a better alternative. Graphics tools are charts and graphs. Using graphs, data
can be represented in pictorial form. A picture can be understood easily just with a single
look.

Interactive computer graphics work using the concept of two-way communication

between computer users. The computer will receive signals from the input device, and
the picture is modified accordingly. Picture will be changed quickly when we apply
command.

Computer Graphics Tutorial Index

Computer Graphics Tutorial

o Computer Graphics Tutorial

o Application of Computer Graphics
o Interactive and Passive Graphics
Graphic Systems

o Display Processor
o Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
o Random Scan vs Raster Scan
o Color CRT Monitors
o Direct View Storage Tubes
o Flat Panel Display
Input-Output Devices

o Input Devices
o Trackball
o Light Pen
o Image Scanner
o Output Devices
o Plotters

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Scan Conversion a line

o Scan Conversion Definition

o Scan Converting a Point
o Scan Converting a Straight Line
o DDA Algorithm
o Bresenham's Line Algorithm
Scan Conversion Circle

o Defining a Circle
o Defining a Circle using Polynomial Method
o Defining a Circle using Polar Coordinates Method
o Bresenham's Circle Algorithm
o Midpoint Circle Algorithm
Scan Converting Ellipse

o Scan converting a Ellipse

o Polynomial Method
o Trignometric Method
o Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm

Filled Area Primitives

o Boundary Fill Algorithm

o Flood Fill Algorithm
o Scan Line Polygon Fill Algorithm
2D Transformations

o Introduction of Transformation
o Translation
o Scaling
o Rotation
o Reflection
o Shearing
o Matrix Representation
o Homogeneous Coordinates
o Composite Transformation
o Pivot Point Rotation
2D-Viewing

o Window
o Window to Viewport Co-ordinate Transformation
o Zooming
o Panning
Clipping Techniques

o Clipping
o Point Clipping

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 o Line Clipping
o Midpoint Subdivision Algorithm
o Text Clipping
o Polygon
o Sutherland-Hodgeman Polygon Clipping
o Weiler-Atherton Polygon Clipping
Pointing & Positioning

o Pointing & Positioning Techniques

o Elastic or Rubber Band Techniques
o Dragging

Shading

o Introduction of Shading
o Constant Intensity Shading
o Gouraud shading
o Phong Shading
Animation

o Animation
o Application Areas of Animation
o Animation Functions
3D Computer Graphics

o Three Dimensional Graphics

o Three Dimensional Transformations
o Scaling
o Rotation
o Rotation about Arbitrary Axis
o Inverse Transformations
o Reflection
o Shearing
Hidden Surfaces

o Hidden Surface Removal

o Back Face Removal Algorithm
o Z-Buffer Algorithm
o Painter's Algorithm
o Scan Line Algorithm
o Subdivision Algorithm
o 3D Modelling System
Projection

o Projection
o Perspective Projection
o Parallel Projection

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Programs

o Computer Graphics Programs

Prerequisite
Good knowledge and understanding of the concepts of C programming language are
necessary for learning the concepts of Computer graphics. Good understanding about
basic mathematics allows us to better understand the concept of computer graphics.

Audience
This tutorial is helpful for the students who are interested in learning the use of graphics
on the computer. The tutorial covers the basics of graphics and development of various
visuals by the implementation of graphics in the computer.

22
Unit 3 b

Hidden Surface Removal

1. One of the most challenging problems in computer graphics is the removal of hidden
parts from images of solid objects.
2. In real life, the opaque material of these objects obstructs the light rays from hidden parts
and prevents us from seeing them.
3. In the computer generation, no such automatic elimination takes place when objects are
projected onto the screen coordinate system.
4. Instead, all parts of every object, including many parts that should be invisible are
displayed.
5. To remove these parts to create a more realistic image, we must apply a hidden line or
hidden surface algorithm to set of objects.
6. The algorithm operates on different kinds of scene models, generate various forms of
output or cater to images of different complexities.
7. All use some form of geometric sorting to distinguish visible parts of objects from those
that are hidden.
8. Just as alphabetical sorting is used to differentiate words near the beginning of the
alphabet from those near the ends.
9. Geometric sorting locates objects that lie near the observer and are therefore visible.
10. Hidden line and Hidden surface algorithms capitalize on various forms of coherence to
reduce the computing required to generate an image.
11. Different types of coherence are related to different forms of order or regularity in the
image.
12. Scan line coherence arises because the display of a scan line in a raster image is usually
very similar to the display of the preceding scan line.
13. Frame coherence in a sequence of images designed to show motion recognizes that
successive frames are very similar.
14. Object coherence results from relationships between different objects or between
separate parts of the same objects.
15. A hidden surface algorithm is generally designed to exploit one or more of these
coherence properties to increase efficiency.
16. Hidden surface algorithm bears a strong resemblance to two-dimensional scan
conversions.

Types of hidden surface detection algorithms

1. Object space methods
2. Image space methods

Object space methods: In this method, various parts of objects are compared. After
comparison visible, invisible or hardly visible surface is determined. These methods
generally decide visible surface. In the wireframe model, these are used to determine a
visible line. So these algorithms are line based instead of surface based. Method
proceeds by determination of parts of an object whose view is obstructed by other object
and draws these parts in the same color.

Image space methods: Here positions of various pixels are determined. It is used to
locate the visible surface instead of a visible line. Each point is detected for its visibility. If
a point is visible, then the pixel is on, otherwise off. So the object close to the viewer that

23
is pierced by a projector through a pixel is determined. That pixel is drawn is appropriate
color.

These methods are also called a Visible Surface Determination. The implementation
of these methods on a computer requires a lot of processing time and processing power
of the computer.

The image space method requires more computations. Each object is defined clearly.
Visibility of each object surface is also determined.

Differentiate between Object space and Image space

method
1. Image space is object based. It 1. It is a pixel-based method. It is
concentrates on geometrical relation concerned with the final image, what
among objects in the scene. is visible within each raster pixel.

2. Here surface visibility is 2. Here line visibility or point visibility

determined. is determined.

3. It is performed at the precision with 3. It is performed using the resolution

which each object is defined, No of the display device.
resolution is considered.

4. Calculations are not based on the 4. Calculations are resolution base, so

resolution of the display so change of the change is difficult to adjust.
object can be easily adjusted.

5. These were developed for vector 5. These are developed for raster
graphics system. devices.

6. Object-based algorithms operate on 6. These operate on object data.

continuous object data.

7. Vector display used for object 7. Raster systems used for image
method has large address space. space methods have limited address
space.

8. Object precision is used for 8. There are suitable for application

application where speed is required. where accuracy is required.

9. It requires a lot of calculations if the 9. Image can be enlarged without

image is to enlarge. losing accuracy.

10. If the number of objects in the 10. In this method complexity increase
scene increases, computation time with the complexity of visible parts.
also increases.

24
Similarity of object and Image space method
In both method sorting is used a depth comparison of individual lines, surfaces are
objected to their distances from the view plane.

Considerations for selecting or designing hidden surface algorithms: Following

three considerations are taken:

1. Sorting
2. Coherence
3. Machine

Sorting: All surfaces are sorted in two classes, i.e., visible and invisible. Pixels are
colored accordingly. Several sorting algorithms are available i.e.

1. Bubble sort
2. Shell sort
3. Quick sort
4. Tree sort
5. Radix sort

Different sorting algorithms are applied to different hidden surface algorithms. Sorting of
objects is done using x and y, z co-ordinates. Mostly z coordinate is used for sorting.
The efficiency of sorting algorithm affects the hidden surface removal algorithm. For
sorting complex scenes or hundreds of polygons complex sorts are used, i.e., quick sort,
tree sort, radix sort.

25
For simple objects selection, insertion, bubble sort is used.

Coherence
It is used to take advantage of the constant value of the surface of the scene. It is based
on how much regularity exists in the scene. When we moved from one polygon of one
object to another polygon of same object color and shearing will remain unchanged.

Types of Coherence
1. Edge coherence
2. Object coherence
3. Face coherence
4. Area coherence
5. Depth coherence
6. Scan line coherence
7. Frame coherence
8. Implied edge coherence

1. Edge coherence: The visibility of edge changes when it crosses another edge or it
also penetrates a visible edge.

2. Object coherence: Each object is considered separate from others. In object,

coherence comparison is done using an object instead of edge or vertex. If A object is
farther from object B, then there is no need to compare edges and faces.

3. Face coherence: In this faces or polygons which are generally small compared with
the size of the image.

4. Area coherence: It is used to group of pixels cover by same visible face.

5. Depth coherence: Location of various polygons has separated a basis of depth.

Depth of surface at one point is calculated, the depth of points on rest of the surface can
often be determined by a simple difference equation.

6. Scan line coherence: The object is scanned using one scan line then using the
second scan line. The intercept of the first line.

7. Frame coherence: It is used for animated objects. It is used when there is little
change in image from one frame to another.

8. Implied edge coherence: If a face penetrates in another, line of intersection can be

determined from two points of intersection.

Algorithms used for hidden line surface detection

1. Back Face Removal Algorithm
2. Z-Buffer Algorithm
3. Painter Algorithm
4. Scan Line Algorithm
5. Subdivision Algorithm

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 6. Floating horizon Algorithm

Unit 2 a Geometric Modelling

3D Modelling System
It is a 2D modeling system plus the addition of some more extra primitives. 3D system
includes all types of user-defined systems. The standard coordinate system used is
called a world coordinate system. Whereas the user-defined coordinate system is called
a user coordinate system.

It is of three types

1. Solid Modelling System

2. Surface Modelling System
3. Wireframe Models

Wireframe Models: It has a lot of other names also i.e.

1. Edge vertex models

2. Stick figure model
3. Polygonal net
4. Polygonal mesh
5. Visible line detection method

Wireframe model consists of vertex, edge (line) and polygons. Edge is used to join
vertex. Polygon is a combination of edges and vertices. The edges can be straight or
curved. This model is used to define computer models of parts, especially for computer-
assisted drafting systems.

Wireframe models are Skelton of lines. Each line has two endpoints. The visibility or
appearance or look of the surface can be should using wireframe. If any hidden section
exists that will be removed or represented using dashed lines. For determining hidden
surface, hidden lines methods or visible line methods are used.

Advantage
1. It is simple and easy to create.
2. It requires little computer time for creation.
3. It requires a short computer memory, so the cost is reduced.
4. Wireframe provides accurate information about deficiencies of the surface.
5. It is suitable for engineering models composed of straight lines.
6. The clipping process in the wireframe model is also easy.
7. For realistic models having curved objects, roundness, smoothness is achieved.

Disadvantage
1. It is given only information about the outlook if do not give any information about the
complex part.
2. Due to the use of lines, the shape of the object lost in cluttering of lines.
3. Each straight line will be represented as collections of four fold lines using data points.

27
 So complexity will be increased.

Scan Conversion Definition

It is a process of representing graphics objects a collection of pixels. The graphics
objects are continuous. The pixels used are discrete. Each pixel can have either on or
off state.

The circuitry of the video display device of the computer is capable of converting binary
values (0, 1) into a pixel on and pixel off information. 0 is represented by pixel off. 1 is
represented using pixel on. Using this ability graphics computer represent picture having
discrete dots.

Any model of graphics can be reproduced with a dense matrix of dots or points. Most
human beings think graphics objects as points, lines, circles, ellipses. For generating
graphical object, many algorithms have been developed.

Advantage of developing algorithms for scan conversion

1. Algorithms can generate graphics objects at a faster rate.
2. Using algorithms memory can be used efficiently.
3. Algorithms can develop a higher level of graphical objects.

Examples of objects which can be scan converted

1. Point
2. Line
3. Sector
4. Arc
5. Ellipse
6. Rectangle
7. Polygon
8. Characters

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 9. Filled Regions

The process of converting is also called as rasterization. The algorithms implementation

varies from one computer system to another computer system. Some algorithms are
implemented using the software. Some are performed using hardware or firmware.
Some are performed using various combinations of hardware, firmware, and software.

Pixel or Pel:
The term pixel is a short form of the picture element. It is also called a point or dot. It is
the smallest picture unit accepted by display devices. A picture is constructed from
hundreds of such pixels. Pixels are generated using commands. Lines, circle, arcs,
characters; curves are drawn with closely spaced pixels. To display the digit or letter
matrix of pixels is used.

The closer the dots or pixels are, the better will be the quality of picture. Closer the dots
are, crisper will be the picture. Picture will not appear jagged and unclear if pixels are
closely spaced. So the quality of the picture is directly proportional to the density of
pixels on the screen.

Pixels are also defined as the smallest addressable unit or element of the screen. Each
pixel can be assigned an address as shown in fig:

Different graphics objects can be generated by setting the different intensity of pixels
and different colors of pixels. Each pixel has some co-ordinate value. The coordinate is
represented using row and column.

P (5, 5) used to represent a pixel in the 5th row and the 5th column. Each pixel has
some intensity value which is represented in memory of computer called a frame buffer.
Frame Buffer is also called a refresh buffer. This memory is a storage area for storing
pixels values using which pictures are displayed. It is also called as digital memory.
Inside the buffer, image is stored as a pattern of binary digits either 0 or 1. So there is an
array of 0 or 1 used to represent the picture. In black and white monitors, black pixels
are represented using 1's and white pixels are represented using 0's. In case of systems

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having one bit per pixel frame buffer is called a bitmap. In systems with multiple bits per
pixel it is called a pixmap.

Scan Converting a Point

Each pixel on the graphics display does not represent a mathematical point. Instead, it
means a region which theoretically can contain an infinite number of points. Scan-
Converting a point involves illuminating the pixel that contains the point.

Example: Display coordinates points as shown in fig would both

be represented by pixel (2, 1). In general, a point p (x, y) is represented by the integer
part of x & the integer part of y that is pixels [(INT (x), INT (y).

Source

https://www.javatpoint.com/computer-graphics-tutorial

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