CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Thermal Boundary Layer thickness:

The thermal boundary layer thickness is a key concept in heat transfer, particularly in the
study of convection. It refers to the distance from the solid surface (such as the wall of a pipe or
a flat plate) to the point where the temperature difference between the fluid and the surface
becomes negligibly small. In simple terms, it defines the region in the fluid where the
temperature changes significantly due to heat transfer from the surface to the fluid. Outside this
layer, the fluid's temperature remains relatively constant.

The thickness of the thermal boundary layer is influenced by several factors, including
the fluid's properties (like thermal conductivity, viscosity, and specific heat), the flow velocity,
the surface temperature, and the nature of the flow (laminar or turbulent).

Boundary layers are thinner at the leading edge of an aircraft wing and thicker toward the
trailing edge. The flow in such boundary layers is generally laminar at the leading or upstream
portion and turbulent in the trailing or downstream portion. See also laminar flow; turbulent
flow.

The velocity within the boundary layer increases from zero at the boundary surface to the
velocity of the main stream asymptotically. Therefore, the thickness of the boundary layer is
arbitrarily defined as that distance from the boundary in which the velocity reaches 99 percent of
the velocity of the free stream (u = 0.99 U). It is denoted by the symbol 8. definition however
gives an approximate value of the boundary layer thickness and hence 8 is generally termed as
nominal thickness of the boundary layer.

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 Fig.1

1.1.1 Displacement thickness (δ*): “It is distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary, by
which the main/free stream is displaced on account of formation of boundary layer. It is an
additional wall thickness" that would have to be added to compensate for the reduction in flow
rate on account of boundary layer formation. Let fluid of density p flow past a stationary plate
with velocity U as shown. Consider an elementary strip of thickness dy at a distance y from the
plate

Assuming unit width, the mass flow per second through the elementary strip

= 𝜌udy

Mass flow per second through the elementary strip (unit width) if the plate were not there

= 𝜌U.dy

Reduction of mass flow rate through the elementary strip

= 𝜌 (U-u.dy)

[The difference (U-u) is called velocity of defect]

∫ ρ ( U −u ) dy
0

(if the fluid as incompressible)

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Let the plate is displaced by a distance 𝛿* and velocity of flow for the distance 𝛿* is equal to the
main free stream velocity (i.e., U). Then, loss of the mass of the fluid/sec, flowing through the
distance 𝛿*

= 𝜌 U𝛿*

𝜌 U𝛿* = ∫ ρ ( U - u ) dy
δ

𝛿* =
δ

∫ ¿ ¿) dy
0

1.1.2. Momentum thickness (θ):

Momentum thickness is defined as the distance through which the total loss of momentum per
second be equal to if it were passing a stationary plate. It is denoted by θ.

It may also be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body,
by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for reduction in momentum of the
flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.

Mass of flow per second through the elementary strip = 𝜌udy

Momentum/sec. of this fluid inside the boundary layer = 𝜌udy x u = 𝜌u² dy

Momentum/sec. of the same mass of fluid before entering boundary layer = 𝜌uUdy

Loss of momentum/sec. = 𝜌uUdy - 𝜌u²dy = 𝜌u(U - u)

Total loss of momentum/sec.

δ
¿ ∫ ρu ( U−u ) dy
0

Let, θ = Distance by which plate is displaced when the fluid is flowing with a constant velocity
U. Then loss of momentum/ sec, of fluid flowing through distance θ with a velocity U.

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 = 𝜌θU 2

𝜌θU 2 =
δ

∫ ρu ( U −u ) dy
0

Θ= (1- )dy
δ
u
∫ Uu U
0

The momentum thickness is useful in kinetics.

1.1.3 Energy Thickness (δ e): Energy thickness is defined as the distance

measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the
boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in K.E. of the
flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by (δ e)

mass of flow per second through elementary strip = pudy

K.E. of this fluid inside the boundary layer

mu = (𝜌udy) u
1 2 1 2
2 2

K.E. of the same mass of fluid before entering the boundary layer

= (𝜌udy) U 2
1
2

Loss of K.E. through elementary strip

= ( ρudy ) U 2 - ( ρudy ) u 2
1 1
2 2

= ρu ( U−u ) dy
1
2

Total loss of K.E. of fluid

∫ 12 𝜌u ( U 2 −u2 ) dy
δ

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 ∫ Uu (1- Uu2 ) dy
δ 2
δ e =¿
0

1.2. Applications Of Boundary Layer Thickness:

1.2.1. Aerodynamics

Drag Estimation: In airplanes and automobiles, the boundary layer contributes to skin friction
drag. Understanding its thickness helps in designing streamlined shapes to minimize drag.

Lift Generation: The boundary layer influences the flow separation on airfoils, directly
affecting lift and stall characteristics.

1.2.2. Heat Transfer

Thermal Management: In heat exchangers and cooling systems, the thermal boundary layer
determines the efficiency of heat transfer between fluids and surfaces.

Electronics Cooling: Predicting boundary layer behavior is essential for optimizing cooling
systems for devices and chips.

1.2.3. Energy Systems

Wind Turbines: Boundary layer effects are critical in designing turbine blades for maximizing
efficiency by managing flow separation.

Power Plants: In steam turbines and condensers, the thermal and hydrodynamic boundary layers
impact performance.

1.2.4. Environmental Applications

Atmospheric Boundary Layer: Governs weather patterns, pollutant dispersion, and climate
modeling, especially near the Earth's surface.

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Oceanic Boundary Layer: Plays a role in marine ecosystems and the design of underwater
vehicles or pipelines.

1.2.5. Industrial Applications

Pipeline Design: The boundary layer thickness helps in minimizing pressure losses in fluid
transport systems.

Coatings and Paints: Understanding flow properties near surfaces aids in designing anti-
corrosion or anti-fouling coatings.

Chemical Processing: In reactors, boundary layer characteristics influence mixing, reaction

rates, and heat transfer.

1.2.6. Biomedical Engineering

Blood Flow Analysis: Boundary layer effects are studied in vascular flows, especially in areas
like stents and artificial heart valves, to minimize turbulence and improve flow characteristics.

1.2.7. Control and Optimization

Flow Control: Boundary layer suction or blowing can be used to delay flow separation, improve
performance, and reduce drag in engineering systems.

Optimization of Surface Textures: Microstructures like riblets or dimples are used to

manipulate boundary layers, e.g., in swimming suits or golf balls.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Literature survey:

In 1901 Prandtl became a professor of fluid mechanics at the technical school in Hannover, later
the Technical University Hannover and then the University of Hannover. It was here that he developed
many of his most important theories. On August 8, 1904, he delivered a groundbreaking paper, at
the Third International Mathematics Congress in Heidelberg in this paper, he described the boundary
layer and its importance for drag and streamlining. The paper also described flow separation as a
result of the boundary layer, clearly explaining the concept of stall for the first time. Several of
his students made attempts at closed-form solutions, but failed, and in the end the approximation
contained in his original paper remains in widespread use.
The effect of the paper was so great that Prandtl would succeed Hans Lorenz as director of the
Institute for Technical Physics at the University of Göttingen later in the year. In 1907, during his
time at Göttingen, Prandtl was tasked with establishing a new facility for model studies of
motorized airships called Motorluftschiffmodell-Versuchsanstalt (MVA), later
the Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt (AVA) in 1919. The facility was focused on wind
tunnel measurements of airship models with the goal of shapes with minimal air resistance.
During it was used as a large research establishment with many tasks including lift and drag on
airfoils, aerodynamics of bombs, and cavitation on submarine propeller blades. In 1925, the

7|Page
university spun off his research arm to create the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Flow Research (now
the Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization).

Due to the complexity of Prandtl's boundary layer ideas in his 1904 paper, the spread of the
concept was initially slow. Many people failed to adopt the idea due to lack of understanding.
There was a halt on new boundary layer discoveries until 1908 when two of his students at
Gottingen, Blasius and Boltze, released their dissertations on the boundary layer. Blasius'
dissertation explained what happened with the boundary layer when a flat plate comes in parallel
contact with a uniform stream. Boltze's research was similar to Blasius' but applied Prandtl's
theory to spherical shapes instead of flat objects. Prandtl expanded upon the ideas in his student's
dissertations to include a thermal boundary layer associated with heat transfer.

There would be three more papers from Gottingen researchers regarding the boundary layer
released by 1914. Due to similar reasons to Prandtl's 1904 paper, these first 7 papers on the
boundary layer would be slow to spread outside of Gottingen. Partially due to World War I, there
would be a lack of papers published regarding the boundary layer until another of Prandtl's
students, Theodore Von Karman, published a paper in 1921 on the momentum integral equation
across the boundary layer.

Following earlier leads by ` Frederick Lancheste from 1902–1907, Prandtl worked with Albert
Betz and Max Munk on the problem of a useful mathematical tool for examining lift from "real
world" wings. The results were published in 1918–1919, known as the Lanchester–Prandtl wing
theory. He also made specific additions to study cambered airfoils, like those on World War I
aircraft, and published a simplified thin-airfoil theory for these designs. This work led to the
realization that on any wing of finite length, wing-tip effects became very important to the overall
performance and characterization of the wing. Considerable work was included on the nature
of induced drag and wingtip vortices, which had previously been ignored. Prandtl showed that an
elliptical spanwise lift distribution the most efficient, giving the minimum induced drag for the
given span. These tools enabled aircraft designers to make meaningful theoretical studies of their
aircraft before they were built.

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The aerodynamic boundary layer was first hypothesized by Ludwig Prandtl in a paper presented on
August 12, 1904, at the third International Congress of Mathematicians in Heidelberg, Germany. It
simplifies the equations of fluid flow by dividing the flow field into two areas: one inside the
boundary layer, dominated by viscosity and creating the majority of drag experienced by the
boundary body; and one outside the boundary layer, where viscosity can be neglected without
significant effects on the solution. This allows a closed-form solution for the flow in both areas by
making significant simplifications of the full Navier–Stokes equations. The same hypothesis is
applicable to other fluids (besides air) with moderate to low viscosity such as water. For the case
where there is a temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid, it is found that the
majority of the heat transfer to and from a body takes place in the vicinity of the velocity
boundary layer. This again allows the equations to be simplified in the flow field outside the
boundary layer. The pressure distribution throughout the boundary layer in the direction normal
to the surface (such as an airfoil) remains relatively constant throughout the boundary layer, and
is the same as on the surface itself.

The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the distance from the solid
body to the point at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity (the
surface velocity of an inviscid flow). Displacement thickness is an alternative definition stating
that the boundary layer represents a deficit in mass flow compared to inviscid flow with slip at
the wall. It is the distance by which the wall would have to be displaced in the inviscid case to
give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The no-slip condition requires the flow velocity
at the surface of a solid object be zero and the fluid temperature be equal to the temperature of
the surface. The flow velocity will then increase rapidly within the boundary layer, governed by
the boundary layer equations, below.

The thermal boundary layer thickness is similarly the distance from the body at which the
temperature is 99% of the freestream temperature. The ratio of the two thicknesses is governed
by the Prandtl number. If the Prandtl number is 1, the two boundary layers are the same thickness.
If the Prandtl number is greater than 1, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the velocity
boundary layer. If the Prandtl number is less than 1, which is the case for air at standard
conditions, the thermal boundary layer is thicker than the velocity boundary layer.

9|Page
In high-performance designs, such as gliders and commercial aircraft, much attention is paid to
controlling the behavior of the boundary layer to minimize drag. Two effects have to be
considered. First, the boundary layer adds to the effective thickness of the body, through
the displacement thickness, hence increasing the pressure drag. Secondly, the shear forces at the
surface of the wing create skin friction drag.

At high Reynolds numbers, typical of full-sized aircraft, it is desirable to have a laminar boundary
layer. This results in a lower skin friction due to the characteristic velocity profile of laminar
flow. However, the boundary layer inevitably thickens and becomes less stable as the flow
develops along the body, and eventually becomes turbulent, the process known as boundary layer
transition. One way of dealing with this problem is to suck the boundary layer away through
a porous surface (see Boundary layer suction). This can reduce drag, but is usually impractical due
to its mechanical complexity and the power required to move the air and dispose of it. Natural
laminar flow (NLF) techniques push the boundary layer transition aft by reshaping the airfoil
or fuselage so that its thickest point is more aft and less thick. This reduces the velocities in the
leading part and the same Reynolds number is achieved with a greater length.

At lower Reynolds numbers, such as those seen with model aircraft, it is relatively easy to
maintain laminar flow. This gives low skin friction, which is desirable. However, the same
velocity profile which gives the laminar boundary layer its low skin friction also causes it to be
badly affected by adverse pressure gradients. As the pressure begins to recover over the rear part
of the wing chord, a laminar boundary layer will tend to separate from the surface. Such flow
separation causes a large increase in the pressure drag, since it greatly increases the effective size
of the wing section. In these cases, it can be advantageous to deliberately trip the boundary layer
into turbulence at a point prior to the location of laminar separation, using a turbulator. The fuller
velocity profile of the turbulent boundary layer allows it to sustain the adverse pressure gradient
without separating. Thus, although the skin friction is increased, overall drag is decreased. This
is the principle behind the dimpling on golf balls, as well as vortex generators on aircraft. Special
wing sections have also been designed which tailor the pressure recovery so laminar separation is
reduced or even eliminated. This represents an optimum compromise between the pressure drag
from flow separation and skin friction from induced turbulence.

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When using half-models in wind tunnels, a peniche is sometimes used to reduce or eliminate the
effect of the boundary layer.

While researching the material for this review, I was struck by the contrast between the
publishing ethics of earlier generations and ethics in the digital era. Today readers and reviewers
tend to turn a blind eye on the origin of ideas. Groupthink is on the march. The big size is
revered because ideas are supposed to come from a group, more so from a big and diverse group.
Research centers, research ‘priorities and multi-university initiatives and collaborative research
by top-down design (commanded by the government) are the norm. The head professor puts his
or her name on every piece of publishing that comes from the creative minds of subordinates,
graduate students and postdocs.

Reading the accounts of the life and work of Prandtl e.g. Refs. [7–11], I see how science was
being created then, and why the old-fashioned way survives in only a few today. Research was a
much smaller activity in Prandtl's time and earlier. It was done by individuals, often with no
money, with pencil and paper, on the back of an envelope. It was done out of curiosity, for
intellectual fun, not under orders from above, or to please a sponsor.

Back then, most admirable in every scientific breakthrough was the message that the creative
work is the property of its creator. Prandtl did not put his name on the papers authored by his
doctoral students. He was at peace with having invented the idea that drew the students to him.
Although he authored the boundary layer theory of 1904 [72], today this development is best
known as the Blasius boundary layer solution of 1908 [73] and the Pohlhausen thermal boundary
layer solution of 1921 [28]. Blasius and Pohlhausen were two of Prandtl's early doctoral students.
He had many more disciples who achieved great fame, doctoral students (Th. von Kármán [8],
H. Schlichting, O. G. Tietjens) and postdoctoral researchers in mechanics (S. P. Timoshenko, J.
P. Den Hartog).

The difference between then and now boils down to having respect for the individual who
creates the idea [74,75]. This is the main thread of the present review, and it runs counter to the
notion that ideas come from the big nation, language, group, lab, institution and government.

11 | P a g e
The truth is the opposite [76]. The idea comes from the individual, and it belongs to the
individual in perpetuity. The creator lives forever among the many who come to use the idea
after the creator is gone.

It is anticipated that athletes will compete in warm and humid environments even more often in
the coming decades due to rising global temperatures and the increase in the number and
frequency of heat extremes (Smith et al., 2016). During intense physical exercise, especially in
hot and humid conditions, the metabolic heat produced often exceeds the heat loss through heat
dissipation processes which results in an increase in core body temperature (Cheuvront &
Haymes, 2001Kenefick et al., 2007Wendt, 2007). Indeed, when competing in a humid
environment, the heat dissipation capacity via sweat evaporation is reduced due to a diminished
water vapour pressure difference between the skin and the air (Kondo et al., 2009). ...
He atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) has been a hot research topic in atmospheric sciences
over the past decades. More recently, its importance has extended to other fields such as public
health and renewable energy (RE) (LeMone et al. 2019), and it even plays a role in astronomy
(Bialek et al. 2024) and in scenarios involving radioactive contamination (Silva et al. 2021).
Since the early 20th century, significant progress has been made in understanding the structure
and dynamics of the ABL, especially in pioneering works of scientists such as Ludwig Prandtl,
Theodore von Kármán, and Lewis Fry Richardson. With the latest advancements in physics,
chemistry, and mathematics, our understanding of the phenomena within the ABL has been
enriched. One of the most significant contributions has been the development of computational
models that enhance weather forecasts among other (Schalkwijk et al. 2015; Ahmad and
Chen 2020; de Burgh-Day and Leeuwenburg 2023).

The ABL is a thin layer between the Earth’s surface and the free atmosphere. It is within the
troposphere, and its depth varies throughout the day depending on the stability conditions,
ranging from 0.3 to 3 km in height, as illustrated in. It is bounded by a small vertical zone known
as the inversion layer, where the temperature increases with height (Holton and Hakim 2013).
Turbulent flows within the ABL, caused by wind shear and surface heating, determine the heat
exchange, moisture, and other surface-atmosphere interactions (Rohli and Li 2021). The
concentration of these quantities is highest at the surface and diminishes gradually with height.

12 | P a g e
The ABL can shift multiple times throughout the day, leading to three distinct stability
conditions: neutral, stable, and unstable. These conditions can be explained in terms of an air
parcel temperature relative to the surrounding air (Albornoz et al. 2022). The stability of ABL
depends on the relationship between the decrease in ambient temperature with height and the
cooling of the air parcel (Stull 1988). Stable conditions occur when a cooler and denser air parcel
remains near the surface, hindering vertical movement and generating little turbulence and weak
winds. Unstable conditions occur when the air parcel is warmer than the surrounding cold air,
causing the parcel to rise and leading to intense vertical mixing. A neutral atmosphere occurs
when vertical movements are neither inhibited nor favored (Rohli and Li 2021; Albornoz et
al. 2022; Stull 1998)

he dynamic nature of ABL refers to the inherent variations in temperature, pressure, humidity,
and wind, which ultimately influence human activities (Garratt 1994; Emeis 2011). According to
Cimini et al. (2020), sectors such as energy security, health, public safety, transportation, water
resources, and food production are significantly affected by the daily evolution of ABL. Yuval et
al. (2020) investigated the relationship between the atmospheric pollutant levels and two ABL
parameters: height and temperature lapse rate. They found that higher concentrations of primary
pollutants are associated with stable ABL conditions. Huertas et al. ( 2021) also observed that
elevated levels of pollutants and particles occur under stable conditions, inhibiting their
dispersion. Indeed, poor air quality (prevailing during atmospheric stagnation conditions) is
strongly associated with health problems such as asthma, respiratory infections, cardiovascular
disease, and lung cancer (National statistics Background 2023; WMO 2022). A 2% increase in
daily mortality rates has been documented in urban areas with stable atmospheric conditions
compared to areas with greater atmospheric instability (Zafra-Mejía et al. 2020). Atmospheric
pollution also impacts agriculture, affecting photosynthesis and leading to crop reductions,
resulting in significant economic losses (Liu and Desai 2021; Hong et al. 2020). Also, the low
availability of light due to pollutant concentration affects photovoltaic (PV) power generation.
Furthermore, Li et al. (2017) demonstrated that aerosols can reduce irradiance by up
to 1.5kWh/m2 per day in fixed PV panels, representing a decrease in irradiance up to 35%
compared to days without pollution. Cloud formation is also closely related to atmospheric

13 | P a g e
stability conditions. It has been established that cloud cover has a more significant impact on
solar irradiance than aerosols (Dumka et al. 2021) and represents the primary source of solar
energy fluctuations (Herrera et al. 2020).

ABL stability considerations are also essential during the planning of wind power projects.
Turbulence and wind shear are critical factors that cause vibration and structural fatigue that
impact wind turbine performance. Studies have shown that the power generated by a wind
turbine decreases with a more unstable ABL, leading to a 15% difference in average power
output compared to stable conditions (Wharton and Lundquist 2012). Similarly, a slightly
unstable regime may result in higher annual energy production in some instances (Kim and
Kim 2022). On the other hand, unstable conditions affect the evolution of the wind turbine wake,
intensifying lateral and vertical wake movement. This is attributed to increased turbulence and
reduced wind shear in the convective boundary layer, accelerating wake recovery (Ning and
Wan 2019). Thus, these atmospheric variations can directly influence the overall revenue of wind
farms. These cases illustrate the vital importance of studying ABL in various fields.

In recent years, there has been a remarkable surge of interest in machine learning (ML), yielding
significant advancements in various areas, including disease management (Tiwari et al. 2023;
Rguibi et al.2022) and improvement of industrial processes (Rai et al. 2021). This is nudged by
the ever-growing databases available (big data), the continuous advancements in programming
algorithms, and the enhanced processing capabilities of modern computer systems (Schmidt et
al. 2019). ML is based on creating algorithms capable of recognizing and learning patterns from
a large amount of data, thus improving the automatic adjustment as they acquire new information
with minimal human intervention. Its origin, as we know it today, was in the late 1950 s when
Frank Rosenblatt began developing an algorithm capable of recognizing letters of the alphabet,
the perceptron (Fradkov 2020). This neural network laid the foundation for the advancement of
this discipline. At the end of the 20th century, ML turned from a knowledge-oriented approach to
one oriented to data and prior experience due to digital expansion and the advancement of
computing processing capabilities. Nowadays, ML is a pervasive technology that has permeated
all research areas to some extent, including in the ABL research.

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 CHAPTER 3

3.1 METHODOLOGY

To estimate the boundary layer thickness and the heat transfer convection coefficient for engine
oil flowing over a flat plate using ANSYS Fluent, you need to follow a structured simulation
process. Here’s how you can approach it:

3.1.1 Problem Setup

 Fluid Properties: Use the properties of engine oil at 100°C:

 Density (ρ)
 Dynamic viscosity (μ)
 Thermal conductivity (k)
 Specific heat (Cp)

3.2.2 Boundary Conditions:

15 | P a g e
  Inlet velocity: 0.1 m/s

 Surface temperature: 200 C

 Inlet temperature of oil: 1000C

 Plate length: 1 m.

Flow Regime:

 Calculate the Reynolds number:

ρu∞ l
ℜz =
μ

Ensure whether the flow is laminar (Re<5×105 ¿or turbulent.

3.2.3 ANSYS Fluent Workflow

(a) Geometry Creation:

 Create a 2D model of a flat plate of 1m length and sufficient height for the domain.

(b) Mesh Generation:

 Use a structured mesh with refinement near the flat plate surface to accurately capture the
boundary layer.

 Ensure a fine y+ for proper near-wall resolution.

(c) Physics Setup:

 Solver Type: Choose Pressure-Based and Steady-State.

 Turbulence Model: Select Laminar for Re<5×105or a turbulence model for turbulent
flow.

 Materials: Define engine oil properties at 1000C

3.2.4 Boundary Conditions:

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  Inlet: Velocity inlet with u=0.1 m/s
 Outlet: Pressure outlet (gauge pressure = 0).
 Wall: No-slip condition with constant temperature of 200 C
 Top boundary: Symmetry or free stream.

Solver Setup

 Use the laminar model (initially assumed; confirm with Reynolds number).

 Energy equation: Enabled.

 Fluid properties: Specify the thermal conductivity, viscosity, specific heat, and density of
T
engine oil at the average temperature avg=¿
T s +T ∞
¿
2

3.2.5. Solve

 Run the simulation until convergence.

 Monitor the wall heat flux and velocity gradients for stability.

3.2.6 Pos -Processing

Boundary Layer Thickness:

Use the velocity profile at x=1m to define the boundary layer thickness 𝛿, where u= 0.99U∞.

Local Heat Transfer Coefficient:

q
 h x= , where q is the wall heat flux at x = 1 m.
T s +T ∞

Reynolds Number:

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 , where 𝜌 are μ are evaluated T avg .
ρu∞ l
 ℜx =
μ

Validation:

 Compare h x and 𝛿 with analytical correlations (e.g., Blasius solution for laminar
boundary layer and Dittus-Boelter for heat transfer).

3.2.7 Analytical Correlations (Optional for Validation)

 Thermal Boundary Layer Thickness (δ t

δ
= pr where, pr is the Prandtl number.
1 /3
δt

 Local Heat Transfer Coefficient:

1
N u= 0.332 ℜ Pr 3 1 /2
L

hL L
N u=
k

Nu k
h L=
L

3.2 Units
TABLE 1

Unit System Metric (mm, kg, N, s, mV, mA) Degrees rad/s

Celsius
Angle Degrees
Rotational rad/s
Velocity
Temperature Celsius

3.3 Geometry TABLE 2

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 Object Name Geometry
State Fully Defined
Definition
Source C:\Users\sit\boundry layer_files\dp0\Geom\DM\
Geom.agdb
Type DesignModeler
Length Unit Meters
Bounding Box
Length X 1000. mm
Length Y 300. mm
Length Z 0. mm
Properties
Volume 0. mm³
Surface Area(approx.) 3.e+005 mm²
Scale Factor Value 1.
Statistics
Bodies 1
Active Bodies 1
Nodes 245424
Elements 90209
Mesh Metric None
Basic Geometry Options
Parameters Independent
Parameter Key
Attributes Yes

Attribute Key
Named Selections Yes
Named Selection Key
Material Properties Yes
Advanced Geometry Options
Use Associativity Yes
Coordinate Systems Yes
Coordinate System Key
Reader Mode Saves Updated File No
Use Instances Yes
Smart CAD Update Yes

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 Compare Parts On Update No
Analysis Type 3-D
Decompose Disjoint Geometry Yes
Enclosure and Symmetry Yes
Processing

TABLE 3

Object Name Engine oil

State Meshed
Graphics Properties
Visible Yes
Definition
Suppressed No
Coordinate System Default Coordinate
System
Thickness 0. mm
Thickness Mode Refresh on Update
Offset Type Middle
Behavior None
Reference Frame Lagrangian
Material
Assignment
Fluid/Solid Defined By Geometry
(Fluid)
Bounding Box
Length X 1000. mm
Length Y 300. mm
Length Z 0. mm
Properties
Volume 0. mm³
Centroid X 500. mm
Centroid Y 150. mm
Centroid Z 0. mm
Surface 3.e+005 mm²
Area(approx.)
Statistics
Nodes 245424
Elements 90209

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 Mesh Metric None
CAD Attributes
DMSheetThickness 0

3.4 Coordinate Systems

TABLE 4

Object Name Global Coordinate

System
State Fully Defined
Definition
Type Cartesian
Coordinate System 0.
ID
Origin
Origin X 0. mm
Origin Y 0. mm
Origin Z 0. mm
Directional Vectors
X Axis Data [ 1. 0. 0. ]
Y Axis Data [ 0. 1. 0. ]
Z Axis Data [ 0. 0. 1. ]

3.5 Mesh

TABLE 5

Object Name Mesh

State Solved
Display

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 Display Style Body Color
Defaults
Physics Preference CFD
Solver Preference Fluent
Export Format Standard
Export Preview Surface Mesh No
Element Order Quadratic
Sizing
Size Function Curvature
Max Face Size 5.0 mm
Mesh Defeaturing Yes
Defeature Size Default (2.5e-002
mm)
Growth Rate Default (1.20)
Min Size Default (5.e-002
mm)
Curvature Normal Angle Default (18.0 °)
Bounding Box Diagonal 1044.0 mm
Average Surface Area 3.e+005 mm²
Minimum Edge Length 300.0 mm
Quality
Check Mesh Quality Yes, Errors
Target Skewness Default (0.900000)
Smoothing High
Mesh Metric None
Inflation
Use Automatic Inflation None
Inflation Option Smooth Transition
Transition Ratio 0.272
Maximum Layers 2
Growth Rate 1.2
Inflation Algorithm Pre
View Advanced Options No
Assembly Meshing
Method None
Advanced
Number of CPUs for Parallel Part Program Controlled
Meshing

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 Straight Sided Elements No
Number of Retries 0
Rigid Body Behavior Dimensionally
Reduced
Triangle Surface Mesher Program Controlled
Topology Checking Yes
Use Sheet Thickness for Pinch No
Pinch Tolerance Default (4.5e-002
mm)
Generate Pinch on Refresh No
Sheet Loop Removal No
Statistics
Nodes 245424
Elements 90209
\

TABLE 6

All Triangles
Object Name Edge Sizing Inflation Body Sizing
Method
State Fully Defined
Scope
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
Geometry 1 Body 1 Edge 1 Face 1 Body
Definition
Suppressed No
Method Triangles
Element Order Use Global
Setting
Number of
Type Sphere of Influence
Divisions
Number of Divisions 1000
Boundary Scoping Geometry
Method Selection
Boundary 1 Edge
First Layer
Inflation Option
Thickness
First Layer Height 0.1 mm
Maximum Layers 60

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 Growth Rate 1.1
Inflation Algorithm Pre
Global Coordinate
Sphere Center
System
Sphere Radius 30.0 mm
Element Size 0.35 mm
Advanced
Size Function Uniform
Behavior Soft
Growth Rate Default (1.2)
Bias Type No Bias

3.6 Named Selections

TABLE 7

Object Name inlet Flat outlet symmetry

plate
State Fully Defined
Scope
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
Geometry 1 Edge
Definition
Send to Solver Yes
Protected Program Controlled
Visible Yes
Program Controlled Exclude
Inflation
Statistics
Type Manual
Total Selection 1 Edge
Length 300. 1000. 300. 1000.
mm mm mm mm
Suppressed 0
Used by Mesh No
Worksheet

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 CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Result and discussions:

The study of fluid dynamics analysis of Estimation of boundary layer thickness and H.T
Convection Coefficient by ANSYS Fluent can be observed from the contour diagrams of
continuity, velocity and temperature

4.1.1 Graphs:

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Using the values obtained from CFD analysis as given, graphs are plotted between various
parameters from which the fluid flow characteristics and heat transfer can be easily visualized.

Fig.2 meshing graph

4.1.3 ITERATIONS GRAPH

4.1.3.1 Graphs for the Engine oil – Liquid

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 Fig.3 Engine oil – liquid velocity analysis

4.1.4 Engine oil – liquid velocity Isosurface analysis

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 Fig.4 Engine oil velocity Isosurface

4.1.5 Engine oil – liquid velocity contour analysis

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 Fig.5 Engine oil – liquid velocity contour

4.1.6 Engine oil – liquid temperature contour analysis

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 Fig.6 Engine oil – liquid temperature contour

4.1.7 Engine oil – liquid temperature graph

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 Fig.7 Engine oil – liquid temperature graph

4.2 Conclusion & Future Scope

To provide a conclusion and results from the estimation of boundary layer thickness and
convective heat transfer coefficient (HTC) using ANSYS Fluent, I'll outline a general process
and typical results in a simulation setting. Since I do not have access to a specific simulation you
might have conducted, I will describe a typical approach.

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General Procedure:
1. Mesh Generation:
 A computational domain is created, typically around a flat plate, cylinder, or airfoil, for
boundary layer analysis.
 A fine mesh near the surface is used to capture boundary layer effects accurately. This
mesh can be structured or unstructured, depending on the geometry.
2. Boundary Conditions:
 For flow over a flat plate, common conditions include inlet velocity, temperature (if
thermal analysis is considered), and outlet pressure.
 For heat transfer, thermal boundary conditions are defined, such as a constant wall
temperature or heat flux.
3. Solver Settings:
 turbulence model or k-ω model is typically used to capture turbulence in the boundary
layer.
 Pressure-based solvers are used to calculate flow and temperature fields.
4. Boundary Layer Thickness:
 The boundary layer thickness is defined as the distance from the wall at which the flow
velocity reaches approximately 99% of the free-stream velocity.
 Fluent calculates the boundary layer thickness based on the velocity profile near the
surface.
5. Heat Transfer Coefficient (HTC):
 The convective heat transfer coefficient is obtained by calculating the heat flux at the
wall and dividing it by the temperature difference between the wall and the fluid.
Fluent uses temperature and velocity fields to calculate the heat transfer coefficient, which is
often a function of the local Reynolds number and the Prandtl number.

4.2.1 Expected Results:

1. Boundary Layer Thickness:
 Laminar Flow: For laminar flow, the boundary layer thickness increases with distance
from the leading edge of the surface. In the laminar region, the thickness grows slower,
and the profile is smooth.
 Turbulent Flow: As the flow transitions to turbulence (usually after the critical Reynolds
number), the boundary layer grows more rapidly. The turbulent boundary layer tends to
be thicker and exhibits more fluctuation near the wall.

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  For instance, if the flow is turbulent, the boundary layer thickness may range from
several millimeters to a few centimeters, depending on the Reynolds number and flow
conditions.
2. Heat Transfer Coefficient (HTC):
 The HTC varies depending on the flow regime (laminar or turbulent), surface roughness,
and local temperature gradients.
 Laminar Flow: In the laminar regime, HTC is lower, and the heat transfer is more reliant
on conduction within the boundary layer.
 Turbulent Flow: The heat transfer coefficient increases significantly in turbulent flow due
to enhanced mixing and convective heat transfer.
 Typical values for HTC can vary from 10 W/m²·K (for laminar flow) to 1000 W/m²·K or
more (for turbulent flow at high Reynolds numbers).
4.2.2 Conclusion:
In ANSYS Fluent, the boundary layer thickness and convective heat transfer coefficient can be
estimated by solving the flow and thermal equations. The results will depend on several factors
such as the Reynolds number, the surface roughness, and the turbulence model chosen.
 For laminar flows, the boundary layer is thin and grows slowly, and the HTC is relatively
low.
 For turbulent flows, the boundary layer is thicker, and the HTC is much higher due to
enhanced mixing and turbulence.
The findings are crucial for applications like heat exchanger design, aerodynamic simulations, or
any system involving fluid flow over a surface.

4.3References:
1.Young, A.D. (1989). Boundary layers (1st publ. ed.). Washington, DC: American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics. Schlichting, Hermann; Gersten, Klaus (2017. Boundary-Layer
theory (Ninth ed.). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. p. 29. Retrieved

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2. August 2023. Frequently the boundary is arbitrarily given as being at the point where the
velocity reaches a certain percentage of the outer velocity, e.g. 99%. For clarity, an index is often
used,

3. Prandtl, L. (1938). "Zur Berechnung der Grenzschichten". Zeitschrift für Angewandte

Mathematik und Mechanik. 18 (1): Van Dyke, Milton. Perturbation methods in fluid mechanics.
Parabolic Press, Incorporated, 1975.
4.Stewartson, K. (1957). "On Asymptotic Expansions in the Theory of Boundary
Layers". Journal of Mathematics and Physics.191.
5. Libby, Paul A.; Fox, Herbert (1963). "Some perturbation solutions in laminar boundary-layer
theory". Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 17 (3):
6. Fox, Herbert; Libby, Paul A. (1964). "Some perturbation solutions in laminar boundary layer
theory Part 2. The energy equation". Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 19 (3): von Kármán, T. (1921)
Zeitschrift für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik. 1 (4):
7. Wieghardt, K. On an energy equation for the calculation of laminar boundary layers. Joint
Intelligence Objectives Agency, 1946.
8. Wieghardt, K. (1948). "Über einen Energiesatz zur Berechnung laminarer
Grenzschichten". Ingenieur-Archiv.
9. https://www.wikipedia.com
10. https://chatgpt.com
11. https://www.iamrakeshbansal.com

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