UNIT-1 SYLLABUS

Introduction to Databases: Characteristics of the Database Approach, Advantages of

using the DBMS Approach, A Brief History of Database Applications. Overview of
Database Languages and Architectures: Data Models, Schemas and Instances, Three-
Schema Architecture and Data Independence, Database Languages and Interfaces,
Database System environment, Centralized and Client-Server Architecture for DBMSs.
Introduction to databases
• A database management system (DBMS) refers to the technology for creating
and managing databases.
• DBMS is a software tool to organize (create, retrieve, update, and manage) data
in a database.
• The main aim of a DBMS is to supply a way to store up and retrieve database
information that is both convenient and efficient.
• A database is one of the essential components for many applications and is used
for storing a series of data in a single set.
• In other words, it is a group/package of information that is put in order so that
it can be easily accessed, manage, and update.

Database: A collection of related data.

Data: Known facts that can be recorded and have an implicit meaning.

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Database Management System (DBMS): Asoftware package/ system to facilitate
the creation and maintenance of a computerized database.
Database System: The DBMS software together with the data itself. Sometimes, the
applications are also included.
Database Applications:
– Banking: all transactions
– Ticket Reservation System (Airlines/Railways/Bus/Cabs)
– Universities: In registration, grades
– Sales: customers, products, purchases
– Human resources: In employee records, salaries, tax deductions
– Social networking sites.

Characteristics of File Processing System

• It is a group of files storing data of an organization.
• Each file is independent from one another.
• Each file contained and processed information for one specific function, such as
accounting or inventory.
• Files are designed by using programs written in programming languages such as
COBOL, C, C++.
• The physical implementation and access procedures are written into database
application; therefore, physical changes resulted in intensive rework on the part of the
programmer.
• As systems became more complex, file processing systems offered
little flexibility, presented many limitations, and were difficult to maintain.

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Database Users:
Users may be divided into
▪ Those who actually use and control the database content, and those who design,
develop and maintain database applications called “Actors on the scene”.
▪ Those who design and develop the DBMS software and related tools, and the
computer
systems operators called “Workers behind the scene”. Actors on the Scene:
1) Database Administrator (DBA): chief administrator, who oversees and manages
the database system (including the data and software). Duties include authorizing
users to access the database, coordinating/monitoring its use, acquiring
hardware/software for upgrades, etc. The DBA is accountable for problems such as
security breaches and poor system response time. In large organizations, the DBA
might have a support staff.
2) Database Designers: responsible for identifying the data to be stored and for
choosing an appropriate way to organize it. Database designers typically interact with
each potential group of users and develop views of the database that meet the data and
processing requirements of these groups. The final database design must be capable
of supporting the requirements of all user groups.
3) End Users: These are persons who access the database for querying, updating, and
report generation. There are several categories of end users:
✓ Casual end users: use database occasionally, needing different information each
time;use query language to specify their requests; typically middle- or high-level
managers.
✓ Naive/Parametric end users: biggest group of users; frequently query/update the
database using standard canned transactions that have been carefully programmed and
tested in advance.
Examples:
▪ Bank tellers check account balances, post withdrawals/deposits
▪ Reservation clerks for airlines, hotels, etc., check availability of seats/rooms and
make reservations.
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▪ Sophisticated end users: Include engineer scientists business analysts and others,
who thoroughly familiarize themselves with the facilities of the DBMS in order to
implement their own applications to meet their complex requirements.
✓ Stand-alone users: maintain personal databases by using ready-made program
packages that provide easy-to-use menu-based or graphics-based interfaces. Example:
user of a tax package that stores a variety of personal financial data for tax purposes
4) System Analysts and Application Programmers (Software Engineers):
System Analysts: determine needs of end users, especially naive and parametric users,
and develop specifications for canned transactions that meet these needs.

Application Programmers: Implement, test, document, and maintain programs that

satisfy the specifications mentioned above.

Workers behind the Scene

1. DBMS system designers and implementers: design and implement the DBMS
modules and interfaces as a software package. A DBMS is a very complex software
system that consists of many components, or modules, including modules for
implementing the catalog, query language processing, interface processing, accessing
and buffering data, controlling concurrency, and handling data recovery and security.
2. Tool developers: design and implement tools that facilitate database modeling and
design, database system design, and improved performance.
3. Operators and maintenance personnel (system administration personnel):
responsible for the actual running and maintenance of the hardware and software
environment for the database system.
Advantages of Database systems:
o Controlling Redundancy
o Restricting Unauthorized access
o Providing persistent storage for program objects and data structures
o Providing multiple user interface
o Representing complex relationships among data
o Enforcing integrity constraints and providing backup and recovery
o Potential for Enforcing Standards

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 o Reduced Application Development Time
o Flexibility
o Availability of Up-to-Date Information:
Brief introduction of different Data Models:
• Data Model gives us an idea that how the final system will look like after its
complete implementation.
• It defines the data elements and the relationships between the data elements.
• Data Models are used to show how data is stored, connected, accessed and
updated in the database management system.
• Here, we use a set of symbols and text to represent the information so that
members of the organization can communicate and understand it.
• Though there are many data models being used nowadays but the Relational
model is the most widely used model.
• Apart from the Relational model, there are many other types of data models
about which we will study in details in this blog.
Some of the Data Models in DBMS are:
• Hierarchical Model
• Network Model
• Entity-Relationship Model
• Relational Model
• Object-Oriented Data Model
• Object-Relational Data Model
• Flat Data Model

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 Diagram of Hierarchical Model

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 Diagram of Network Model

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Database schema:
• The Overall view of the database both physical and logical.
• Physical schema is a database design at the physical level.
• Logical schema is a database design at the logical level.
• The description of a database is called the database schema.
• It is specified during database design and is not expected to change frequently.
• It contains a descriptive detail of the database.
Schema diagram
A displayed schema is called a schema diagram. A schema diagram displays only some
aspects of a schema, such as the names of record types and data items, and some types
of constraints.

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Instance in Database:
• An instance shows the data or information that is stored in the database at a
specific point in time.
• A database instance forms the core of any database management system.
• This instance includes all necessary components to manage and operate a
database.
• it is a dynamic which keeps on changing.

Schema Versus Instance

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Data Independence
• Data Independence is defined as a property of DBMS.
• The ability to modify the schema definition of a DBMS at one level,
without affecting the schema definition of the next higher level is
called data independence.
• This concept is crucial for ensuring that the database can evolve
without affecting the applications or User Interfaces (UI) that interact
with it.
• Data independence ensures that changes at the lower levels do not
necessitate changes at the higher levels, thereby preserving the
database system's integrity and usability.

Types of Data Independence

In DBMS there are two types of data independence
1. Physical data independence
2. Logical data independence.
Logical Data Independence
• Logical data independence refers to changing the logical schema.
• Logical data independence concentrates how the data is organized and
structured.
• Logical data independence says without altering the external schema or
application programs that access the Data. This means that tables, views, or
other database structures can be changed without affecting how users interact
with the data.
Examples of Changes Under Logical Data Independence:

a) Adding or Removing Fields

b) Merging Tables
c) Redefining Relationships

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 Logical Data Independence

Physical data independence:

• Physical data independence is the ability to change the physical
schema.
• This is defined as the ability to modify the physical schema of the
database without the modification causing any changes in the
logical/conceptual or view/external level.
• It says how data is stored on the hardware
• Physical data independence says without affecting the logical schema
or the external applications. This includes changes in storage devices,
indexing strategies, or data compression methods.
Examples of Changes Under Physical Data Independence:
• Using a new storage device like Hard Drive or Magnetic Tapes
• Modifying the file organization technique in the Database
• Switching to different data structures.
• Changing the access method.
• Modifying indexes.
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 • Changes to compression techniques or hashing algorithms.
• Change of Location of Database from say C drive to D Drive

a) Diagram of Physical Data Independence

Physical Data Independence Logical Data Independence

It is concerned with the internal schema of the It is concerned with the conceptual schema of the
database. database.

It is easier to achieve as compared to logical Logical data independence is difficult to achieve

data independence. as compared to physical data independence.

Physical data independence is mostly It is mostly focused on the structure or updating

concerned with how data is saved in the system. data definitions.

Changes at the internal level may or may not be When the database's logical structure needs to be
required to increase the overall performance of modified, the changes made at the logical level are
the database. crucial.

In most cases, a change at the physical level If new fields are added or removed from the
does not necessitate a change at the application database, then updates are required to be made in
program level. the application software.

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Three Tier Schema architecture for data independence:

In this architecture, schemas can be defined at the following three levels:

1. The internal level (physical schema) has an internal schema, which
describes the physical storage structure of the database.
• The physical level is used to describe complex low level data
structures in detail.
• The internal schema uses a physical data model and describes the
complete details of data storage and access paths for the database.
2. The Conceptual level (conceptual schema) has a conceptual
schema,
• which describes the structure of the whole database for a community
of users.
• The conceptual schema hides the details of physical storage
structures and concentrates on describing entities, data types,
relationships, user operation and constraints.
• In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation
of the data structure are hidden.
• Programmers and database administrators work at this level.

3. The External Level or view level includes a number of external

schemas or user views.
• Each external schema describes the part of the database that a
particular user group is interested in and hides the rest of the
database from that user group.
• The view schema describes the end user interaction with database
systems

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 (a) Diagram of Three Tier Schema Architecture

Database system structure

The below diagram shows the typical structure of a database management system. A
Database Management System has three major components:
• Query Processor
• Storage Manager
• Disk Storage.

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 Structure of DBMS

Query Processor
The Query Processor receives the queries (requests) from the user and interprets
them in the form of instructions. It also executes the instructions received from the
DML Compiler. It has the following four components:
1. DML Compiler: It converts the DML (Data Manipulation Language)
Instructions into Machine Language (low-level language).
2. DDL Interpreter: It interprets the DDL (Data Definition Language)
Instructions and stores the record in a data dictionary (in a table containing
meta-data)
3. Query Optimizer: It executes the DML Instructions and picks the lowest cost
evaluation plan out of all the alternatives present.
4. Embedded DML Pre-compiler: It translates the DML statements embedded
in Application Programs into procedural function calls.

Storage Manager
Storage manager acts as the interface between the data stored in the database and the
queries received from the end-user. This component in the Structure of DBMS is
responsible for the constraints applied to the data so that it remains consistent. It also
executes the DCL (Data Control Language). It encapsulates the following modules:
1. Authorization and Integrity Manager: It checks the authority of various
users who access data and the Integrity Constraints of the database.

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 2. Transaction Manager: Its job is to assure the system remains in a proper
state during the transaction process. It also ensures that concurrent
transactions are executed without any conflict.
3. File Manager: It manages the space allocation of files in disk and data
structures which stores information in the database.
4. Buffer Manager: It manages the transfer of data between the secondary and
main memory. It also decides what data should be cached in the memory.

Disk Storage
The Disk Storage in the Structure of DBMS represents the space where data is
stored. It has the following components:
1. Files: These are responsible for storing the data.
2. Data Dictionary: It is the repository that maintains the information of the
database object and maintains the metadata.
3. Indices: These are the keys that are used for faster retrieval of data.

Thus, the Structure of DBMS represents the functional modules that are employed to
process the queries received from the user, retrieve the data, maintain the changes in
the database and optimize the data retrieval.

Types of DBMS Client Server Architecture

In a database, there are various types of DBMS architectures. In the current database
management systems, the types of architecture are represented in the form of levels or
layers and these layers when combined to form an architecture are called a tier of
architecture.

For example, If there are n-tier architecture, then it will contain n-layers in it to
represent the database. Like, a 1-tier architecture splits the DBMS into a single layer,
a 2-tier architecture divides the DBMS into two layers, a 3-tier architecture into three
layers, and so on. Consequently, an n-tier DBMS Architecture separates the entire
DBMS into related but n-independent layers or levels. The complexity of the DBMS
structure and its level of security rise as the layers in the architecture go higher because
of the rising level of abstraction.

Let’s now discuss the three tiers of architecture used in the current systems of the
databases:

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1-Tier Architecture in DBMS
The simplest or the easiest form of DBMS architecture is the 1-tier architecture. This
architecture is not commonly used in today’s database management systems. In this
architecture, the database and the application interface are tightly integrated to form a
single system. The 1-tier architecture is used in applications like standalone
applications where the user directly interacts with the database.

The client, server, and database are all located on the same system in a 1-tier
architecture, where the user can access the database directly on the DBMS without
any method or access.

Features:
• The simplest form of architecture.
• The database application logic and the user interface are all located on a single
machine.
• The client can directly access the database without any access restrictions.
• It is suitable for small applications but not for large-scale applications.
• It provides the best performance in small applications.

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Advantages:
• It is simple to design and implement.
• The one-tier architecture requires less cost and less network infrastructure.
• This architecture is suitable for programmers, database administrators, and
developers.

Disadvantages:
• As the user can directly access the database any unauthorised user can modify
the database.
• The 1-tier architecture is not scalable for multi-user or large-scale applications.

2-Tier Architecture in DBMS

A 2-tier architecture is known as client-server architecture, in which it consists of a
client and a server. 28 architecture is commonly known as 2-schema architecture, as
there will be two different schemas used to define the architecture. A 2-tier architecture
consists of two different layers, the client layer and the server layer, wherein the client
layer represents the user interface and the application logic while the server layer is
used in managing the storage, database, and processing of the user’s queries.

In a two-tier architecture, the client can communicate with the server to process user
queries and access the data from the database. A 2-tier architecture is also known as a
connection-oriented architecture because the client has to first establish a connection
to communicate with the server and then the transfer of data to a database is
performed.

Features:
• It consists of a client and server that interact with the database systems.

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 • There is direct communication between the client and server to send queries
and get the results from the database.
• It is useful for medium to large-scale applications.
• When there are less number of users, a 2-tier architecture is very useful.

Advantages:

• It is useful for small and medium applications where there are a limited number
of users.
• It provides scalability.
• It is the simplest form of architecture compared to three-tier architecture.
• It uses less cost as compared to a 3-tier or another-tier architecture.
• It is very simple to implement.

Disadvantages:
• The two-tier architecture is not useful for large-scale applications and has a very
large number of users.
• It requires connection, and it is dependent on the network.
• Adding more clients requires more server performance, thereby representing
limited scalability.

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3-Tier Architecture in DBMS
A three tier architecture in DBMS is called a multi-tier architecture as it introduces
an additional layer between the client and the server. This additional layer is often
known as the middle layer or the application server or middleware that contains the
application and the business logic for data processing.
There is no direct communication between the client and the server. The client
consists of an application client layer, whereas the server consists of an application
server layer. In this architecture, the client communicates with an application server,
which connects to the database system through more communication, allowing for
the processing of queries and transaction management.
Note that the end user is unaware that the database exists anywhere else than the
application server. Additionally, the database is only aware of the application user
and not any other external users.
Features:
• Each layer is responsible for specific purposes in the database management
system.
• It supports horizontal scaling by distributing the load across multiple servers.
• If one layer is affected, then the other layer is not affected.
• It provides a great level of security.
Advantages:
• It is useful for large-scale applications where there are large numbers of users
accessing the database.
• It provides a great level of scalability and can scale each layer independently
to handle more user data.
• This architecture is easier to maintain, and each layer can be updated
independently as required.
• This architecture provides the highest level of security.
• Data integrity can be seen in this level of architecture.

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Disadvantages:
• This architecture requires more infrastructure and operational costs as
compared to other architectures.
• The schema design for this architecture is complex and difficult to implement.
• This architecture is not suitable for small-scale or medium-scale applications.
• Scaling the application by adding an extra layer can introduce latency in the
processing of data and communication.

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Entity Relationship Model:
• The Entity Relationship model was proposed by Peter Chen in 1976.
• ER model is a logical representation of an enterprise data. ER model
is a diagrammatic representation of logical structure of database.
• Entity-Relationship Model or simply ER Model is a high-level data
model diagram.
• In this model, we represent the real-world problem in the pictorial
form to make it easy for the stakeholders to understand.
• It is also very easy for the developers to understand the system by
just looking at the ER diagram.
• We use the ER diagram as a visual tool to represent an ER Model.
• ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model. It is a high-level
data model.
• E-R model describes relationship among entities and attributes.
• Entity Relationship Diagrams are the best tools to communicate
within the entire system.
• These diagrams are the graphical representation of the flow of data
and information.
• These diagrams are most commonly used in business organizations
to make data travel easy.
• This conceptual database model is an effective way of
communicating with the individuals at all the levels.
• The most common use of this diagram is to present the relation of
the various tables present in a database.
ER diagram has the following three components
• Entities: Entity is a real-world thing. It can be a person, place, or
even a concept.
Example: Teachers, Students, Course, Building, Department, etc.,
are some of the entities of a School Management System.

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 • Attributes: An entity contains a real-world property called attribute.
This is the characteristics of that attribute.
Example: The entity teacher has the property like teacher id, salary,
age, etc.
• Relationship: Relationship tells how two attributes are related.
Example: Teacher works for a department.

Following are the main components and its symbols in ER Diagrams:

• Rectangles: This Entity Relationship Diagram symbol represents
entity types
• Ellipses : Symbol represent attributes
• Diamonds: This symbol represents relationship types
• Lines: It links attributes to entity types and entity types with other
relationship types
• Primary key: attributes are underlined
• Double Ellipses: Represent multi-valued attribute

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 Advantages of ER Model

• Simple: Conceptually ER Model is very easy to build. If we know the

relationship between the attributes and the entities we can easily build
the ER Diagram for the model.
• Effective Communication Tool: This model is used widely by the
database designers for communicating their ideas.
• Easy Conversion to any Model: This model maps well to the
relational model and can be easily converted relational model by
converting the ER model to the table. This model can also be
converted to any other model like network model, hierarchical model
etc.

Disadvantages of ER Model

• No industry standard for notation: There is no industry standard

for developing an ER model. So one developer might use notations
which are not understood by other developers.
• Hidden information: Some information might be lost or hidden in
the ER model. As it is a high-level view so there are chances that
some details of information might be hidden

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 Entity
It may be an object, person, place or event that stores data in a
database. In E-R diagram an entity is represented in rectangle form.
For example, students, employees, managers, etc.
The entity is pictorially depicted as follows:

Entity set
It is a collection of entities of the same type which share similar
properties. For example, a group of students in a college and
students are an entity set

Entity is characterized into two types as follows:

a. Strong entity set
b. Weak entity set

a. Strong entity set: The entity types which consist of key attributes
or if there are enough attributes for forming a primary key attribute
are called a strong entity set. It is represented by a single rectangle.

b. Weak entity set: An entity does not have a primary key attribute
and depends on another strong entity via foreign key attribute. It is
represented by a double rectangle.

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 2. Attributes
These are the data characteristics of entities or data elements and
data fields.

Types of attributes
The types of attributes in the Entity Relationship (ER) model are as
follows:
1. Single value attribute − these attributes contain a single value. For
example, age, salary etc.
2. Key Attributes- The key attribute is used to represent the main
characteristics of an entity. It represents a primary key. The key
attribute is represented by an ellipse with the text underlined

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 3.Multivalued attribute − they contain more than one value of a
single entity. For example, phone numbers, Email_Ids, etc.

4. Composite attribute − the attributes which can be further divided.

For example, Name consists of First name, Middle name, last
name.

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 5. Derived attribute − the attribute that can be derived from other
attributes. For example, age can be derived based on DoB.

3. Relationships
A relationship is used to describe the relation between entities.
Diamond or rhombus is used to represent the relationship.

Degree of Relationship: A relationship where a number of different

entities set participate is called a degree of a relationship.

It is categorized into the following:

1. Unary Relationship: A unary relationship exists when both the
participating entity type are the same. When such a relationship
is present, we say that the degree of relationship is 1

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 2.Binary Relationship:
• A binary relationship exists when exactly two entity type
participates. When such a relationship is present we say
that the degree is 2.
• This is the most common degree of relationship. It is easy
to deal with such relationship as these can be easily
converted into relational tables.

3.Ternary Relationship:
• A ternary relationship exists when exactly three entity type
participates. When such a relationship is present we say
that the degree is 3.
• As the number of entity increases in the relationship, it
becomes complex to convert them into relational tables.

Mapping Constraints:

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A mapping constraint is a data constraint that expresses the number of
entities to which another entity can be related via a relationship set.
It is most useful in describing the relationship sets that involve more than
two entity sets.
For binary relationship set R on an entity set A and B, there are four possible
mapping cardinalities.
a. One-to-One (1:1)
b. One-to-Many (1:M)
c. Many-to-One (M:1)
d. Many-to-Many (M:M)

a.One-to-One Relationship: When only one instance of an entity is

associated with the relationship, then it is known as one to one relationship.

b. One-to-many relationship: When only one instance of the entity of the

left, and more than one instance of an entity on the right associates with
the relationship then this is known as a one-to-many relationship.

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C. Many-to-one relationship: When more than one instance of the entity
on the left, and only one instance of an entity on the right associates with
the relationship then it is known as a many-to-one relationship.

d. Many-to-many relationship: When more than one instance of the entity

on the left, and more than one instance of an entity on the right associates
with the relationship then it is known as a many-to-many relationship.

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Specialization and Generalization
Generalization is like a bottom-up approach in which two or more entities of lower
level combine to form a higher-level entity if they have some attributes in common.
In generalization, entities are combined to form a more generalized entity, i.e.,
subclasses are combined to make a superclass.
For example, Faculty and Student entities can be generalized and create a higher-
level entity, Person.

Specialization
• Itis a top-down approach, and it is opposite to Generalization. In
specialization, one higher level entity can be broken down into two lower
level entities.
• Specialization is used to identify the subset of an entity set that shares some
distinguishing characteristics.
• Normally, the superclass is defined first, the subclass and its related attributes
are defined next, and relationship set are then added.

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Inheritance
• Inheritance is a feature of generalization and specialization.
• Lower-level entities inherit the attributes of higher-level entities.
• Relationships involving higher-level entity sets are inherited by lower-level
entity sets.
Example: The entities Car and Bus inherit the attributes of the Vehicle entity. Car is
described by the attributes of Vehicle and its own attributes.

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Aggregation
Aggregation is used to express a relationship among relationships.
It treats relationships as higher-level entities. It is used when a relationship between
two entities needs to be considered as a single entity, which then has a relationship
with another entity.
Example: Consider a ternary relationship "works_on" between Employee, Branch,
and Job, where an employee works on a particular job at a particular branch.

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