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Signal Processing Toolbox™
Getting Started Guide

R2016a
How to Contact MathWorks

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Signal Processing Toolbox™ Getting Started Guide
© COPYRIGHT 2006–2016 by The MathWorks, Inc.
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Revision History
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 Contents

Overview
1
Signal Processing Toolbox Product Description . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Key Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

Basic Signal Processing Concepts

2
Representing Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Numeric Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Vector Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2

Waveform Generation: Time Vectors and Sinusoids . . . . . . . 2-4

Impulse, Step, and Ramp Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6

Multichannel Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9

Common Periodic Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10

Common Aperiodic Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12

The pulstran Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14

The Sinc Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16

The Dirichlet Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-18

Working with Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20

Data Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20

v
 Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21

Design a Filter with fdesign and filterbuilder

3
Filter Design Process Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2

Design a Filter Using fdesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

Design a Filter Using filterbuilder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8

Filter Design with the FDATool GUI

4
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2

Designing the Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3

Analyzing the Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

Designing Additional Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9

Viewing and Annotating the Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10

Viewing the Filter in FVTool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Using FVTool for Annotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14

Exporting Filters from FDATool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16

Filtering with dfilt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-17

Designing Filters Using Command Line Functions . . . . . . . 4-20

vi Contents
 1

Overview
1 Overview

Signal Processing Toolbox Product Description

Perform signal processing and analysis

Signal Processing Toolbox provides functions and apps to generate, measure, transform,
filter, and visualize signals. The toolbox includes algorithms for resampling, smoothing,
and synchronizing signals, designing and analyzing filters, estimating power spectra, and
measuring peaks, bandwidth, and distortion. The toolbox also includes parametric and
linear predictive modeling algorithms. You can use Signal Processing Toolbox to analyze
and compare signals in time, frequency, and time-frequency domains, identify patterns
and trends, extract features, and develop and validate custom algorithms to gain insight
into your data.

Key Features
• Signal transforms including fast Fourier transform (FFT), short-time Fourier
transform (STFT), and Hilbert transform
• FIR and IIR filter design and analysis
• Measurements such as transition and pulse metrics, band power, bandwidth, and
distortion
• Power spectrum estimation algorithms and data windowing functions
• Statistical signal measurements such as autocorrelation and cross-correlation
• Linear prediction and parametric time series modeling
• Waveform and pulse generation and data resampling functions

1-2
 2

Basic Signal Processing Concepts

• “Representing Signals” on page 2-2

• “Waveform Generation: Time Vectors and Sinusoids” on page 2-4
• “Impulse, Step, and Ramp Functions” on page 2-6
• “Multichannel Signals” on page 2-9
• “Common Periodic Waveforms” on page 2-10
• “Common Aperiodic Waveforms” on page 2-12
• “The pulstran Function” on page 2-14
• “The Sinc Function” on page 2-16
• “The Dirichlet Function” on page 2-18
• “Working with Data” on page 2-20
• “Selected Bibliography” on page 2-21
2 Basic Signal Processing Concepts

Representing Signals
In this section...
“Numeric Arrays” on page 2-2
“Vector Representation” on page 2-2

Numeric Arrays
The central data construct in the MATLAB environment is the numeric array, an ordered
collection of real or complex numeric data with two or more dimensions. The basic data
objects of signal processing (one-dimensional signals or sequences, multichannel signals,
and two-dimensional signals) are all naturally suited to array representation.

Vector Representation
MATLAB represents ordinary one-dimensional sampled data signals, or sequences, as
vectors. Vectors are 1-by-n or n-by-1 arrays, where n is the number of samples in the
sequence. One way to introduce a sequence is to enter it as a list of elements at the
command prompt. The statement
x = [4 3 7 -9 1];

creates a simple five-element real sequence in a row vector. Transposition turns the
sequence into a column vector
x = x';

x =
4
3
7
-9
1

Column orientation is preferable for single channel signals because it extends naturally
to the multichannel case. For multichannel data, each column of a matrix represents one
channel. Each row of such a matrix then corresponds to a sample point. A three-channel
signal that consists of x, 2x, and x/π is

y = [x 2*x x/pi]

2-2
 Representing Signals

y =
4.0000 8.0000 1.2732
3.0000 6.0000 0.9549
7.0000 14.0000 2.2282
-9.0000 -18.0000 -2.8648
1.0000 2.0000 0.3183

If the sequence has complex-valued elements, the transpose operator takes the conjugate
of the sequence elements. To transform a complex-valued row vector into a column vector
without taking conjugates, use the .' or non-conjugate transpose:

x=[1-i 3+i 2+3*i 4-2*i]; % 1-by-4 vector

x=x.'; % 4-by-1 vector

2-3
2 Basic Signal Processing Concepts

Waveform Generation: Time Vectors and Sinusoids

Most toolbox functions require you to begin with a vector representing a time base.
Consider generating data with a 1000 Hz sample frequency, for example. An appropriate
time vector is

t = (0:0.001:1)';

where the MATLAB® colon operator (:) creates a 1001-element row vector that
represents time running from 0 to 1 seconds in steps of 1 ms. The transpose operator (')
changes the row vector into a column; the semicolon (;) tells MATLAB to compute, but
not display, the result.

Given t, you can create a sample signal y consisting of two sinusoids, one at 50 Hz and
one at 120 Hz with twice the amplitude.

y = sin(2*pi*50*t) + 2*sin(2*pi*120*t);

The new variable y, formed from vector t, is also 1001 elements long. You can add
normally distributed white noise to the signal and plot the first 50 points:

yn = y + 0.5*randn(size(t));
plot(t(1:50),yn(1:50))

2-4
Waveform Generation: Time Vectors and Sinusoids

2-5
2 Basic Signal Processing Concepts

Impulse, Step, and Ramp Functions

Since MATLAB® is a programming language, an endless variety of different signals
is possible. Here are some statements that generate a unit impulse, a unit step, a unit
ramp, and a unit parabola.

t = (-1:0.01:1)';

impulse = t==0;
unitstep = t>=0;
ramp = t.*unitstep;
quad = t.^2.*unitstep;

All of these sequences are column vectors that inherit their shapes from t. Plot the
sequences.

plot(t,[impulse unitstep ramp quad])

2-6
 Impulse, Step, and Ramp Functions

Generate and plot a square wave with period 0.5 and amplitude 0.81.

sqwave = 0.81*square(4*pi*t);
plot(t,sqwave)

2-7
2 Basic Signal Processing Concepts

2-8
 Multichannel Signals

Multichannel Signals
Use standard MATLAB array syntax to work with multichannel signals. For example, a
multichannel signal consisting of the last three signals generated above is
z = [ramp_sig quad_sig sq_wave];

You can generate a multichannel unit sample function using the outer product operator.
For example, a six-element column vector whose first element is one, and whose
remaining five elements are zeros, is
a = [1 zeros(1,5)]';

To duplicate column vector a into a matrix without performing any multiplication, use
the MATLAB colon operator and the ones function:

c = a(:,ones(1,3));

2-9
2 Basic Signal Processing Concepts

Common Periodic Waveforms

The toolbox provides functions for generating widely used periodic waveforms:

• sawtooth generates a sawtooth wave with peaks at and a period of . An

optional width parameter specifies a fractional multiple of at which the signal
maximum occurs.
• square generates a square wave with a period of . An optional parameter specifies
the duty cycle, the percent of the period for which the signal is positive.

To generate 1.5 seconds of a 50 Hz sawtooth wave with a sample rate of 10 kHz and plot
0.2 seconds of the generated waveform, use

fs = 10e3;
t = 0:1/fs:1.5;
x = sawtooth(2*pi*50*t);

plot(t,x)
axis([0 0.2 -1 1])

2-10
Common Periodic Waveforms

2-11
2 Basic Signal Processing Concepts

Common Aperiodic Waveforms

The toolbox also provides functions for generating several widely used aperiodic
waveforms:

• gauspuls generates a Gaussian-modulated sinusoidal pulse with a specified time,

center frequency, and fractional bandwidth. Optional parameters return in-phase and
quadrature pulses, the RF signal envelope, and the cutoff time for the trailing pulse
envelope.
• chirp generates a linear, log, or quadratic swept-frequency cosine signal. An optional
parameter specifies alternative sweep methods. An optional parameter, phi, allows
initial phase to be specified in degrees.

To compute 2 seconds of a linear chirp signal with a sample rate of 1 kHz that starts at
DC and crosses 150 Hz at 1 second, use:

t = 0:1/1000:2;
y = chirp(t,0,1,150);

To plot the spectrogram, use:

spectrogram(y,256,250,256,1000,'yaxis')

2-12
Common Aperiodic Waveforms

2-13
2 Basic Signal Processing Concepts

The pulstran Function

The pulstran function generates pulse trains from either continuous or sampled
prototype pulses. The following example generates a pulse train consisting of the sum of
multiple delayed interpolations of a Gaussian pulse. The pulse train is defined to have a
sample rate of 50 kHz, a pulse train length of 10 ms, and a pulse repetition rate of 1 kHz;
D specifies the delay to each pulse repetition in column 1 and an optional attenuation for
each repetition in column 2. The pulse train is constructed by passing the name of the
gauspuls function to pulstran, along with additional parameters that specify a 10 kHz
Gaussian pulse with 50% bandwidth:

T = 0:1/50e3:10e-3;
D = [0:1/1e3:10e-3;0.8.^(0:10)]';
Y = pulstran(T,D,'gauspuls',10e3,0.5);
plot(T,Y)

2-14
The pulstran Function

2-15
2 Basic Signal Processing Concepts

The Sinc Function

The sinc function computes the mathematical sinc function for an input vector or
matrix . Viewed as a function of time, or space, the sinc function is the inverse Fourier
transform of the rectangular pulse in frequency centered at zero of width and unit
height. The following equation defines the sinc function:

The sinc function has a value of 1 when is equal to zero, and a value of for all
other elements of .

To plot the sinc function for a linearly spaced vector with values ranging from to ,
use the following commands:

x = linspace(-5,5);
y = sinc(x);
plot(x,y)

2-16
The Sinc Function

2-17
2 Basic Signal Processing Concepts

The Dirichlet Function

The function diric computes the Dirichlet function, sometimes called the periodic sinc
or aliased sinc function, for an input vector or matrix x. The Dirichlet function is defined
by

where is a user-specified positive integer. For odd, the Dirichlet function has a
period of ; for even, its period is . The magnitude of this function is times the
magnitude of the discrete-time Fourier transform of the -point rectangular window.

To plot the Dirichlet function between 0 and for and , use

x = linspace(0,4*pi,300);

subplot(2,1,1)
plot(x/pi,diric(x,7))
title('N = 7')

subplot(2,1,2)
plot(x/pi,diric(x,8))
title('N = 8')
xlabel('x / \pi')

2-18
The Dirichlet Function

2-19
2 Basic Signal Processing Concepts

Working with Data

Data Precision
All Signal Processing Toolbox functions accept double-precision inputs. If you input
single-precision floating-point or integer data types, you should not expect to receive
correct results and in many cases, an error will occur. DSP System Toolbox™ and Fixed-
Point Designer™ products enable single-precision floating-point and fixed-point support
for most dfilt structures.

2-20
 Selected Bibliography

Selected Bibliography
Algorithm development for Signal Processing Toolbox functions has drawn heavily upon
the references listed below. All are recommended to the interested reader who needs to
know more about signal processing than is covered in this manual.

References
[1] Crochiere, R. E., and Lawrence R. Rabiner. Multi-Rate Signal Processing. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1983. pp.88–91.

[2] IEEE. Programs for Digital Signal Processing. IEEE Press. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1979.

[3] Jackson, L. B. Digital Filters and Signal Processing. Third Ed. Boston: Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1989.

[4] Kay, Steven M. Modern Spectral Estimation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
1988.

[5] Oppenheim, Alan V., and Ronald W. Schafer. Discrete-Time Signal Processing.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989.

[6] Parks, Thomas W., and C. Sidney Burrus. Digital Filter Design. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, 1987.

[7] Percival, D. B., and A. T. Walden. Spectral Analysis for Physical Applications:
Multitaper and Conventional Univariate Techniques. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1993.

[8] Pratt, W. K. Digital Image Processing. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1991.

[9] Proakis, John G., and Dimitris G. Manolakis. Digital Signal Processing: Principles,
Algorithms, and Applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996.

[10] Rabiner, Lawrence R., and Bernard Gold. Theory and Application of Digital Signal
Processing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1975.

[11] Welch, P. D. “The Use of Fast Fourier Transform for the Estimation of
Power Spectra: A Method Based on Time Averaging Over Short, Modified

2-21
2 Basic Signal Processing Concepts

Periodograms.” IEEE® Transactions on Audio and Electroacoustics. Vol. AU-15,

1967. pp.70–73.

2-22
 3

Design a Filter with fdesign and

filterbuilder

• “Filter Design Process Overview” on page 3-2

• “Design a Filter Using fdesign” on page 3-3
• “Design a Filter Using filterbuilder” on page 3-8
3 Design a Filter with fdesign and filterbuilder

Filter Design Process Overview

Note: You must have the Signal Processing Toolbox installed to use fdesign and
filterbuilder. Advanced capabilities are available if your installation additionally
includes the DSP System Toolbox license. You can verify the presence of both toolboxes
by typing ver at the command prompt.

Filter design through user-defined specifications is the core of the fdesign approach.
This specification-centric approach places less emphasis on the choice of specific filter
algorithms, and more emphasis on performance during the design a good working filter.
For example, you can take a given set of design parameters for the filter, such as a
stopband frequency, a passband frequency, and a stopband attenuation, and— using
these parameters— design a specification object for the filter. You can then implement
the filter using this specification object. Using this approach, it is also possible to
compare different algorithms as applied to a set of specifications.

There are two distinct objects involved in filter design:

• Specification Object — Captures the required design parameters of a filter

• Implementation Object — Describes the designed filter; includes the array of
coefficients and the filter structure

The distinction between these two objects is at the core of the filter design methodology.
The basic attributes of each of these objects are outlined in the following table.

Specification Object Implementation Object

High-level specification Filter coefficients
Algorithmic properties Filter structure

You can run the code in the following examples from the Help browser (select the code,
right-click the selection, and choose Evaluate Selection from the context menu), or you
can enter the code on the MATLAB command line. Before you begin this example, start
MATLAB and verify that you have installed the Signal Processing Toolbox software. If
you wish to access the full functionality of fdesign and filterbuilder, you should
additionally obtain the DSP System Toolbox software. You can verify the presence of
these products by typing ver at the command prompt.

3-2
 Design a Filter Using fdesign

Design a Filter Using fdesign

Use the following two steps to design a simple filter.

1 Create a filter specification object.

2 Design your filter.

Design a Filter in Two Steps

Assume that you want to design a bandpass filter. Typically a bandpass filter is defined
as shown in the following figure.

In this example, a sampling frequency of Fs = 48 kHz is used. This bandpass filter has
the following specifications, specified here using MATLAB code:

A_stop1 = 60; % Attenuation in the first stopband = 60 dB

F_stop1 = 8400; % Edge of the stopband = 8400 Hz
F_pass1 = 10800; % Edge of the passband = 10800 Hz
F_pass2 = 15600; % Closing edge of the passband = 15600 Hz
F_stop2 = 18000; % Edge of the second stopband = 18000 Hz
A_stop2 = 60; % Attenuation in the second stopband = 60 dB
A_pass = 1; % Amount of ripple allowed in the passband = 1 dB

In the following two steps, these specifications are passed to the fdesign.bandpass
method as parameters.

Step 1

3-3
3 Design a Filter with fdesign and filterbuilder

To create a filter specification object, evaluate the following code at the MATLAB
prompt:

d = fdesign.bandpass

Now, pass the filter specifications that correspond to the default Specification
— fst1,fp1,fp2,fst2,ast1,ap,ast2. This example adds fs as the final input
argument to specify the sampling frequency of 48 kHz.

>> BandPassSpecObj = ...

fdesign.bandpass('Fst1,Fp1,Fp2,Fst2,Ast1,Ap,Ast2', ...
F_stop1, F_pass1, F_pass2, F_stop2, A_stop1, A_pass, ...
A_stop2, 48000)

Note: The order of the filter is not specified, allowing a degree of freedom for the
algorithm design in order to achieve the specification. The design will be a minimum
order design.

The specification parameters, such as Fstop1, are all given default values when
none are provided. You can change the values of the specification parameters after
the filter specification object has been created. For example, if there are two values
that need to be changed, Fpass2 and Fstop2, use the set command, which takes
the object first, and then the parameter value pairs. Evaluate the following code at
the MATLAB prompt:

>> set(BandPassSpecObj, 'Fpass2', 15800, 'Fstop2', 18400)

BandPassSpecObj is the new filter specification object which contains all the
required design parameters, including the filter type.

You may also change parameter values in filter specification objects by accessing
them as if they were elements in a struct array.

>> BandPassSpecObj.Fpass2=15800;
Step 2
Design the filter by using the design command. You can access the design methods
available for you specification object by calling the designmethods function. For
example, in this case, you can execute the command

>> designmethods(BandPassSpecObj)

3-4
 Design a Filter Using fdesign

Design Methods for class

fdesign.bandpass (Fst1,Fp1,Fp2,Fst2,Ast1,Ap,Ast2):

butter
cheby1
cheby2
ellip
equiripple
kaiserwin
After choosing a design method use, you can evaluate the following at the MATLAB
prompt (this example assumes you've chosen 'equiripple'):

>> BandPassFilt = design(BandPassSpecObj, 'equiripple')

BandPassFilt =

FilterStructure: 'Direct-Form FIR'

Arithmetic: 'double'
Numerator: [1x44 double]
PersistentMemory: false

If you have the DSP System Toolbox installed, you can also design your filter with
a filter System object™. To create a filter System object with the same specification
object BandPassSpecObj, you can execute the commands

>> designmethods(BandPassSpecObj,...
'SystemObject',true)

Design Methods that support System objects for class

fdesign.bandpass (Fst1,Fp1,Fp2,Fst2,Ast1,Ap,Ast2):

butter
cheby1
cheby2
ellip
equiripple
kaiserwin

3-5
3 Design a Filter with fdesign and filterbuilder

>> BandPassFiltSysObj = design(BandPassSpecObj,...

'equiripple','SystemObject',true)

System: dsp.FIRFilter

Properties:
Structure: 'Direct form'
NumeratorSource: 'Property'
Numerator: [1x44 double]
InitialConditions: 0
FrameBasedProcessing: true

Show fixed-point properties

Available design methods and design options for filter System objects are not
necessarily the same as those for filter objects.

Note: If you do not specify a design method, a default method will be used. For
example, you can execute the command
>> BandPassFilt = design(BandPassSpecObj)

BandPassFilt =

FilterStructure: 'Direct-Form FIR'

Arithmetic: 'double'
Numerator: [1x44 double]
PersistentMemory: false
and a design method will be selected automatically.

To check your work, you can plot the filter magnitude response using the Filter
Visualization tool. Verify that all the design parameters are met:

>> fvtool(BandPassFilt) %plot the filter magnitude response

If you have the DSP System Toolbox installed, the Filter Visualization tool produces
the following figure with the dashed red lines indicating the transition bands and
unity gain (0 in dB) over the passband.

3-6
Design a Filter Using fdesign

3-7
3 Design a Filter with fdesign and filterbuilder

Design a Filter Using filterbuilder

Filterbuilder presents the option of designing a filter using a GUI dialog box as opposed
to the command line instructions. You can use Filterbuilder to design the same bandpass
filter designed in the previous section, “Design a Filter Using fdesign” on page 3-3

Design a Simple Filter in Filterbuilder

To design the filter using the Filterbuilder GUI:

1 Type the following at the MATLAB prompt:

filterbuilder
2 Select Bandpass filter response from the list in the dialog box, and hit the OK
button.
3 Enter the correct frequencies for Fpass2 and Fstop2, then click OK. Here the
specification uses normalized frequency, so that the passband and stopband edges
are expressed as a fraction of the Nyquist frequency (in this case, 48/2 kHz). The
following message appears at the MATLAB prompt:

The variable 'Hbp' has been exported to the command window.

If you display the Workspace tab, you see the object Hbp has been placed on your
workspace.
4 To check your work, plot the filter magnitude response using the Filter Visualization
tool. Verify that all the design parameters are met:

fvtool(Hbp) %plot the filter magnitude response

3-8
 Design a Filter Using filterbuilder

Note that the dashed red lines on the preceding figure will only appear if you are
using the DSP System Toolbox software.

3-9
 4

Filter Design with the FDATool GUI

• “Introduction” on page 4-2

• “Designing the Filter” on page 4-3
• “Analyzing the Filter” on page 4-7
• “Designing Additional Filters” on page 4-9
• “Viewing and Annotating the Filter” on page 4-10
• “Exporting Filters from FDATool” on page 4-16
• “Designing Filters Using Command Line Functions” on page 4-20
4 Filter Design with the FDATool GUI

Introduction
This section describes how to graphically design and implement digital filters using the
Signal Processing Toolbox FDATool GUI. Filter design is the process of creating the filter
coefficients to meet specific frequency specifications. Filter implementation involves
choosing and applying a particular filter structure to those coefficients. Only after both
design and implementation have been performed can your data be filtered.

This section includes a brief discussion of applying the completed filter design and filter
implementation using MATLAB command line functions, such as filter.

4-2
 Designing the Filter

Designing the Filter

This section is a step-by-step introduction to using the Filter Design and Analysis
Tool (FDATool) to design an octave-band filter. An octave is the interval between two
frequencies having a ratio of 2:1. An octave-band filter is a bandpass filter with high
cutoff frequency approximately twice that of the low cutoff frequency. The class of an
octave filter is determined by its allowable passband ripple and its stopband attenuation.
Refer to the ANSI S1.11–2004 standard for more information.

1 Start FDATool from the MATLAB command line.

fdatool

The FDATool dialog opens with a default filter. Its filter information is summarized
in the upper left (Current Filter Information) and its filter specifications are
depicted in the upper right. In addition to displaying filter specification, this upper
right pane displays filter responses and filter coefficients.

The bottom half of FDATool shows the Filter Design panel, where you specify the
filter parameters. Other panels, such as Import filter from workspace and Pole/Zero
Editor, which you access with the buttons on the lower left, are also displayed in this
area. If you have other products installed, you may see additional buttons.

4-3
4 Filter Design with the FDATool GUI

Note that when you open FDATool, Design Filter is not enabled. You must make
a change to the default filter design in order to enable Design Filter. This is true
each time you want to change the filter design. Changes to radio button items or
drop down menu items such as those under Response Type or Filter Order enable
Design Filter immediately. Changes to specifications in text boxes such as Fs,
Fpass, and Fstop require you to click outside the text box to enable Design Filter.
2 In the Response Type pane, select Bandpass.
3 In the Design Method pane, select IIR, and then select Butterworth from the
selection list.

4 For the Filter Order, select Specify order, and then enter 6.

5 Set the Frequency Specifications as follows:

Parameter Setting Description

Units Hz Units for the parameters
Fs 48000 Sampling frequency
Fc1 22 First cutoff frequency (i.e., the frequency
preceding the passband at which the
magnitude response is 3 dB below the
passband gain)
4-4
 Designing the Filter

Parameter Setting Description

Fc2 45 Second cutoff frequency (i.e., the frequency
following the passband at which the
magnitude response is 3 dB below the
passband gain)

6 After specifying the filter design parameters, click the Design Filter button at the
bottom of the design panel to compute the filter coefficients. The display updates to
show the magnitude response of the designed filter.

4-5
4 Filter Design with the FDATool GUI

Notice that the Design Filter button is disabled after you compute the coefficients
for your filter design. This button is enabled again if you make any changes to the
filter specifications.
7 Click the Store Filter button.

8 In the Store Filter dialog, change the filter name to Bandpass Butterworth-1 and
click OK to save the filter in the Filter Manager.

4-6
 Analyzing the Filter

Analyzing the Filter

After designing the filter, you can view the following filter responses in the display region
by clicking on the associated toolbar button or by selecting the desired response from the
Analysis menu.

Response Toolbar Button Image

Filter specifications

Magnitude response

Phase response

Magnitude and Phase responses

Group delay

Phase delay

Impulse response

Step response

Pole-zero plot

Filter coefficients

Filter information

Note: Other analyses are available if you have the DSP System Toolbox product
installed.

1 Examine the displayed magnitude response of the filter.

2 Display other responses, as desired. Click the appropriate buttons, shown in the
table above or select the desired response from the Analysis menu.
3 Click the Filter coefficients button to display the filter coefficients.

4-7
4 Filter Design with the FDATool GUI

4-8
 Designing Additional Filters

Designing Additional Filters

You have designed one of the bands of an octave filter bank. This section shows you how
to design and save the other nine bands. The following table defines the parameters for
the remaining bands. Note that all of the bands use these parameters: Bandpass, IIR –
Butterworth , order = 6, Fs = 48000 Hz .

Fc1 Fc2 Filter Name

45 89 Bandpass Butterworth-2
89 178 Bandpass Butterworth-3
178 355 Bandpass Butterworth-4
355 708 Bandpass Butterworth-5
708 1413 Bandpass Butterworth-6
1413 2818 Bandpass Butterworth-7
2818 5623 Bandpass Butterworth-8
5623 11220 Bandpass Butterworth-9
11220 22387 Bandpass Butterworth-10

1 Using the parameters listed in the table above, for each table row, set the
appropriate the Fc1 and Fc2 values.
2 Design the filter by clicking the Design Filter button.
3 Click Store Filter to save the filter.
4 Change the name to the appropriate filter name shown in the table above.
5 Repeat these steps until all 10 filters are designed and stored.

4-9
4 Filter Design with the FDATool GUI

Viewing and Annotating the Filter

In this section...
“Viewing the Filter in FVTool” on page 4-10
“Using FVTool for Annotation” on page 4-14

Viewing the Filter in FVTool

This section teaches you how to use the Filter Visualization Tool (FVTool) to view the
octave-band filter. It also describes how to annotate your filter.

1 Click the Filter Manager button to display the Filter Manager, which lists your
saved filters.

2 Press Ctrl+click on each filter name to select all the filters, and then click FVTool.
FVTool opens with the filter responses overlaid for easy comparison. (If you want to
view a single filter in FVTool, click the Full View Analysis button when that filter
is shown in the FDATool display panel or select View > Filter Visualization Tool).

4-10
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
become possible. Thus it is seen that the work of transportation may
at times monopolize the entire energy of a stream to the exclusion
of erosion; or the two works may be carried forward at the same
time.
The rapidity of erosion depends upon the hardness, size, and
number of the fragments in the flowing water, upon the durability of
the stream-bed, and upon the velocity of the current, the element of
velocity being of double importance, since it determines not only the
size but the speed of the particle with which it works. Transportation
is favored by an increased water-supply as much as by increased
declivity, because when a stream increases in volume the increase in
its velocity outruns the increase in volume, and its transporting
power is correspondingly augmented. It is due to this that a stream
which is subject to floods—periodical or otherwise—has a much
greater transporting power than it could possess were its total
water-supply evenly distributed throughout the year.
During one period of volcanic activity the focus of lava-flows into
the cañon was at Lava Falls. A number of lava-streams burst directly
into the cañon through the walls, while several flows poured their
fiery floods over the brink. What a wild and spectacular condition
existed while the river, deep in the cañon, received these tributaries
of liquid fire! When the flow ceased, the cañon for sixty miles was
filled with lava to the depth of about five hundred feet. The lava
cooled, and in time was eroded away. The records of this spectacular
story are still easily read.
Through these thousand miles of cañon, more than one fifth of
which is the Grand Cañon, the river has a fall of about five thousand
feet, unevenly divided. There are long stretches of quiet water, but
in the Lodore, Cataract, Marble, and Grand Cañons are numerous
and turbulent currents flowing amid masses of wild, rocky débris.
There are about five hundred bad rapids and many others of lesser
power. Most of these rapids are caused by rock-jams—dams formed
by masses of rocky débris that have fallen from the walls above or
have been swept into the main cañon by tributary streams. A few
rapids are caused by ribs of hard, resistant rock that have not been
worn down to the level of the softer rock.
The cañon was discovered by Spaniards in 1540. A government
expedition visited it in 1859. The report of this expedition, printed in
1861, is accompanied with a picture of an ideal cañon. It is shown
as narrow, with appallingly high vertical walls. Lieutenant Ives, who
was in charge, thus closes his account:—
Ours has been the first and will doubtless be the last party of Whites to visit this
profitless location. It seems intended by Nature that the Colorado River, along the
greater portion of its lonely and majestic way, shall be forever unvisited and
undisturbed.

Ten years later Major John W. Powell explored the series of cañons
from end to end. Hundreds of expeditions that have attempted to go
through them have failed. Of the half-dozen that succeeded, one
was organized and conducted by Julius F. Stone, a manufacturer of
Columbus, Ohio.
"Why," I asked Mr. Stone, "did you take the hazard and endure the
acute hardship of this expedition?" His reply was:—
To photograph consecutively the entire cañon system of the Green and Colorado
Rivers, which, so far as the upper cañons are concerned, had not yet been done.
We also wished to determine the accuracy of some statements heretofore made
which seemed reasonably open to question.

Mr. Stone went all the way through the cañon, took hundreds of
photographs, and made numerous measurements. He made a
thorough study of this cañon, added greatly to our knowledge of it,
and corrected a number of misconceptions concerning it.
But [continued Mr. Stone] it was also to get away from work! For the fun of the
thing! Year after year the voice of many waters had said: "Come join us in our
joyous, boisterous journey to the sea, and you shall know the ecstasy of wrestling
with Nature naked-handed and in the open, as befits the measure of a man." It
takes on many forms and numberless variations, this thing called play. Its
appealing voices come from far and near, in waking and in dreams; from quiet,
peaceful places they allure with the assurance of longed-for rest; from the deeps
of unfrequented regions they whisper of eager day- and night-time hours
brimming with the fullness of heart's desire, while bugle-throated, their challenge
sounds forever from every unsealed height.
I presume it is quite true that the chance of disaster (provided we consider
death as being such) followed us like the eyes of the forest that note every move
of the intruder but never reveal themselves. But somehow or other the snarling
threat of the rapids did not creep into the little red hut where fear lives, and so
burden our task with irresolution or the handicap of indecision; therefore,
whatever dangers may have danced invisible attendance on our daily toil, they
rarely revealed themselves in the form of accident, and never in the shape of
difficulties too great to be overcome, though sometimes the margin was rather
small.
Looking back now at the chance of our having been caught, a shade of
hesitation flits over the abiding desire to see it all again, but the free, buoyant life
of the open, unvexed by the sedate and superfluous trifles of conventionality, the
spirit of fair companionship vouchsafed by the wilderness, and the river that
seemed to take us by the hand and lead us down its gorgeous aisles where
grandeur, glory, and desolation are all merged into one—these still are as a voice
and a vision that hold the imagination with singular enchantment.

Any one interested in the geology of the Grand Cañon will find
much in the books of Powell and Dellenbaugh, but best of all are the
recent reports of the Geological Survey. For glimpses of the
interesting characters who frequent this region, and for a sober
account of an array of Grand Cañon adventures, nothing equals the
narrative in "Through the Grand Cañon from Wyoming to Mexico,"
by Ellsworth L. Kolb.
Professor John C. Van Dyke, author of "The Desert," has most ably
summed up the Grand Cañon in three monumental sentences: "More
mysterious in its depth than the Himalayas in their height.... The
Grand Cañon remains not the eighth but the first wonder of the
world. There is nothing like it."
The land of form, the realm of music and of song—running,
pouring, rushing, rhythmic waters; but preëminently a land of color:
flowing red, yellow, orange, crimson and purplish, green and blue.
Miles of black and white. This riot and regularity and vast distribution
of color in continual change—it glows and is subdued with the shift
of shadows, with the view-point of the sun.
 X
LASSEN VOLCANIC NATIONAL PARK
An active volcano is the imposing exhibit in the Lassen Volcanic
National Park. The fiery Lassen Peak rises in the midst of telling
volcanic records that have been made and changed through many
thousand years.
This Park is in northern California. It is about one hundred and
fifty miles south of the Crater Lake National Park. The territory
embraces the southern end of the Cascade Mountains, the northern
end of the Sierra, and through it is the cross-connection between the
Sierra and the Coast Range. The area is about one hundred and
twenty-five square miles. The major portion of the Park lies at an
altitude of between six thousand and eight thousand feet, the lowest
part being about four thousand feet, while the highest point, the
summit of Lassen Peak, is 10,437 feet above the level of the sea.
The Park is reached by automobile roads. It is easily accessible from
the Southern Pacific Railroad in the upper Sacramento Valley, and
from the Western Pacific Railroad on the Feather River.
The scientific and scenic merits of this territory were of such
uncommon order that in 1907 they were reserved in the Mount
Lassen and Cinder Cone National Monuments. Both these
reservations are now merged into the Lassen Volcanic National Park.
Lassen Peak is one of the great volcanoes of the Pacific Coast.
Most of the material in it, and that of the surrounding territory,
appears to be of volcanic origin. It is in the margin of one of the
largest lava-fields in the world. The lava in this vast field extends
northward through western Oregon and Washington and far
eastward, including southern Idaho and the Yellowstone National
Park. It has an area of about two hundred and fifty thousand square
miles, over parts of which the lava is of great depth.
Lassen is the southernmost fire mountain of that numerous group
of volcanoes that have so greatly changed the surface of the
Northwest. Among its conspicuous volcanic companions are Crater
Lake, formerly Mount Mazama, Mount Hood, Mount St. Helens,
Mount Baker, and Mount Rainier. Until Lassen Peak burst forth in
1914 it had slumbered for centuries, and was commonly considered
extinct. It has probably been intermittently active for ages. Many
geologists think that this activity has extended through not less than
two million years. Just how long it may show its red tongue and its
black clouds of breath is uncertain; and just how violent and how
voluminous its eruptions may become are matters of conjecture.
All about Lassen Peak are striking exhibits of vulcanism—fields of
lava, quantities of obsidian or natural glass, sulphur springs, hot
springs, volcanic sand and volcanic bombs, and recent volcanic
topography, including Snag Lake.
 Copyright, 1914, by B. F. Loomis
LASSEN PEAK IN ERUPTION
Two of the imposing cañons here are Los Molinos and Warner
Cañon. These and other changes in the sides of Lassen Peak
illustrate the old, ever-interesting, and eternal story of erosion. Both
these cañons are wild places which have cut and eroded deeply into
the ancient lavas of Mount Lassen. Frost and water have reshaped
the work of fire. The mountain's sides show that it withstood the
latest visits of the Ice King. What appear to be the distinct records of
glacial erosion mark many spaces of its slopes.
The eruption of May 19, 1915, produced many changes. A volume
of super-heated gases burst out beneath the deeply snow-covered
northeast slope. The snow was instantly changed into water and
steam. The mighty downrush and onrush of water wrecked the
channel of Lost Creek for several miles. Meadows were piled with
boulders, rock fragments, and finer débris. Trees were uprooted or
broken off, carried downward, and left in piles of fierce confusion.
The hot gases played havoc with the forests. A stretch from a
quarter of a mile to nearly a mile wide and about ten miles long was
killed by the heat of the sweeping hurricane. Thousands of trees
were instantly killed and their green changed to brown. Others were
charred. Forest fires were started in a number of places.
 The spectacular ruins which this left behind—the trees, wreckage,
slides, the changes made by ashes—may now be viewed with ease
and safety. It is probable that for years to come this volcanic
wreckage will be seen by thousands of visitors annually.
Fiery Lassen Peak is snow-crowned. One may ride to its summit
on horseback. From the top one has magnificent views of the
mountains to the north, the distant Coast Range, and the mountains
eastward by the Great Basin. On the whole, the surrounding
mountain distances are hardly excelled for grandeur in the entire
country.
Cinder Cone is about ten miles to the northeast of Lassen Peak. It
has an altitude of only 6907 feet. It appears to have been built up
chiefly during the last two hundred years and for the most part by
two eruptions. One of these occurred nearly two hundred years ago.
It originated Stump Lake and ejected and spread materials over
considerable territory. The more recent eruption appears to have
taken place less than a century ago. In the summer of 1890 I found
in the crater a lodge-pole pine that was about eighty years of age.
Cinder Cone is a strikingly symmetrical small crater formed of
cinders and other volcanic products. It stands in a lava-field that has
an area of about three square miles. Its base measures about two
thousand feet in diameter, its truncated cone seven hundred and
fifty feet, and it is about six hundred and fifty feet high. Its well-
preserved crater is two hundred and forty feet deep and is nicely
funnel-shaped.
The Indians of the region had a popular tradition of the intense
activity of this cone about three centuries ago. This tradition was
that for a long time the sky was black with ashes and smoke.
Thousands of acres of forest were buried or smothered. The world
appeared to be coming to an end. But finally the sun appeared, red
as blood. The sky cleared, and volcanic activity ceased.
A number of the hot springs are agitated almost enough to be
called geysers. Cold and mineral springs abound. There are a
number of lively streams and plunging waterfalls.
 The lake-area is twenty-three hundred acres. The largest of the
lakes is Lake Bidwell. Cinder Cone stands between two lakes which
appear to have been formerly one. The eruption of this cone
probably extended a lava-flow across the lake, dividing it into two
parts. An outpouring of volcanic material apparently made a dam,
which formed a reservoir, now occupied by Stump Lake. This filled
with water and drowned a forest growth. Through the surface of this
lake still thrust numerous tree-trunks of the drowned forest. The
outburst of Cinder Cone that formed this lake and overwhelmed the
forest probably took place nearly two hundred years ago. Other
lakes are Juniper, Tilman, and Manzanita Lakes.
The greater portion of the Park is forested. Among the more
common species of trees are Jeffrey pine, red fir, mountain hemlock,
lodge-pole pine, white fir, and incense cedar. In places among the
forests are beautiful mountain meadows.
There are scores of varieties of wild flowers. Most of these grow
under favorable conditions; have warmth, moisture, and rich soil;
and they show bright, clean blossoms. The district has its full share
of bird and animal life. In a number of streams fish are plentiful.
The Lassen Volcanic National Park was created chiefly through the
efforts of Congressmen John E. Raker and William Kent.
The varied objects of interest in this Park, especially those
associated with topography and geology, make it not only a place
with curious features, but a region affording unusual opportunities
for the gathering of fundamental facts concerning our resources.
Here also are scenes to inspire the souls of such as can be moved by
the beauty and grandeur of Nature and by the awful manifestations
of her power.
Says J. S. Diller, of the United States Geological Survey, "With its
comfortably active volcano, inviting cinder cones and lava fields,
vigorously boiling hot springs, mud lakes and 'mush pots' for the
vulcanologist to study, and the glaciated divides and cañons for the
physiographer, in a setting of lovely scenery and attractive camps,
for the tourists all easily accessible, the Lassen Peak region affords
one of the most alluring and instructive spots for a National Park."
 XI
HAWAII NATIONAL PARK
A volcanic exhibit unrivaled in the world is embraced in the Hawaii
National Park, which was created in 1916. This Park consists of two
volcanic sections in the Hawaiian Islands, with a total area of one
hundred and seventeen square miles. Within this territory are two
active volcanoes, Kilauea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii;
and one sleeping volcano, Haleakala on the island of Maui.
The celebrated and unequaled Hawaiian volcanoes are a national
scenic asset, unique of their kind and famous in the world of
science. Apparently, the ocean has been filled in and the entire
group of Hawaiian Islands built by the lava-outpourings of
volcanoes. In this National Park we may see volcanic topography in
the course of construction; some landscapes just cast in the process
of cooling; others that are beginning to show the erosion of the
elements; also those which vegetation is just possessing.
The Hawaii National Park has about the same latitude as the City
of Mexico. There are about a dozen islands in the group, with a total
area of seventy-five hundred square miles. Honolulu, the capital city,
is on the island of Oahu, near the middle of the island chain, which
extends from northwest to southeast. From San Francisco it is about
twenty-one hundred miles to Honolulu.
Kilauea is more than two hundred miles southeast of Honolulu,
and thirty miles inland from the port of Hilo. Twenty miles to the
west from Kilauea is Mauna Loa. The crater of Haleakala is on a
different island from Kilauea and Mauna Loa, about midway between
these and Honolulu.
 The active rim of Kilauea is four thousand feet above the sea. The
slopes of this volcano have an exceedingly flat grade. It is the most
continuously active of the three volcanoes in this Park. It has a pit in
which the molten lava rises and falls and is boiling all the time. For a
century Kilauea has been almost continuously active with a lake or
lakes of molten lava. The crater of Kilauea is not a steep mountain-
top, but a broad, forested plateau, beneath which is a lava sink three
miles in diameter, surrounded by cliffs three hundred feet high.
Several times during the last century the active crater was upheaved
into a hill. In a little while it collapsed into a deep pit with
marvelously spectacular avalanches, fiery grottos, and clouds of
steam and brown dust. Through many years the crater was
overflowing. Frequently large pieces of the shore fall into the molten
lake, forming islands.
The magnificent spectacle of the lake of lava at Kilauea is
indescribable. Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus of Harvard
University, visited the crater and pronounced it the most wonderful
scene he had ever watched. It is a lake of liquid fire one thousand
feet across, splashing on its banks with a noise like the waves of the
sea. Great high fountains boil up through it, sending quantities of
glowing spray over the shore. There are fiery, molten cascades,
whirlpools, and rapids, with hissing of gases, rumbling, and blue
flames playing through the crevices. It is ever changing, and the
record of these changes is being kept from day to day,
photographically and otherwise, by the Hawaiian Volcano
Observatory.
Mauna Loa is an active crater, 13,675 feet above sea-level. It is an
enormous mountain mass, covering a wide area with its very gentle
slopes. This volcano erupts about once every decade. Of the three
volcanoes in the Park, Mauna Loa is the most productive of new
rock, which it pours out on the surface of the land. Its activities start
with outbursts on the summit and culminate after a number of years
in a flow which floods the whole country for many months.
Perpetual snow crowns Mauna Loa, and ice may be found in
cracks even in summer. In the winter-time there is a variety of
climate from sea-level to the summit—from the warmth of the
tropics to arctic blizzards on the mountain-top.
An interesting and somewhat amusing story is told in regard to an
eruption of Mauna Loa in 1881. The flow of lava at that time was so
heavy that it seriously threatened to wipe out the town of Hilo.
When the lava ran down to within a mile of the place, the natives
urged their Princess Ruth to go and conjure the goddess of the
volcano, Pele, to stop the flow. She went—so the tales goes—with all
her retinue, and threw into the crater some berries, a black hen, a
white pig, and a bottle of gin, as sacrifices. The lava-flow stopped,
and the natives believed their escape due to the odd offering,
although some people have expressed the opinion that such a
collection of stuff thrown into an active volcano's crater would make
the eruption more violent, if it had any effect at all.
Mauna Loa forces columns of liquid lava hundreds of feet into the
air, and every few years pours forth billions of tons of lava in a few
days. There is a wonderful rift-line, from which eight or ten flows
poured forth during the last century. These burst out on the slopes
of the mountain, not from the summit crater. After the first explosion
at the summit, a period of quiet intervenes, and then the rifts open
and lava flows down.
The lava cools quickly and changes through colors of red, purple,
brown, and gray as it cools. Areas of each of these are seen at one
time, with red-hot liquids showing in the cracks of the lava. Trees of
lava are formed at one place by the flow of lava rushing through a
forest and congealing around the trunks. Fields of "Pele's hair"—lava
—are blown out by the wind, like spun glass, as the fiery spray is
dashed into the air on the surface of the molten lake. In the large
craters are numerous smaller ones with endless lava forms, colors,
and volcanic structures.
The crater of Haleakala, ten thousand feet high, is near the middle
of the island of Maui. It is eight miles in diameter and three
thousand feet deep. While Haleakala has not erupted for two
hundred years, the entire crater is sometimes full of active fire
fountains, and the fiery glow mounts to the clouds like an immense
conflagration.
Professor Thomas A. Jaggar says, "The crater of Haleakala at
sunrise is the grandest volcanic spectacle on earth."
No photograph can give any adequate idea of the view from its
summit, often above the clouds. It is a good place from which to see
the sun come up through the clouds in the crater. This event has
been described as being like the birth of a new world. From here
one can look down on the island and on the sea, and see the
neighboring island of Oahu.
Sidney Ballou says: "A number of people who have been to the
top of Haleakala pronounce the sensation there, although somewhat
indefinable and indescribable, as the chief scenic attraction of the
world. Men like John Muir, who have been all over the world, go up
there and say that it is the greatest spectacle in the world."
In addition to the variety of volcanic displays and lava landscapes,
the Hawaiian Park contains splendid tropical groves and forests of
sandalwood and magnificent Hawaiian mahogany trees with trunks
over twenty feet in circumference. There are forests of tree ferns up
to forty feet in height, with single leaves twenty feet long; tropical
jungles with scores of varieties of the most exquisite and delicate
ferns and mosses, many of them found nowhere else in the world.
There are numerous song-birds of brilliant hues, many of them
found nowhere but in Hawaii, and nearly extinct except in this Park.
There are rolling grassy meadows, dotted with tropical trees, shrubs,
and ferns, giving a parklike effect. Many of the trees are botanical
treasures, known only in this Park region, and of great rarity.
The views from the slopes and summits of the volcanic peaks are
a mingling of wild magnificence and tropical splendor. The craters
themselves are weird spectacles that awe visitors into silence as they
watch the wonderful action of the liquid fire fountains, boiling lakes,
flaming lava, and other demonstrations of the Fire King.
L. A. Thurston, of Honolulu, appears to have first proposed this
Park, and he did much toward its acquisition.
 XII
THREE NATIONAL MONUMENTS

1. THE OLYMPIC NATIONAL MONUMENT

The territory embraced in the Olympic National Monument is now

proposed for use as a National Park. It occupies the extreme
northwest corner of the United States, a peninsula between the
Pacific Ocean and Puget Sound. It is dominated by the precipitous
and heavily snow-capped Olympic Mountains. These snowy summits
attracted the attention of the explorer Vancouver, who named the
mountains the Olympics. Their lower slopes are heavily forested with
gigantic trees, and beneath these there is an undergrowth of almost
bewildering luxuriance. This undergrowth is a jungle in itself. Many
of the trees are heavily and picturesquely roped and bearded with
moss. The openness which characterizes the Sierra or Rocky
Mountain forests is absent. Gigantic tree-trunks lie scattered over
the forest floor. Many of these fell centuries ago and are water-
soaked, half-rotten, and covered with moss a foot thick. Here and
there a living tree, a century or more of age, is standing upon a
fallen one. Others are lost in the tangle of vines, huge ferns, and
vigorous wild flowers that crowd the floor of the woods. Even at
midday the forest reposes in twilight.
The region is extremely difficult to penetrate and explore. The
streams, even during the period of low water, are almost too swift
for boats, and the tangled jungle-growth, produced by abundant
moisture and a mild climate, compels the explorer to chop every foot
of the way he advances. Until recent years trappers, who were
supposed to go everywhere, were content to work around its
outskirts. Even the adventurous prospector passed it by, and
searched the earth over for gold before seeking in the heart of the
Olympics. Through the combined efforts of government agents,
individuals, and organizations, the region has at last been pretty well
explored. Both in exploring this Olympic region and in endeavoring
to have a part of its primeval scenes saved in a park, the
Mountaineers Club of Seattle has taken an aggressive part.
Up to the altitude of about four thousand feet the mountains are
wrapped in dense green and heavy forest gloom. Then come the
scattered grassy, flowery, snowy openings. Timber-line, kept low by
the excessive snowfall, is at about fifty-five hundred feet altitude,
one thousand feet lower than in the Alps, and six thousand feet
below the forest frontier on the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. The
summit slopes are a broken array of snow-fields, ice-piles, and
glaciers. Above the timber-line, vast, deep snow-fields cover much of
the area. These white summits show from far out at sea.
Mount Olympus, with an altitude of 8250 feet, is the highest peak.
Among the other commanding peaks are Meany, Cougar, and
Seattle.
The climate, tempered by the warm sea, is mild. Probably no
other region in the United States has a heavier rainfall and snowfall.
From sixty to one hundred feet of snow is deposited over it each
winter. The only comparatively rainless months are July and August.
The rain, and the water from the ice- and snow-fields, supply
numerous steeply inclined streams, which descend in roaring
waterfalls and in long, leaping wild cascades.
This region excels in the number and crowded conditions of large
tree growth, and the impenetrable luxuriance of undergrowth.
Hemlock, cedar, spruce, and fir predominate. While the hemlock is
the most common tree here, the cedar is the most striking. The
latter is a strangely stiff and mysterious tree of rather stocky growth.
In this moist, mild clime it finds conditions for development almost
ideal. The two kinds of cedar are the Alaska and the red. Thousands
of acres here may be seen crowded with tall trees that will average
five feet or more in diameter and one hundred and fifty feet in
height. Trees twelve feet in diameter are not uncommon, and the
United States Geological Survey reports one with a diameter of
twenty-eight feet! Thousands of acres of red fir trees may also be
found in which the average height of the trees is two hundred and
forty feet!

MOUNT ST. HELENS

From the Timber-Line
Trail on Mount Rainier
Wild flowers are everywhere. They edge the snow-fields, cover the
breaks in the cliffs, line the streams, and bank with bloom the fallen
forest patriarchs. Among the common blossoms are the lovely
cassiope,—white heather,—mountain anemone, phlox, and "Indian
basket grass."
This is the home of the gigantic Olympic Roosevelt elk, and among
the other common animals are the bear, deer, wolf, fox, lynx, otter,
and beaver. The streams are simply crowded with trout. Bald eagles
are found, and there is an array of flickers, woodpeckers, warblers,
jays, sparrows, and hummingbirds. The solitudes of this sylvan park
are cheered with the melody of the water-ouzel, the Alaska hermit
thrush, and the winter wren.
 But the mountain summits are significant as view-points. From
them one commands the sea, islands, and the broken shore of the
Pacific. Bright Puget Sound, with a scattering of dark islands and
ragged edges, fills the foreground. Looking toward the southeast
across the darkly forested mountains through which rolls the
Columbia, one enjoys a view vast and imposing. The dark forest
cover is pierced by three snow-laden and steaming sleeping
volcanoes. The most impressive one of these is Mount Rainier, with a
score of enormous glaciers covering head and shoulders. Another
one is Mount Adams. But the most exquisitely beautiful of all the
peaks which the summits of the Olympics command is Mount St.
Helens. The head and shoulders of this mountain rise a perfect
snowy cone above the purple forest robe and stand as perfectly
poised as a Greek statue of marble.
The Olympic National Park should include about three hundred
square miles. What a splendid attraction if this area of primeval
scenes and forests were kept in a state of nature!

2. THE NATURAL BRIDGES AND RAINBOW

BRIDGE NATIONAL MONUMENTS

Utah has the four grandest natural bridges in the world. Three of
these are in the Natural Bridges National Monument, and the fourth
in the Rainbow Bridge National Monument. There are natural bridges
elsewhere in Utah, and in the Yellowstone and the Mesa Verde
National Parks; also in Virginia and various other places. But so far
as known, the four in these two National Monuments excel all others
in size, in impressiveness, and in wildness of setting.
These National Monuments embrace desert regions in
southeastern Utah which are made up mostly of rock-formations.
Standing out on the strange desert, the fantastic forms and weird
sandstone figures exhibited give the whole region a peculiar
impressiveness. There are countless statuesque forms and groups
that are surprisingly faithful in their resemblance to figures of birds,
animals, humans, and temples; and all are of heroic size.
The bridges in the Natural Bridges Monument are known as the
Sipapu or Augusta Bridge, the Kachima or Caroline Bridge, and the
Owachomo or Little Bridge. The former of each of these names is of
Indian origin and is the official one.
These three bridges are all within a small area. The Sipapu is 260
feet long on the bottom; the span is 157 feet high and 22 feet above
the creek-bed. Its road-bed width is 28 feet. The Kachima Bridge has
a span of 156 feet, a total height of 205 feet, and a width across the
top of 49 feet. The Owachomo Bridge has a light, graceful structure.
Its span is 194 feet and its surface 108 feet above the bottom. The
arching part has a thickness of only 10 feet.

RAINBOW NATURAL
BRIDGE
RAINBOW NATIONAL
MONUMENT
The Rainbow Bridge, whose official name is Nonnezoshie, is more
of a magnificent rainbow arch than a bridge. It has splendid and
striking proportions. Its great graceful arch is 308 feet high and 274
feet long.
These bridges are of sandstone of reddish cast, stained in many
places with blackish or greenish lichens and rust. Like any other
rock-forms, they are the product of various erosive forces—
illustrating the survival of the fittest. Their material, being slightly
more durable than that of the now vanished rocks, or possibly less
severely tested, has endured while the other material has been
dissolved and worn away. In the fashioning of the surface of the
earth Nature sometimes makes beautiful and imposing statuary. She
has done so here. In the surrounding country are turrets, cisterns,
wells, conelike and dome-like caves and caverns, and nearly
complete arches. In fact, arches and bridges showing every degree
of completion and past prime condition may be seen. Near by are
numerous deserted cliff dwellings. These unusual structures leave a
lasting impression on every visitor. Plans are already under way to
make these wonders easily accessible to the public.

3. MUKUNTUWEAP NATIONAL MONUMENT

The Mukuntuweap National Monument, Utah, has as spectacular a

cañon, and as stupendous an array of vast rock-forms, as is to be
found anywhere in the world. This territory is often spoken of as
"The Little Zion River Region." The Mukuntuweap Cañon has some
of the forms shown in the Grand Cañon, and an array of colors not
equaled in any other cañon known. In width it varies from half a
mile to only a few rods across. It does not all tend in a straight
direction. It curves. The cañon walls in places are sheer and rise
from two thousand to three thousand feet. One of its most startling
features is shown in the overhanging walls, which the water has
undercut so that in places the walls prevent a person in the bottom
from seeing the sky.
In a recent report on this cañon, T. E. Hunt, of the Department of
the Interior, wrote:—
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