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Doi:10.32604/cmes.2025.063571 Published Online: 12 May 2025

ARTICLE

Optimization of Reconfiguration and Resource Allocation for Distributed

Generation and Capacitor Banks Using NSGA-II: A Multi-Scenario Approach
Tareq Hamadneh1 , Belal Batiha2 , Frank Werner3, * , Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti4, * , Ilhami Colak5
and El Manaa Barhoumi6
1
Department of Mathematics, Al Zaytoonah University of Jordan, Amman, 11733, Jordan
2
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science and Information Technology, Jadara University, Irbid, 21110, Jordan
3
Faculty of Mathematics, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, 39016, Germany
4
Department of Electrical Engineering, Jo.C., Islamic Azad University, Jouybar, Iran
5
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Science, Istinye University, Istanbul,
Turkey
6
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, Dhofar University, Salalah, Oman
*Corresponding Authors: Frank Werner. Email: [email protected];
Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti. Email: [email protected] or [email protected]
Received: 18 January 2025; Accepted: 30 April 2025

ABSTRACT: Reconfiguration, as well as optimal utilization of distributed generation sources and capacitor banks, are
highly effective methods for reducing losses and improving the voltage profile, or in other words, the power quality in
the power distribution system. Researchers have considered the use of distributed generation resources in recent years.
There are numerous advantages to utilizing these resources, the most significant of which are the reduction of network
losses and enhancement of voltage stability. Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II), Multi-Objective
Particle Swarm Optimization (MOPSO), and Intersect Mutation Differential Evolution (IMDE) algorithms are used
in this paper to perform optimal reconfiguration, simultaneous location, and capacity determination of distributed
generation resources and capacitor banks. Three scenarios were used to replicate the studies. The reconfiguration of the
switches, as well as the location and determination of the capacitor bank’s optimal capacity, were investigated in this
scenario. However, in the third scenario, reconfiguration, and determining the location and capacity of the Distributed
Generation (DG) resources and capacitor banks have been carried out simultaneously. Finally, the simulation results of
these three algorithms are compared. The results indicate that the proposed NSGAII algorithm outperformed the other
two multi-objective algorithms and was capable of maintaining smaller objective functions in all scenarios. Specifically,
the energy losses were reduced from 211 to 51.35 kW (a 75.66% reduction), 119.13 kW (a 43.54% reduction), and 23.13 kW
(an 89.04% reduction), while the voltage stability index (VSI) decreased from 6.96 to 2.105, 1.239, and 1.257, respectively,
demonstrating significant improvement in the voltage profile.

KEYWORDS: Distribution network reconfiguration; energy losses; distributed generations; capacitor banks; NSGAII

1 Introduction
Each year, power grids experience significant energy losses, resulting in substantial financial burdens
on utility companies. These losses not only reduce revenue but also incur costs related to new infrastructure,
power outages, and environmental damage caused by energy generation. Among these, the majority of losses
occur in distribution networks. In our country, over 15% of the net energy produced by power plants is

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2 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

lost solely within distribution networks. The increased energy losses in the electrical distribution system—
comprising medium-voltage and low-voltage sections—stem from several factors. These include low voltage
levels, high current magnitudes along feeders, and the radial structure of the network, phase current
imbalances, harmonic distortions, equipment degradation, and unauthorized connections. To mitigate
distribution system losses and enhance voltage stability, a variety of strategies can be implemented. These
include installing capacitors, integrating distributed energy resources, employing peak load shaving through
consumption management, replacing network conductors, optimizing voltage levels, and reconfiguring the
network [1].
Distributed generation offers numerous advantages for power systems, such as enhanced power quality,
improved voltage profiles, reduced energy losses, peak load shaving, increased system reliability, and
decreased line congestion. It can be utilized for both active and reactive power generation. However, since
capacitor banks provide reactive power generation at a much lower cost, distributed generation sources
are often considered to generate only pure active power when operating at their optimal power factor per
unit. By consistently supplying both active and reactive power directly to load sites, distributed generation
reduces transmission losses and enhances voltage levels, thereby improving reliability and overall system
performance. However, the placement of distributed generation units plays a crucial role. Selecting an
unsuitable installation location can lead to higher costs and reduced operational efficiency.
Reconfiguration is one of the simplest and most cost-effective methods for reducing losses in distribu-
tion systems [2]. To achieve this, the optimal configuration of the distribution network must be identified,
considering the various loads and the dispersed active and reactive power sources within the network. This
process aims to minimize energy losses while enhancing voltage stability. Due to the vast number of potential
configurations in a distribution network and the impracticality of analyzing each one individually, intelligent
algorithms are essential for identifying the most effective configuration to minimize losses.
The types of distributed generation sources suitable for compensating active and reactive power to
minimize power losses in distribution networks are analyzed in [3]. Furthermore, the article aims to optimize
the voltage profile across all buses. The IEEE 33-bus and 69-bus standard systems are examined, and the
results obtained using the proposed method in this study are compared with those derived from analytical
approaches. The reference emphasizes that metaheuristic methods are more suitable for large-scale systems
due to their faster convergence rates.
Ref. [4] addresses a multi-objective approach to determine the optimal location and sizing of capacitors
in distribution networks. The study considers network losses and capacitor investment costs as two objective
functions to be minimized. This method generates multiple optimal solutions, where a trade-off exists
between reducing investment costs and achieving higher efficiency. The decision-maker can select the most
appropriate solution based on their priorities.
Ref. [5] tackles the capacitor placement problem with three primary objectives: reducing energy losses,
improving the power factor, and lowering substation voltage to decrease peak load consumption. Enhancing
the power factor simultaneously contributes to improved voltage stability in the network. The problem is
solved using the NSGA (Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm) optimization technique.
Ref. [6] explores the simultaneous placement of capacitors and distributed generation sources in a
radial distribution network with varying load levels. The objectives of the study are to minimize active and
reactive power losses, conserve energy, and enhance the voltage profile. Additionally, the impact of capacitors
and distributed generation on voltage stability is analyzed. To determine the optimal solution, the study
employs memetic or hybrid algorithms, which integrate local search techniques with genetic algorithms. The
proposed method is tested and evaluated on a sample distribution network to verify its effectiveness.
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 3

Ref. [7] highlights the significance of reactive power alongside active power in power systems. The
article underscores the critical role of controlling reactive current to maximize real power transmission.
The primary objectives are to minimize active power losses and reduce the system’s reactive power. The
study incorporates distributed generation sources and parallel capacitors into the sample system. The
proposed method enhances system reliability and loading capacity by optimizing the location and sizing of
distributed generation sources and capacitors. This is achieved using a decomposition-based multi-objective
evolutionary algorithm (MOEA). The algorithm decomposes the multi-objective optimization problem into
several sub-problems, which are solved simultaneously. The paper evaluates its approach on standard 119-bus,
69-bus, and 33-bus networks. The results demonstrate the superior performance of the proposed algorithm
compared to other similar techniques.
Ref. [8] addresses the network reconfiguration problem using the Runner Root Algorithm (RRA). This
algorithm is inspired by the performance of runners and the natural growth patterns of plant roots. The
primary objectives of the study are to minimize active power losses, achieve load balance among branches,
and ensure load balance across feeders. Additionally, the maximum-minimum method is employed to
identify optimal switching operations and voltage deviation points. The study evaluates the proposed
approach using standard 33-bus and 70-bus networks. The results indicate that the RRA algorithm is an
effective tool for reconfiguring networks with one or multiple specific objectives.
Ref. [9] presents a method for the simultaneous placement of distributed generation resources and
network reconfiguration using the new dedicated search teaching learning based optimization (DSTLBO)
algorithm. This algorithm is designed to enhance the convergence, accuracy, and efficiency of the standard
Teaching-Learning-Based Optimization (TLBO) method. The primary objectives of the optimization in this
study are to minimize power losses and improve the voltage profile. The proposed method is validated on a
standard 33-bus system, with results demonstrating the algorithm’s optimal performance and effectiveness.
Ref. [10] addresses the capacitor installation and network reconfiguration problems in two stages. The
branch replacement method is employed for the reconfiguration process. Daily load curves are used to
calculate the final losses, but they are not directly involved in solving the problem. Reliability assessments
are conducted on the test networks, although they do not influence the optimization process and are only
used for monitoring purposes.
In Ref. [11], the capacitor installation and reconfiguration problems are tackled simultaneously. In this
approach, the capacitor is rearranged and adjusted to minimize losses. The configuration of switches is
determined using the Simulated Annealing (SA) method, while the optimal capacitance is found using a
discrete optimization algorithm.
Capacitor installation and network reconfiguration have been employed to minimize power losses in
Ref. [12]. Both problems are solved using the Simulated Annealing (SA) method. The study offers four
approaches: reconfiguration only, capacitor installation only, capacitor installation followed by reconfigu-
ration, and simultaneous capacitor installation and reconfiguration. The results show that the concurrent
approach yields the best outcomes in terms of loss reduction.
In Ref. [13], the simultaneous consideration of capacitor installation and network reconfiguration is
used to minimize both losses and costs over time. The Intelligent Adaptive Genetic Algorithm (IAGA)
is utilized as the main optimization technique for tuning capacitors, while a simplified branch switching
algorithm is applied for reconfiguration. The study demonstrates that considering both capacitor installation
and reconfiguration together results in the lowest losses and costs. One of the key advantages of the IAGA
algorithm is its ability to perform a comprehensive search.
4 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

Ref. [14] employs capacitance tuning and network reconfiguration to minimize losses using the ACSA
(Ant Colony Search Algorithm). In this study, reconfiguration is performed simultaneously with capacitor
installation, and the results show that addressing both simultaneously yields better outcomes. ACSA is
compared with the Simulated Annealing (SA) and Genetic Algorithm (GA), demonstrating its superiority
over both methods.
Ref. [15] proposes a computationally efficient analytical solution for capacitor installation and network
reconfiguration. The problem is simplified by linearizing and approximating it into smaller, static problems,
thus reducing the computational burden. Network reconfiguration is carried out using the branch replace-
ment method. Daily load curves are used for calculations, which are repeated over three hours, with each
bus having its own specific load curve.
Ref. [16] utilizes the primal-dual interior-point method to solve the problems of capacitor installation
and network reconfiguration. A continuous function is used to model discrete variables, and Lagrangian
multipliers serve as sensitivity indices for reconfiguration. The proposed algorithm divides the reconfigura-
tion and capacitor installation tasks into two distinct steps, allowing one to be completed before the other.
The simulations consider two different types of daily load curves, assuming each busbar follows one of these
load curves.
In Ref. [17], capacitor installation and reconfiguration problems are addressed using a modified Particle
Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm. In addition to minimizing energy losses, the objective function also
aims to reduce costs over time. The load is modeled as a piecewise linear function with three levels. PSO
adjustments are made such that the inertia weight decreases linearly from 0.9 to 0.2 across iterations, which
enhances the solution’s performance.
Ref. [18] explores the combined effects of the Harmony Search and Artificial Bee Colony algorithms. The
study investigates network reconfiguration alongside the placement and sizing of capacitors and distributed
generation sources. The proposed hybrid technique was tested on 69 and 118-bus networks to minimize active
power losses and enhance the voltage profile. This hybrid approach exhibits faster convergence and a larger
memory footprint compared to each individual method. The results indicate that the hybrid algorithm is
highly effective in addressing the network reconfiguration problem, as well as in determining the optimal
capacity and placement of capacitors and distributed generation sources.
Ref. [19] proposes a methodology for addressing the distribution network reconfiguration (DNR)
challenge in the presence of distributed generation (DG) by utilizing the parallel slime mould algorithm
(PSMA). In Ref. [20], an integrated approach is presented for the simultaneous optimization of photovoltaic
(PV) panel and wind turbine (WT) placement alongside the reconfiguration of radial distribution networks.
This strategy aims to minimize power loss costs while enhancing system reliability. The optimization
framework leverages an improved salp swarm algorithm (ISSA), which incorporates differential evolutionary
(DE) operators to refine the standard salp swarm algorithm (SSA). This hybridization effectively mitigates
the risk of the algorithm being trapped in local optima and accelerates convergence towards the global
optimal solution. Ref. [21] addresses the problem of distribution network reconfiguration combined with
simultaneous capacitor switching, incorporating the integration of wind generators and solar panels. The
study utilizes the Simulated Annealing and Minimum Spanning Tree algorithms, applied independently,
to determine optimal solutions. The main objectives are to achieve power loss minimization and cost
reduction. Ref. [22] proposed a Hybrid Archimedes Optimization Algorithm (HAOA) for optimal placement
of distributed generation to minimize power loss and enhance voltage stability, focusing on improving the
efficiency and reliability of distribution systems. Ref. [23] introduced a Hybrid Meta-Heuristic Algorithm
(HMHA) for network reconfiguration, addressing multi-objective functions in distribution networks to
achieve optimal performance in terms of loss reduction and system stability.
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 5

As mentioned earlier, most researchers have focused on the issues of reconfiguration, distributed
generation source placement, and capacitor installation separately. Fewer studies have addressed all three
aspects together. This paper discusses all three topics in an integrated manner. The objective of this paper is
to optimize the switch reconfiguration of the distribution network, alongside the placement of distributed
generation sources and parallel capacitors, to maximize voltage stability and minimize power losses. Table 1
summarizes several of the studies on the distribution network reconfiguration optimization and the DG
placement optimization. Various algorithms and methodologies have been proposed in these works tar-
geting bettering system performance in terms of loss minimization, voltage stability margin improvement,
reliability, etc. The key works, their optimization approaches, and objectives addressed are summarized in
the table.
Table 1: Optimization methods and key focus areas in distribution network reconfiguration and DG placement

Reference Objectives Algorithms System Key focus areas

models
evaluated
Duan et al., Loss reduction, Enhanced Genetic 33-, 69-bus Distribution network
(2015) [1] reliability Algorithm (EGA) reconfiguration
improvement
Teimourzadeh, Loss reduction Binary group search 33-bus Distribution network
Zare optimization reconfiguration
(2014) [2]
Kansal et al., Optimal DG Various metaheuristic IEEE 33-, DG placement and
(2013) [3] placement, loss approaches 69-bus voltage optimization
reduction
Sajjadi et al., Loss reduction, Hybrid memetic IEEE 33-, Simultaneous
(2013) [6] voltage profile algorithm, Genetic 69-bus placement of
optimization algorithm capacitors and DG
Biswas et al., Loss reduction, Multi-objective 33-, 69-, Optimal placement
(2017) [7] reliability evolutionary 119-bus and sizing of DG and
improvement algorithm (MOEA) capacitors
Nguyen Loss reduction, Runner root 33-, 70-bus Distribution network
et al., load balancing algorithm (RRA) reconfiguration with
(2017) [8] load balancing
Kanwar Loss reduction, Dedicated Search 33-bus DG placement and
et al., voltage profile Teaching Learning network
(2016) [9] improvement Based Optimization reconfiguration
(DSTLBO)
Muthukumar, Loss minimization, Hybrid approaches 33-, 69-bus Distribution network
Jayalalitha voltage and DG reconfiguration with
(2017) [18] optimization DG and capacitor
placement
Wang et al., Loss reduction, Slime Mould 33-, 69-, Distribution network
(2022) [19] voltage profile Algorithm (SMA) 119-bus reconfiguration with
optimization DG
(Continued)
6 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

Table 1 (continued)

Reference Objectives Algorithms System Key focus areas

models
evaluated
Fathi et al., Renewable Salp Swarm IEEE 33-, Allocation of
(2023) [20] resource allocation Algorithm (SSA) 69-bus renewable resources
in network in distribution
reconfiguration networks
Stojanović Reactive power Simulated Annealing 33-, 69-, Reactive power
et al., compensation, (SA) and minimum 119-bus compensation and
(2023) [21] network spanning tree reconfiguration
reconfiguration algorithm
Adegoke Loss reduction, Hybrid Archimedes 33-bus Network
et al., multi-objective Optimization reconfiguration and
(2024) [22] network Algorithm (HAOA) performance
optimization optimization
Adegoke Loss reduction, Hybrid IEEE 33-bus DG placement and
et al., voltage stability Meta-Heuristic voltage profile
(2024) [23] improvement Algorithm (HMHA) optimization

There are various techniques for identifying capacitors, distributed generation sources, and network
reconfiguration. However, due to the complexity of distribution system challenges—such as the diversity
of equipment, model intricacy, and rising uncertainty—it becomes increasingly difficult to address these
issues. Therefore, efforts are made to solve distribution system problems as close to the optimal solution
as possible, in order to enhance the understanding of the system’s technical and economic challenges.
Nonetheless, mathematical optimization methods often fail to deliver optimal solutions. As a result, this
study aims to employ meta-heuristic techniques, which are intelligent approaches. In this paper, the NSGA-
II algorithm is used to optimize the objective function, focusing on enhancing the voltage profile and
minimizing losses. While the techniques employed in this study (NSGA-II, MOPSO, and IMDE) are widely
used in optimization, their integration in the simultaneous optimization of network reconfiguration, DG
placement, and capacitor bank sizing represents a novel approach in the literature. Most previous studies
have addressed these issues separately, focusing on one or two parameters at a time. In contrast, this work
provides a comprehensive, integrated solution that optimizes the power distribution system’s performance
across all three dimensions, ensuring enhanced voltage stability and minimized power losses. This integrated
optimization approach contributes significant novelty and practical value to the existing body of knowledge.
The second section outlines the reconfiguration process and its significance within the distribution
system. The third section addresses the mathematical formulations and modeling of the problem. The fourth
section focuses on the algorithm used to carry out the optimization process. In the fifth section, simulation
results are presented for three different scenarios, followed by a comparison of the various modes examined.
Finally, the sixth section summarizes the overall conclusions of the study.
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 7

2 The Importance of Distribution Network Reconfiguration

Due to their direct connection to consumers, electricity distribution networks must adapt to changing
consumption situations. Changing consumption at irregular intervals, which is most noticeable during the
changing seasons, can occasionally cause technical problems in the network, including network losses,
overload on the above distribution substation, the voltage drop in distribution substations, and overcurrent
in 20 kV feeders. On the other hand, with the addition of new customers to the network, any of these issues
is feasible. Particularly when these additional subscribers impose a substantial load on the network. There
are numerous ways to resolve such issues, including strengthening the feeder, constructing new feeders
and capacitors, and constructing new medium-pressure substations. Additionally, because the distribution
network’s load fluctuates, as is the nature of this network, the network’s losses are changeable and the voltage
level fluctuates. On the other hand, as line flow distribution levels and line resistance increase, distribution
network losses increase, resulting in a loss of investment in the energy business. Given that all of the above
solutions require significant time and money, the most economical and expedient solution is one that allows
for the resolution of problems in the majority of cases while also making maximum and optimal use of
existing facilities, such as reconfiguring distribution networks to reduce hosting costs.
Distribution network reconfiguration is a typical way of decreasing losses and achieving optimal
network functioning, in which losses are decreased and voltage profiles are improved by transferring the
load from feeder to feeder and balancing the load going through the feeders [24–28].
Choosing the optimal configuration for a network from a large number of possible configurations is
the solution to an optimization problem. There are numerous approaches for this, including linear and
non-linear optimization, as well as methods based on artificial intelligence. Meta-heuristic and intelligent
methods have advanced greatly in recent years. The NSGAII optimization technique is used in this article to
determine the optimal configuration for the sample network.

3 Objective Function
It is vital to choose the proper objective function when reconfiguring and optimally locating distributed
generation units and capacitor banks using meta-heuristic algorithms. In this paper, the objective function is
a function of line losses and a voltage stability function. The objective is to reduce the size of this function [7].
nn
f1 = ∑ i=2 (Pg ni − Pd ni − Vmi Vni Yni cos (δ mi − δ ni + θ ni )) (1)

1
f2 = ( ) n i = 2, 3, . . . , n n (2)
SI(ni)
where:
4 2 2
SI (n i ) = ∣Vmi ∣ − 4 [Pni (ni) R ni + Q ni (ni)X ni ] ∣Vmi ∣ − 4 [Pni (ni) X ni − Q ni (ni)R ni ] (3)

In the Eqs. (1) to (3), Vmi represents the median voltage at node i, Xni represents inductive reactance in
branch n−i, Rni represents resistance in branch n−i and nn represents total number of nodes in the system.
While Pni and Qni denote the active and reactive power connected to the bus on the receiver side. To ensure
stable system operation, the stability index (SI) must remain greater than zero. Consequently, the bus with
the lowest SI is the closest to experiencing voltage collapse. Integrating distributed generation sources and
capacitor banks into the existing network must be carried out with caution to avoid compromising normal
network operations. This ensures that all network requirements are satisfied, and the load is reliably supplied.
As a result, several constraints must be considered, some of which are outlined below [7]:
8 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

3.1 Constraints
Power Flow Constraints: To maintain load distribution, the following two equations must be satisfied
at all buses (excluding the slack bus). The balance between energy generation and consumption should be
always maintained.
N
Pg i − Pd i − ∑ j=1, j≠sl ack ∣p i ∣ ∣p j ∣ ∣y i j ∣ cos (δ i − δ j − θ i j ) = 0 (4)

N
Q g i − Q d i − ∑ j=1, j≠sl ack ∣ϑ i ∣ ∣ϑ j ∣ ∣y i j ∣ sin (δ i − δ j − θ i j ) = 0 (5)

In Eqs. (4) and (5), Pgi and Pdi represent the active power generated and consumed at the ith bus,
respectively, while Qgi and Qdi denote the reactive power generated and consumed at the same bus. The terms
v i and δ i correspond to the voltage magnitude and angle of the ith bus, and y i j and θ i j are the admittance
and admittance angle of the line connecting buses i and j.
Maximum Current Constraint across Lines: The power transmission capacity of the lines is subject
to thermal limitations. Therefore, the current (or power) flowing through the lines must not exceed the
maximum thermal capacity of the network’s lines.

∣I i j ∣ ≤ ∣I imax
j ∣ (6)

In Eq. (6), I imax

j is the maximum current passing the line between bus i and j.
DGs’ Active Power Generation Constraints: Distributed generation sources’ active power generation must
be within the permissible range. These limits may also be a result of distributed generation’s technical or
economic constraints.
min
PDGi ≤ PDGi ≤ Pmax
DGi (7)

In the above equation, PDGi represents the maximum active power output of the distributed generation
(DG) unit.
Reactive Power Constraint for Capacitor Bank: The reactive power supplied by the capacitor banks must
remain within the following range:
min
QCapi ≤ QCapi ≤ QCapi
max
(8)

In Eq. (8), QCapi denotes the reactive power generated by the capacitor banks.

3.2. Power Flow Using the Forward-Backward Sweep (FBS) Method

This method’s two fundamental steps are forward and backward sweeping. These two steps can be
described simply as follows [8]:
Forward Sweep:
This step involves traversing the entire network from the reference bus (typically the distribution
substation) to the feeder’s endpoint. During this process, one of the network metrics, such as bus voltage, is
typically updated. In simpler terms, bus voltages are recalculated using the branch currents from the previous
iteration and the radial structure of the network. This step generally updates a parameter whose value varies
along the feeder’s length, with bus voltage being the most common example.
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 9

Backward Sweep:
In this step, the feeder is traversed in the opposite direction, from its endpoint back to the reference bus.
It updates parameters related to those calculated in the forward sweep, such as branch currents. For example,
the branch currents at the feeder’s end are recalculated based on the bus voltages determined during the
forward sweep.
Forward-Backward Sweeping Methods:
These iterative methods are widely used in distribution load flow analysis due to their speed, low
computational memory requirements, and strong convergence characteristics. The process is repeated until
convergence is achieved. These methods are categorized into three types:
• Current Summation Method
• Power Summation Method
• Impedance Summation Method
The steps involved in the forward-backward sweeping approach for a nonlinear network are as follows:
1. Determine the reference bus (slack bus) in the network.
2. Set the voltage magnitude and angle at each node, typically initialized as 1∠0 pu.
3. Compute the currents at each node during the kth iteration using the appropriate equations as follows:
⎡ sch ⎤∗
⎢ Si ⎥
=⎢ ⎥
(k)
Ii ⎢ (k−1) ⎥ (9)
⎢ Vi ⎥
⎣ ⎦
sch: schedule
4. Traverse from the beginning of the feeder (slack bus) to the end, calculating the voltage at each node during
the kth iteration.
(k)
Vjk−1 = Vik − Z i j I i j (10)

The power error at each node is then calculated. If the error is smaller than the allowable threshold,
the process is complete. Otherwise, the algorithm returns to step 3. The power error is calculated using the
following equation:
(k) (k) ∗
ΔSi (k) = Ssch
i − Vi (I i ) ≤ ε (11)

4 Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II)

The Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II) is a widely utilized and robust
metaheuristic algorithm designed for solving multi-objective optimization problems. Its effectiveness in
addressing diverse optimization challenges has been extensively demonstrated. Originally introduced by
Srinivas and Deb (1995), the NSGA optimization method offers a reliable approach for tackling multi-
objective problems. Key features of this method include:
A higher score is given to the solution that is unquestionably superior to all other solutions. The solutions
are prioritized based on the count of superior alternatives.
Solutions are assigned a fitness level based on their rank and non-dominance relative to other solutions.
For closely clustered solutions, a fitness mechanism is applied to optimize their distribution, ensuring an
even spread across the search space. Recognizing the sensitivity of the NSGA algorithm’s performance to
fitness and other parameter settings, Deb et al. introduced an enhanced version in 2000, known as the
10 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

NSGA-II metaheuristic algorithm. Beyond its demonstrated performance, the NSGA-II serves as a founda-
tional template for developing numerous multi-objective optimization algorithms. Its innovative approach
to addressing multi-objective optimization problems has been extensively employed by researchers to create
newer algorithms. Undoubtedly, NSGA-II is a cornerstone of the evolutionary multi-objective optimization
family, representing the second generation of such methodologies. The primary features of this algorithm
include:
• Compression distance: Introduced as an alternative to traditional operations like fitness sharing.
• Binary tournament selection: Utilized as the selection operator.
• Elitism: Unsuccessful solutions from previous steps are retained and archived for future reference.
Assume that the NSGA-II algorithm is in generation t when describing the implementation steps. Using
the parent population of Pt , a population of Qt offspring of size N is developed. Rt = Pt + Qt of size 2N is
formed when the parent and offspring populations combine. Following that, all elements in the Rt population
are classified called non-dominated fronts using non-dominated sorting. Given that all members of previous
and current populations are classified as Rt , the above sorting enables an examination of the non-dominance
between offspring and parent solutions.

4.1 Fast Non-Dominated Sorting Approach

In this algorithm, objective values (f ) are utilized to sort solutions and subsequently form fronts. A new
population of non-dominated solutions is generated following the sorting process. The procedure begins by
selecting the best non-dominated front and continues iteratively until a population of size N is established.
Since Rt = 2N, not all non-dominated fronts are included in the final population. Any fronts that do not
contribute to the new population are excluded. This process is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Representation of NSGAII [25]

The number of members in the final non-dominated front may exceed the remaining gaps in the new
population. Rather than randomly selecting solutions from this front to fill the gaps, the Niching strategy
is employed to ensure diversity within the population. This strategy prioritizes solutions from sparsely
populated areas of the non-dominated front. To implement this in the NSGA-II algorithm, the crowding
distance is used, as detailed in the following sections.
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 11

An overview of the algorithm’s steps is outlined below. The process begins with the creation of a random
parent population, P0 .‘This population is divided into multiple non-dominated levels, and each solution is
assigned a fitness value (or rank) based on its level—starting with the best level (rank 1), followed by the next
best levels, and so forth. The fitness values are minimized throughout the process.
Winners of the binary tournament are determined using a crowding tournament operator. Subse-
quently, mutation and crossover operators are applied to generate an offspring population, Q0 , of size N. A
detailed step-by-step explanation of the NSGA-II algorithm follows.
1. Combining Populations: Merge the parent (Pt ) and offspring (Qt ) populations to form R t = Pt ∪ Q t .
Perform non-dominated sorting on Rt to identify the different non-dominated fronts (Fi , where i = 1, 2, . . . ,
etc.).
2. Building the New Population: Initialize the new population, Pt+1 = ∅, and set the counter i = 1.
Add non-dominated fronts sequentially to Pt+1 until ∣Pt+1 ∣ + ∣F i ∣ < N. Update Pt+1 = Pt+1 ∪ F i and increment
i by 1.
3. Crowding Sort: Performing crowding sort and inserting N − ∣Pt+1 ∣ solution from sorted F i in Pt+1
using the crowding values.
4. Generating Offspring: Use the crowding tournament selection, crossover, and mutation operators
on Pt+1 to create the offspring population Q t+1 .
In step 3, crowding sorting of the non-dominated fronts i (the last non-dominated front its elements
cannot be assigned to the new population) is performed using the crowding metric distance. The population
elements are sorted in descending order.

4.2 Crowded Tournament Selection Operator

The crowded tournament selection operator is used to compare two solutions and determine the
superior one within the tournament. Each solution is characterized by two key attributes:
1. Non-dominance rank (ri ): The rank of the solution within the population based on non-dominance.
2. Local crowding distance (di ): The extent of the search space surrounding solution i that remains
unoccupied by other solutions in the population.
The crowding distance (di ) represents a measure of the sparsity around solution i, ensuring diversity in
the population. Using these two attributes, the crowded tournament selection operator is defined as follows:
Definition of the crowding tournament selection operator:
Solution i wins against solution j in the tournament, if any of the following conditions is met:
Definition of the Crowded Tournament Selection Operator:
Solution i is selected over solution j in the tournament if any of the following conditions are satisfied:
1. If the rank of solution i is better than solution j (r i < r j )
2. If the rank of solutions i and j is similar, but the crowding distance of solution I is better than solution
j, r i = r j and d i > d j .
The first condition guarantees that the selected solution is optimal. The second condition addresses the
issue when both solutions belong to the same non-dominated front by comparing their crowding distances.
The solution with the larger crowding distance (di ), indicating its position in a less crowded area, is declared
the winner [29,30].
12 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

4.3 The Crowding Distance

To assess the density of solutions around a given solution i within a population, the average distance
between two neighboring solutions that satisfy each objective is used. The value of di , known as the crowding
distance, approximates the perimeter of a cube formed by the vertices of the nearest neighbors of solution i
(Fig. 2).

Figure 2: Calculation of the crowding distance [25]

The crowding distance of the ith solution at its corresponding front (shown by solid circles) is equal to
the cube’s average lateral lengths (indicated by the dashed rectangle) [31–33].
Calculating the crowding distance, and crowding sorting:
1. Represent the number of solutions in F with l = ∣F∣. For each solution i in the set F, di = 0.
2. For each objective function m = 1, 2, 3, . . . , M, sort the set based on the worst fm or obtain the sorted
vector of the objective function values: I m = sort( f m >).
3. For m = 1, 2, 3, . . . , M, assign a large distance to limit solutions or d I 1m = d I mt = ∞ and assign the
following value to the other solutions j = 2, . . . , (l − 1):

(I m
j+1 ) (I m
j−1 )
f −f
d I mj = d I mj + m max mmin (12)
fm − fm
where I m indicates the index j of the sorted list element corresponding to the objective function m. As a
result, for each target, I1 and Il describe the function’s minimum and maximum values, respectively. The
second expression on the right of the preceding equation is the difference in the objective function values
of the two nearby solutions on either side of the Ij solution. f mmax and f mmin represent the maximum and
minimum values of the mth objective function [34,35].
By utilizing the crowding comparison process employed in the tournament selection and population
change, this algorithm ensures variation between the non-dominated solutions. On the other hand, as
previously stated, in this algorithm, non-dominated sorting of solutions considers a mixed population of size
2 × N rather than a population of size N. This results in a more pertinent case study [36–40]. The flowchart
of the proposed method for the NSGAII algorithm is shown in Fig. 3.
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 13

Figure 3: Flowchart of the NSGA-II algorithm

14 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

The NSGAII algorithm is employed to simultaneously optimize the distribution system reconfiguration,
DG resource placement, and capacitor bank sizing. The procedure is outlined in the following steps:
Step 1. Enter NSGAII algorithm parameters: Begin by defining the key parameters of the NSGAII algo-
rithm, including the number of particles, repetitions (Rep), crossover probability (Pc), mutation probability
(Pm), and others.
Step 2. Enter the network parameters: Input the distribution system’s parameters, such as load
parameters, line configurations, switch configurations, etc.
Step 3. Random initialization of particles: The particles (solutions) are randomly initialized, each rep-
resenting a unique arrangement of DG source locations, capacitor bank locations, and their corresponding
capacities. Each particle encodes a potential solution for the optimization problem.
Step 4. Evaluate objective functions: The values of each particle are substituted into the objective
functions (e.g., loss minimization and voltage stability) to compute their fitness.
Step 5. Identify dominant particles: Based on the evaluated fitness values, identify the dominant particles
(Rep) and the optimal solution (Gpop) in the population.
Step 6. Crossover operator: A crossover operator is executed to generate new particles by combining the
characteristics of parent particles.
Step 7. Mutation of particles: The mutation operator is applied to introduce randomness and ensure
diversity in the population of solutions.
Step 8. Evaluate new particles: The new particles (generated through crossover and mutation) are
substituted into the objective functions, and their fitness values are recalculated.
Step 9. Repeat until termination: If the termination conditions (such as the maximum number of
generations or convergence criteria) are not met, the algorithm returns to step 4 to continue evaluating and
refining the particles.
Step 10. End: Once the termination conditions are satisfied, the algorithm ends, and the optimal solution
is obtained.
The Fig. 4 is a flowchart of the NSGAII algorithm for reconfiguration of distributed generation
sources and capacitor banks and determining their location and capacity. The flowchart in Fig. 4 shows
the optimization procedure used for reconfiguration of the analyzed system. which starts by fetching the
network’s initial information (buses, loads, lines, and switches). Now take population size and number of
iterations and initialize the algorithm and again a random initial population is generated [40–45].
In this way, each particle is reconfigured by adjusting some switches and then determining the
optimal location and capacity of DGs and capacitors. Objective functions evaluation: Power flow analysis is
performed for certain objective functions, including power loss reduction and voltage profile improvement.
An evolutionary selection (crossover and mutation) is adopted to generate new particles with novel
configurations by selecting the dominant solutions. Another power flow analysis is then carried out for the
new solutions, and their fitness is assessed. You pick the best solution and compare it against the last solution.
If this yields a better solution, the new particle supplant the old one. This process is iterated until the stopping
criteria are achieved, which ultimately leads to optimal reconfiguration of the distribution system [46,47].
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 15

Figure 4: Flowchart depicting the process of reconfiguring the studied system

16 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

5 Simulation and Results Analysis

The reconfiguration of the network, combined with the integration of distributed generation resources
and capacitor banks, is extensively employed in this study to reduce power losses and enhance the voltage
stability margin of the system. To achieve the stated objectives across different network topologies, it is
essential to determine the optimal switch configuration within the distribution network, along with the
placement and capacity allocation of active and reactive power resources. Three scenarios were investigated:
Scenario 1: Reconfiguring the switches and determining the locations and capacities of distributed
generation resources within the distribution system.
Scenario 2: Reconfiguring the switches and determining the locations and capacities of capacitor banks
in the distribution system.
Scenario 3: Reconfiguring the switches and determining the locations and capacities of both distributed
generation resources and capacitor banks within the distribution system.
It is important to note that this article incorporates both distributed generation elements and capacitor
banks, with the condition that these resources can be installed at all buses except the reference bus.
Given the vast number of potential switch configurations in a distribution network and the impracti-
cality of evaluating all possible configurations, intelligent algorithms must be used to determine the most
suitable configuration based on the objective functions. The objectives of this research are achieved through
the application of the multi-objective genetic algorithm (NSGA-II).
Furthermore, to validate the simulation results, the performance of the proposed method is compared
with the multi-objective particle swarm optimization algorithm (MOPSO) and the intersect mutation
differential evolution (IMDE). The parameters for these algorithms are provided in Table 2.

Table 2: Parameters of the IMDE, MOPSO, and NSGAII algorithms

IMDE Population Iteration β min β max Pcr

100 50 0.2 0.8 0.2
Population Iteration Rep Vmax Vmin C1 = C2
MOPSO
100 50 10 0.4 0.9 2
Population Iteration δ Pc Pm μ
NSGAII
100 50 0.1 0.7 0.4 0.2

The simulations are carried out in the MATLAB environment. The IEEE standard 33-bus system has
been chosen as the sample system for this purpose. The system under consideration is a radial distribution
network equipped with PQ loads and connected to the upstream network via a distribution transformer. The
proposed 33-bus system is depicted in Fig. 5, along with the status of its switches.
The dashes in Fig. 5 represent the status of the switches that are initially open. The switches 33-34-35-
36-37 are open in their basic configuration, whereas the remaining switches are closed.
When reconfiguring the switches in the power system, two constraints must be considered. The first
constraint is the network’s radiality, and the second constraint is related to the network not forming an
island. Before reconfiguring the switches and installing the compensators, the ohmic losses of the lines in
the network depicted in Fig. 5 are equivalent to 211 kW. The ohmic losses of the lines are plotted in Fig. 6 as
a bar graph.
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 17

Figure 5: Single-line diagram of the 33-bus network

4
x 10
6

4
Loss (w)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435
Line No.

Figure 6: Ohmic losses of the lines in the 33-bus network before reconfiguration

On this basis, it can be concluded that the maximum ohmic losses occur in the system’s beginning
lines, which suffer from large losses due to their length and the passage of high currents through them.
Additionally, Fig. 7 illustrates the voltage change curve for each of the above-mentioned bus networks. In
initial conditions, the voltage stability function of this system equals 6.96.

3.5
3
2.5
2
SI

1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Bus No.

Figure 7: Voltage profiles in the network under investigation

The next section discusses the results of different scenarios.

18 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

5.1 First Scenario (Reconfiguration of the Switches and Determining the Optimal Capacity of the DG
Resources)
In this scenario, the research’s primary objectives (loss reduction and improving voltage stability) were
accomplished by reconfiguring switches and identifying the optimal capacity of DG resources in the study
distribution system using the IMDE, MOPSO, and NSGAII algorithms. It should be mentioned that in this
situation, the switches are reconfigured and algorithms decide the location and capacity of DG resources
simultaneously. The three algorithm’s dominant particles are depicted in Figs. 8–10.

Case 1 NSGAII
78.4

78.2

78
Loss (kw)

77.8

77.6 X: 1.115
Y: 77.49

77.4
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
VSI

Figure 8: The NSGAII algorithm’s dominant particles in the first scenario

Case 1 MOPSO
83.2

83
Loss (kw)

82.8

82.6 X: 1.37
Y: 82.46

82.4
1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
VSI

Figure 9: The MOPSO algorithm’s dominant particles in the first scenario

The dominant particles acquired using the NSGAII method are shown in Fig. 8, and the values of the
dominant particles obtained using the MOPSO and IMDE algorithms are shown in Figs. 9 and 10. The
selected response values are depicted in the preceding images alongside the dominating responses. Power loss
and the voltage stability function for the NSGAII algorithm’s dominant values (Rep) are shown in Table 3.
Three methods are used to generate the findings in Table 4 from the selected responses in the first scenario.
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 19

Case 1 IMDE
90.3

90.2

90.1

Loss (kw)
90

89.9
X: 1.187
89.8 Y: 89.76

89.7
1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4 1.45 1.5
VSI

Figure 10: The IMDE algorithm’s dominant particles in the first scenario

Table 3: The first scenario’s dominant values

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
f1 (kW) 77.43 77.42 77.41 77.47 77.61 77.49 77.62 78.16 78.35 78.26
f2 1.19 1.31 1.65 1.14 1.104 1.114 1.03 1.08 1.04 1.05

Table 4: Optimization results of the first scenario

Algorithm DG Open switches Loss (kW) Loss reduction (%) VSF

L P (kW)
IMDE 16 841.8 12-24-32-33-35 89.76 57.45 1.1871
MOPSO 31 950.7 9-12-17-33-37 82.46 60.91 1.37
NSGAII 13 764.6 7-8-14-24-36 77.49 63.27 1.1147

According to the results of the optimization process using the IMDE algorithm, bus 16 is offered for the
installation of DG sources with a capacity of 841.8 kVA. In this situation, switches 12, 24, 32, 33, and 35 should
be open, while the remaining network switches should be closed. As a result, the total ohmic losses across
all distribution system lines fell by 89.76 percent to 57.45 kW in this scenario. The criterion for determining
the system’s voltage stability (VSI) has also been increased to 1.1871. Bus 31 is proposed for the installation of
DG sources with a capacity of 950.7 kVA after optimization using the MOPSO algorithm. Switches 9, 12, 17,
33, and 37 must be open in this situation, while the remaining network switches must be closed.
The overall ohmic losses of the lines under these conditions have been decreased to 82.46 kW, a
reduction of approximately 60.91 percent in comparison to the system’s baseline losses. Additionally, the
voltage stability index (VSI) value has been decreased to 1.37. However, if the NSGAII algorithm is applied,
bus 13 with a capacity of 766.6 kV is chosen for DG installation. The proposed switch configuration leaves
switches 7, 8, 14, 24, and 36 open, while the remaining switches remain closed. The losses in this situation
have decreased by an average of 63.27 percent to 77.49 kW. The level of loss reduction achieved with the
NSGAII algorithm is more than that achieved with the other two algorithms. The voltage stability index (VSI)
is also calculated to be 1.1147, which is less than the value predicted by the other two techniques. The ohmic
20 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

loss values for each line are presented in Figs. 8–10, respectively, when the IMDE, MOPSO, and NSGAII
algorithms are applied.
As illustrated in Fig. 11, after reconfiguring and utilizing DG in the study distribution system, the losses
on all lines decreased significantly compared to baseline conditions, except lines two and three, where their
losses decreased significantly. The initial value has been decreased by more than 20%. Comparing the ohmic
losses of lines when three algorithms are employed, it can be concluded that the ohmic losses of the majority
of lines in the power system optimized using the NSGAII algorithm are smaller than those of the two other
algorithms, IMDE and MOPSO, except a few lines. The following section calculates the SI criteria value for
all buses and displays it as a bar graph in Fig. 12.

IMDE
15000 MOPSO
NSGAII
Los s (w)

10000

5000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Branch no.

Figure 11: Lines’ losses after reconfiguration and determining the location and capacity of the DGs

12
IMDE
MOPSO
10 NSGAII

6
SI

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Bus no.

Figure 12: Voltage Stability index of the buses after reconfiguration and determining the location and capacity of the
DG resources

5.2 The Second Scenario (Reconfiguration of the Switches and Determining the Location and Optimal
Capacity of the Capacitor Banks)
In the second scenario, the IMDE, MOPSO, and NSGAII algorithms are used to investigate how to
reduce losses and enhance the voltage stability index of the 33-bus system by reconfiguring switches and
identifying and establishing the ideal capacity of capacitor banks. The dominant particles are depicted
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 21

in Figs. 13–15 after optimization by these three techniques. It should be mentioned that the selected particle
is chosen from the dominating particles and the values of the particle’s objective functions are displayed in
these figures.

Case 2 NSGAII
31

30.5

30
Loss (kw)
29.5

29 X: 1.193
Y: 28.53
28.5

28
1 1.5 2 2.5
VSI

Figure 13: The NSGAII algorithm’s dominant particles in the second scenario

Case 2 MOPSO

164.75

164.7
Loss (kw)

164.65

X: 1.106
164.6 Y: 164.6

1.1 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16

VSI

Figure 14: The MOPSO algorithm’s dominant particles in the second scenario

Case 2 IMDE
132.4

132.2

132
Loss (kw)

131.8

X: 1.611
131.6 Y: 131.5

131.4
1.55 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8
VSI

Figure 15: The IMDE algorithm’s dominant particles in the second scenario
22 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

The values of f1 and f2 functions for the selected particle in the dominant particles obtained by the
NSGAII algorithm are 28.53 and 1.193, respectively, whereas the values of the f1 and f2 functions for the
selected particle in the MOPSO algorithm are 164.6 and 1.106, respectively, and for the IMDE algorithm are
131.5 and 1.611. The location of the NSGAII algorithm’s dominant values (Rep) is summarized in Table 5.
These particles have smaller losses and a lower voltage stability function value than other particles.

Table 5: The second scenario’s dominant values

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
f1 (kW) 30.78 30.32 29.52 28.92 28.53 28.55 28.53 28.52 28.51 28.50
f2 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.08 1.193 1.16 1.81 1.93 2.14 2.23

The fifth particle was chosen among the dominant particles (Rep). Then, in Table 6, the results for the
three algorithms IMDE, MOPSO, and NSGAII are presented for the selected particle in the second scenario.

Table 6: Optimization results of the second scenario

Algorithm Capacitor Open switches Loss (kW) Loss reduction (%) VSF
L Q (kVar)
IMDE 16 1300 8-14-17-24-33 131.52 37.66 1.611
MOPSO 31 1350 7-8-28-34-35 164.59 22 1.106
NSGAII 30 1160 8-14-17-33-37 28.53 86.47 1.193

Bus 16 is proposed to install capacitor bank resources with a capacity of 1300 kW based on the results
of the algorithm’s preferred particle. In this situation, the system must have switches 8, 14, 17, 24, and 33
open and all other network switches locked. The proposed distribution system lines have an ohmic loss of
131.52 kW. In this instance, the losses have been reduced by around 37.66 percent. The voltage stability index
(VSI) of this device is 1.611. In the case of MOPSO optimization, bus 31 was chosen for the installation
of reactive power sources with a capacity of 1350 kW. In this situation, switches 7, 8, 28, 34, and 35 must
be open, while the remaining network switches must be closed. The overall ohmic losses of the lines have
been decreased by 164.59 kW, representing a 22% reduction in losses over the system’s baseline losses. This
algorithm has a lower loss reduction than the IMDE algorithm. Additionally, the voltage stability function
has a value of 1.106, which is higher than the values for the other two algorithms. If the NSGAII algorithm
is used, bus 30 with a capacity of 1160 kW is chosen for capacitor bank installation. In the suggested switch
layout, switches 8, 14, 17, 33, and 37 are in the open position, while the remaining switches remain closed. The
losses for the algorithm’s selected particle have been lowered by roughly 86.47 percent to 28.53 kW in this
scenario. The level of loss reduction achieved with the NSGAII algorithm is more than that achieved with
the other two algorithms. Additionally, the voltage stability index (VSI) is calculated to be 1.193. The ohmic
losses of each line are illustrated in Fig. 16 when the IMDE, MOPSO, and NSGAII algorithms are utilized.
In Fig. 16, the losses on the majority of lines are reduced compared to the baseline settings. By examining
the figures, it is clear that the ohmic losses in the majority of the lines of the distribution system optimized by
the NSGAII algorithm are fewer than those of the two other algorithms, IMDE and MOPSO. The SI standard
value for each bus is calculated and displayed in Fig. 17 as a bar graph.
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 23

4
x 10
3.5
IMDE
3 MOPSO
2.5 NSGAII

Loss (w)
2

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334 35
Branch no.

Figure 16: Lines’ losses after reconfiguration and determining the location and capacity of the capacitor bank

10
IMDE
9 MOPSO
8 NSGAII

5
SI

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Bus no.

Figure 17: Measurement of bus voltage stability during reconfiguration and location, as well as determination of
capacitor bank capacity

5.3 Third Scenario (Reconfiguration of the Switches and Determining the Location and Optimal Capacity
of the DG Resources and the Capacitor Banks)
In the third scenario, switches are reconfigured and the location and capacity of DG resources and
capacitor bank are determined optimally in the investigated 33-bus distribution system to lower losses and
enhance the VSI voltage stability index.
The IMDE, MOPSO, and NSGAII multi-objective optimization techniques were used to accomplish
this. The dominant particles in each of these three methods are depicted in Figs. 18 to 20. The value of
dominant particles associated with the NSGAII algorithm is shown in Table 7. This time, the eighth particle
was chosen as the preferred particle, with a loss of 23.13 kW and a voltage stability function value of 1.2574.
The third scenario’s optimization results are summarized in Table 8 using three algorithms: IMDE, MOPSO,
and NSGAII. According to the results in Table 8, bus 33 was chosen for the DG resource with a capacity of
1490 kVA, and bus 2 was chosen for the installation of a capacitor bank with a capacity of 1350 kV. According
to the results of this simulation, switches 7, 11, 28, 29, and 35 should be in the open position, while the
remaining switches should be in the closed position. The overall ohmic losses of the lines have been reduced
24 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

by 75.57 percent to 51.35 kW in this scenario. Additionally, the voltage stability index (VSI) has reached a
value of 2.105.

Case 3 NSGAII
23.26

23.24

23.22

Loss (kw)
23.2

23.18

23.16
X: 1.257
23.14 Y: 23.13

23.12
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
VSI

Figure 18: The NSGAII algorithm’s dominant particles in the second scenario

Case 3 MOPSO

119.5

119.4
Loss (kw)

119.3

119.2 X: 1.239
Y: 119.1

119.1
1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
VSI

Figure 19: The NSGAII algorithm’s dominant particles in the second scenario

Case 3 IMDE

51.8

51.7
Loss (kw)

51.6

51.5

X: 2.105
51.4 Y: 51.35
2.1 2.15 2.2 2.25 2.3 2.35
VSI

Figure 20: The NSGAII algorithm’s dominant particles in the second scenario
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 25

Table 7: The third scenario’s dominant values

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
f1 (kW) 23.13 23.18 23.22 23.13 23.14 23.15 23.16 23.13 23.20 23.23
f2 1.98 1.34 1.33 1.21 1.20 1.20 1.19 1.257 1.18 1.18

Table 8: Results of optimization in the third scenario

Algorithm DG Capacitor Open switches Loss (kW) Loss reduction (%) VSF
L P (kW) L Q (kVar)
IMDE 33 1490 2 1350 7-11-28-29-35 51.35 75.66 2.105
MOPSO 2 1600 31 670 7-32-34-35-36 119.13 43.54 1.2391
NSGAII 12 880 30 430 7-8-12-17-28 23.13 89.04 1.2574

However, when the MOPSO algorithm is used for optimization, buses 2 and 31 are offered for the
installation of a DG resource with a capacity of 1600 kVA and a capacitor bank with a capacity of 670 kV,
respectively. In this situation, switches 7, 32, 34, 35, and 36 must all be closed, as well as the other network
switches. In this scenario, the ohmic loss of the lines is 119.13 kW, and the loss reduction is nearly equal to
43.54 percent.
Additionally, the voltage stability function has been decreased to 1.2391. Now, if the NSGAII algorithm
is utilized, a DG with an 880 kV capacity is offered for bus 12, and a capacitor bank with a 430 kV capacity
is proposed for bus 30. In the suggested switch configuration, switches 7, 8, 12, 17, and 28 are open, while the
remaining switches are closed. The losses have been reduced by 59% to 23.13 kW in this example. The losses
associated with the NSGAII algorithm are fewer than those associated with the MOPSO and DE algorithms.
Additionally, the voltage stability index (VSI) is calculated to be 1.2574. The ohmic loss values for each line
are displayed in Fig. 21 when the IMDE, MOPSO, and NSGAII algorithms are applied.

4
x 10
2.5
IMDE
MOPSO
2
NSGAII

1.5
Los s (w)

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1213 14 1516 1718 19 2021 2223 24 2526 2728 29 3031 3233 34 35
Branch no.

Figure 21: Line losses following reconfiguration and location, as well as the determination of DG capacity
26 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

As illustrated in Fig. 21, the ohmic losses of practically all lines in the study distribution system
optimized using the NSGAII method are fewer than those obtained using the IMDE and MOPSO algorithms.
The following section calculates the SI criteria value for all buses and displays it as a bar graph in Fig. 22.

12
IMDE
MOPSO
10 NSGAII

6
SI

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Bus no.

Figure 22: Voltage stability measure after reconfiguration and location, as well as the determination of DG capacity

5.4 Comparison of the Algorithms

To analyze the simulation results in the three scenarios in detail, their metric distance criteria were
compared. As previously stated, the population size and maximum iteration time for all algorithms are
the same. Each algorithm was executed twenty times, and ten Pareto particles were stored. The ideal
Pareto should have evenly distributed solutions. If the dominant particles are uniformly distributed, greater
variation in selecting the best solution from the Pareto front is conceivable. To evaluate the performance of
an equally distributed Pareto solution, the distance criteria can be defined as the variance of each solution’s
distance to its nearest neighbor:
√
1 NP
s= ∑ i=1 (d − d i ) (13)
NP − 1

where di is the distance between the ith particle and its nearest neighbor and d is the average of the distances.
In this case, di and d are determined in the following manner:
⎧
⎪ ⎫
⎪ N abi ∣ f m (x i ) − f m (x j )∣ ⎪
⎪
d i = min ⎨∑m=1 ⎬ (14)
⎪
⎪ f − f mmin ⎪ ⎪
⎩ mmax
⎭
NP
d = (∑ i=1 d i ) /N P (15)

A smaller metric distance value signifies that the solutions in the Pareto set are more evenly distributed,
while a value of zero indicates that all solutions in the Pareto set are equally spaced (Fig. 23).
Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025 27

0.045

0.04

0.035

S Metric
0.03

0.025

0.02

0.015
1 2 3
NSGAII MOPSO IMDE

Figure 23: Metric distance

The horizontal lines at the top and bottom reflect the front values. The square box contains half of the
metric distance data, whereas the red line displays the average metric distance values. In comparison to
the other three algorithms, the suggested NSGAII approach produces the smallest mean value and metric
distance. The NSGAII algorithm’s lower horizontal line is lower than that of other algorithms. Consequently,
this method outperformed others in terms of identifying uniform distribution solutions and Pareto fronts.

6 Conclusion
This paper presented an optimization approach using the NSGA-II, MOPSO, and IMDE algorithms
for the optimal reconfiguration of distribution systems, as well as for determining the location and capacity
of distributed generation resources and capacitor banks. Three scenarios were analyzed: The first scenario
focused on the optimal placement and sizing of distributed generation resources while reconfiguring switches
in the conventional 33-bus distribution system. The losses in this scenario were 28.45 kW, and the voltage
stability value was 0.963. The second scenario addressed the optimal placement and sizing of capacitor banks
while reconfiguring switches in the same distribution system. The losses in this scenario were 26.39 kW, and
the voltage stability value was 0.970. The third scenario involved the simultaneous reconfiguration of switches
and the optimization of both distributed generation resources and capacitor banks. The losses in this scenario
were 23.13 kW, and the voltage stability value was 0.977. Among the three algorithms, the NSGA-II method
outperformed MOPSO and IMDE, achieving the lowest losses and best voltage stability across all scenarios.
Future research could explore the integration of renewable energy sources, the inclusion of dynamic load
variations, and the use of stochastic optimization techniques for better handling uncertainties. Additionally,
investigating the performance of other algorithms, such as Particle Swarm Optimization or Artificial Bee
Colony, and addressing the impact of communication delays in smart grids could further improve system
optimization and real-time applications. Finally, evaluating the environmental and economic feasibility of
these solutions would provide a more comprehensive understanding of their long-term benefits.
Acknowledgement: Not applicable.

Funding Statement: The authors received no specific funding for this study.

Author Contributions: The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: Conceptualization, Tareq Hamadneh,
Belal Batiha, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti, Frank Werner, Ilhami Colak and El Manaa Barhoumi; methodology,
Tareq Hamadneh, Belal Batiha, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti, Frank Werner, Ilhami Colak and El Manaa Barhoumi;
software, Tareq Hamadneh, Belal Batiha, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti, Frank Werner, Ilhami Colak and El Manaa
Barhoumi; validation, Tareq Hamadneh, Belal Batiha, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti, Frank Werner, Ilhami Colak and
28 Comput Model Eng Sci. 2025

El Manaa Barhoumi; formal analysis, Tareq Hamadneh, Belal Batiha, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti, Frank Werner,
Ilhami Colak and El Manaa Barhoumi; investigation, Tareq Hamadneh, Belal Batiha, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti,
Frank Werner, Ilhami Colak and El Manaa Barhoumi; resources, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti, Frank Werner and El
Manaa Barhoumi; data curation, Tareq Hamadneh, Belal Batiha, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti, Frank Werner, Ilhami
Colak and El Manaa Barhoumi; writing—original draft preparation, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti, Frank Werner
and El Manaa Barhoumi; writing—review and editing, Tareq Hamadneh, Belal Batiha, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti,
Frank Werner, Ilhami Colak and El Manaa Barhoumi; visualization, Tareq Hamadneh, Belal Batiha, Mehrdad Ahmadi
Kamarposhti, Frank Werner, Ilhami Colak and El Manaa Barhoumi; supervision, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti,
Frank Werner and Ilhami Colak; project administration, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti, Frank Werner, Ilhami Colak
and El Manaa Barhoumi; funding acquisition, Tareq Hamadneh, Belal Batiha, Mehrdad Ahmadi Kamarposhti, Frank
Werner, Ilhami Colak and El Manaa Barhoumi. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of
the manuscript.

Availability of Data and Materials: Not applicable.

Ethics Approval: Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest to report regarding the present study.

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