1.

Write a short note on ARPANET

ANS-ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) was the first computer network that
used packet switching to connect geographically dispersed computers and laid the foundation for the
development of the internet. It was developed by the United States Department of Defense’s
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the late 1960s and early 1970s to connect computers
and researchers at various universities and research institutions. The U.S. government funded
ARPANET to create a robust, reliable, and decentralized communication system that could be used
for military and academic purposes.

2. Explain about Network topologies.

ANS-Network topologies refer to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, or devices
in a computer network. It defines the structure of how all the components are interconnected to
each other. There are two main types of network topologies: physical and logical . Physical topology
refers to the physical layout of the devices in a network, including the cables and the connections
between them. Logical topology, on the other hand, refers to the way data flows through the
network, regardless of the physical connections.

Types of Network Topologies-

A.Point-to-Point Topology: This is the simplest type of network topology, where two devices are
connected directly to each other.

B.Bus Topology: In this type of topology, all devices are connected to a single cable or backbone.

C.Star Topology: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central device or hub.

D.Ring Topology: In a ring topology, devices are connected in a circular configuration, and data
travels in one direction around the ring.

E.Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, each device is connected to every other device, providing
multiple paths for data to travel.

F.Tree Topology: A tree topology is a combination of bus and star topologies, where multiple star
networks are connected to a central bus.

G.Hybrid Topology: A hybrid topology combines two or more different topologies, such as star-bus or
ring-mesh.

3. Explain briefly about DNS, FTP

ANS-Domain Name System (DNS)-The Domain Name System (DNS) is a decentralized naming
system that translates human-readable domain names into the numerical IP addresses that
computers use to communicate with each other. DNS acts as a phonebook for the internet, allowing
users to access websites and online resources using easy-to-remember domain names instead of
difficult-to-remember IP addresses.

**File Transfer Protocol (FTP)-The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used
for transferring files between a local computer and a remote server over the internet. FTP allows
users to upload, download, and manage files on a remote server.
4. Explain the protocol stack of TCP/IP.

ANS-The protocol stack of TCP/IP is a set of communication protocols that are used to interconnect
devices on the internet. It is a four-layered model that is used to transmit data over the internet.
Here is an overview of the TCP/IP protocol stack:

Layer 1: Network Access Layer-The Network Access Layer is responsible for defining how devices
access the network and send data over it. This layer is also known as the Link Layer. It consists of
two sublayers: the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer.

MAC Sublayer: The MAC sublayer is responsible for controlling access to the network and resolving
collisions that occur when multiple devices try to send data at the same time.

LLC Sublayer: The LLC sublayer is responsible for providing error-free transfer of data frames
between devices on the same network.

Protocols that operate at this layer include: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3),Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11),Point-to-
Point Protocol (PPP),Layer 2: Internet Layer

The Internet Layer is responsible for routing data between devices on different networks. This layer
is also known as the Network Layer.

IP (Internet Protocol): IP is the primary protocol that operates at this layer. It is responsible for
addressing and routing data packets between devices on different networks.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): ICMP is a protocol that is used to send error messages
and operational information between devices on a network.

IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol): IGMP is a protocol that is used to manage multicast
groups on a network.

Layer 3: Transport Layer-The Transport Layer is responsible for providing reliable data transfer
between devices on a network. This layer is also known as the Host-to-Host Layer.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that provides reliable data
transfer between devices on a network. It ensures that data is delivered in the correct order and
retransmits lost or corrupted data.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol): UDP is a connectionless protocol that provides best-effort data
transfer between devices on a network. It does not guarantee delivery or order of data packets.

Layer 4: Application Layer-The Application Layer is responsible for providing services to end-user
applications. This layer is also known as the Process-to-Process Layer.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP is a protocol that is used to transfer data over the web.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP is a protocol that is used to transfer files between devices on a
network.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is a protocol that is used to transfer email between
devices on a network.
5. What are the different layers of the OSI model? What are the functions of each layer.

ANS-The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a 7-layered framework that helps
understand how data is transmitted over a network. Here's an overview of each layer, their
functions, and some examples of protocols that operate at each layer:

Layer 7: Application Layer-Functions:**Provides services to end-user applications.**Supports

functions such as email, file transfer, and web browsing.**Initiates and terminates connections
between applications

• Protocols:**HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)**FTP (File Transfer Protocol)**SMTP

(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)**DNS (Domain Name System)

Layer 6: Presentation Layer-Functions:

**Converts data into a format that can be understood by the receiving device**Performs data
compression, encryption, and formatting**Ensures data is presented in a consistent format

• Protocols:**SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)**TLS (Transport Layer Security)**ASCII (American

Standard Code for Information Interchange)

Layer 5: Session Layer-Functions:**Establishes, manages, and terminates connections between

applications**Controls the dialogue between applications**Manages session-level synchronization and
recovery

• Protocols:**NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System)**SSH (Secure Shell)

Layer 4: Transport Layer-Functions:

**Provides reliable data transfer between devices**Ensures data is delivered in the correct
order**Manages flow control and error detection

• Protocols:**TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)**UDP (User Datagram Protocol)**SCTP

(Stream Control Transmission Protocol)

Layer 3: Network Layer-Functions:

**Routes data between devices on different networks**Provides logical addressing and

routing**Manages congestion control and packet sequencing

• Protocols:**IP (Internet Protocol)**ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)**IGMP

(Internet Group Management Protocol)

Layer 2: Data Link Layer-Functions:

**Provides error-free transfer of data frames between devices on the same network**Manages
access to the network and resolves collisions**Performs framing, error detection, and correction

• Protocols:**Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)**Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)**PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

Layer 1: Physical Layer-Functions:

**Defines the physical means of data transmission**Specifies the mechanical, electrical, and
functional requirements for devices**Manages data transmission rates and signal encoding

• Protocols:**RJ-45 (Registered Jack 45)**Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)**Fiber optic cables

6.Write a short note on Novel Network.

ANS-A Novell network is a type of local area network (LAN) that uses the Novell NetWare operating
system to manage and connect devices. Developed by Novell, Inc. in the 1980s, Novell NetWare was a
popular network operating system that provided file and print services, as well as security and
management features.

Key Features:-**NetWare Core Protocol (NCP): A proprietary protocol used for communication
between clients and servers.** Bindery:** A database that stores information about users, groups,
and resources on the network.**Server-based architecture: Novell networks use a centralized
server to manage resources and provide services to clients.**File and print sharing: Novell networks
allow users to share files and printers across the network.

Advantages:-**Security: Novell networks provide robust security features, including user

authentication and access control.**Scalability: Novell networks can support large numbers of users
and devices.**Reliability: Novell networks are known for their stability and reliability.

Disadvantages:-**Complexity: Novell networks can be complex to set up and

manage.**Proprietary: Novell networks use proprietary protocols and software, which can make
integration with other systems challenging.

7. Explain about Different types of Networks.

ANS-1. Local Area Network (LAN)-A LAN is a computer network that spans a small geographical
area, typically within a building or campus.It connects devices such as computers, printers, and
servers in a limited area.LANs are usually owned and managed by a single organization.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN)-A WAN is a computer network that covers a larger geographical
area, such as a city or country.It connects multiple LANs and provides communication between
them.WANs are often used by organizations with multiple locations.3. ** Metropolitan Area
Network (MAN)-A MAN is a computer network that spans a metropolitan area, such as a city or
town.It is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.MANs are often used by organizations that
need to connect multiple locations within a metropolitan area.4. Wireless Network (WLAN)-A
WLAN is a computer network that uses wireless communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi or
Bluetooth, to connect devices.WLANs are commonly used in homes, offices, and public hotspots.

5. Virtual Private Network (VPN)-A VPN is a network that uses encryption and other security
measures to create a secure and private connection between devices over the internet.VPNs are
often used by organizations to provide secure remote access to their networks.

6. Intranet-An intranet is a private network that is not accessible to the general public.It is used by
organizations to share information and resources among employees.Intranets are often used for
internal communication, collaboration, and knowledge sharing.

7. Extranet-An extranet is a network that is accessible to partners or customers of an organization,

but not to the general public.It is used to share information and resources with external
parties.Extranets are often used for business-to-business (B2B) communication and collaboration

.8. Internet-The internet is a global network of interconnected computers and servers that use
standardized communication protocols to exchange information. It is a public network that is
accessible to anyone with an internet connection.
8. Write the Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Layers

ANS-**Number of Layers: OSI has 7 layers, while TCP/IP has 4 layers.

**Layer Combination: TCP/IP combines the OSI model's Physical and Data Link Layers into a single
Network Access Layer.

**Layer Functionality: While both models have similar layer functions, the OSI model's Session and
Presentation Layers are not explicitly defined in the TCP/IP model.

9. List the difference between logical, physical and port addresses.

• ANS-Scope: Logical addresses are used between networks, physical addresses are used within
a network, and port addresses are used to identify services or applications.

• Assignment: Logical addresses are assigned by a network administrator or obtained

dynamically, physical addresses are burned into the NIC, and port addresses are assigned by
the operating system or statically configured.

• Uniqueness: Logical addresses are unique to each device on a network, physical addresses are
unique to each NIC, and port addresses are unique to each service or application.

10. Define Fourier Analysis.

ANS-Fourier analysis is based on the idea that any periodic or non-periodic signal can be represented
as a sum of sinusoids with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. This decomposition is
achieved using the Fourier transform, which is a mathematical operation that transforms a signal
from the time domain to the frequency domain.

Types of Fourier Analysis

There are two main types of Fourier analysis:

1. Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT): Used for discrete-time signals, the DFT is a numerical
algorithm that computes the Fourier transform of a sequence of equally spaced samples.

2. Continuous Fourier Transform (CFT): Used for continuous-time signals, the CFT is a
mathematical operation that computes the Fourier transform of a continuous signal.

Properties of Fourier Analysis

**Linearity: The Fourier transform is a linear transformation, meaning that the Fourier transform of
a linear combination of signals is the linear combination of their Fourier transforms.

Shift Invariance: The Fourier transform is shift-invariant, meaning that a shift in the time domain
corresponds to a phase shift in the frequency domain.

Parseval's Theorem: The energy of a signal in the time domain is equal to the energy of its Fourier
transform in the frequency domain.

Applications of Fourier Analysis

**Signal Processing: Filtering, modulation, and demodulation**Image Processing: Image filtering, de-
noising, and compression**Spectral Analysis: Power spectral density, frequency response, and
transfer functions**Data Analysis: Time series analysis, frequency analysis, and data compression.
11. Define Un-Guided Media.

ANS-Un-guided media, also known as wireless media, are communication channels that transmit data
through the air or free space without the use of a physical medium, such as a cable or fiber optic.
These channels rely on electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, microwaves, or infrared signals,
to transmit information between devices.

Characteristics of Un-Guided Media

Un-guided media have several distinct characteristics:

• Wireless transmission: Data is transmitted through the air or free space without the use of a
physical medium.

• Electromagnetic waves: Un-guided media use electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves,
microwaves, or infrared signals, to transmit information.

• No physical boundaries: Un-guided media do not have physical boundaries, allowing devices to
communicate with each other over long distances.

• Interference prone: Un-guided media are susceptible to interference from other devices or
sources, which can affect signal quality and reliability.

Types of Un-Guided Media

There are several types of un-guided media, including:

• Radio waves: Used for wireless communication systems, such as cellular networks, Wi-Fi, and
Bluetooth.

• Microwaves: Used for satellite communications, wireless local area networks (WLANs), and
microwave ovens.

• Infrared (IR) signals: Used for short-range wireless communication, such as IrDA (Infrared
Data Association) and remote controls.

• Satellite communications: Used for long-distance wireless communication, such as satellite

television and GPS (Global Positioning System).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Un-Guided Media

Un-guided media offer several advantages, including:

• Mobility: Devices can communicate with each other while moving.

• Convenience: No need for physical cables or connections.

• Flexibility: Can be used in a variety of applications, such as wireless networks, satellite

communications, and remote controls.

However, un-guided media also have some disadvantages, including:

• Interference: Susceptible to interference from other devices or sources.

• Security: Data transmission is more vulnerable to interception and eavesdropping.

• Range and coverage: Signal strength and coverage area can be limited.
11. What is the need for framing?What are the different framing techniques.

ANS-The Need for Framing: Organizing Data for Efficient Transmission

In computer networks, framing is the process of dividing a stream of data into manageable units
called frames. Framing is essential for efficient and reliable data transmission over a network.
Here's why:

• Error detection and correction: Framing allows for error detection and correction by adding
check bits or error-correcting codes to each frame.

• Synchronization: Framing helps the receiver synchronize with the transmitter's clock,
ensuring that data is received correctly.

• Flow control: Framing enables flow control, which prevents the transmitter from overwhelming
the receiver with too much data.

• Multiplexing: Framing facilitates multiplexing, which allows multiple devices to share the same
communication channel.

Different Framing Techniques

There are several framing techniques used in computer networks, including:

1. Character Count Framing: Each frame starts with a character count, indicating the number of
characters in the frame.

2. Byte Count Framing: Similar to character count framing, but uses byte counts instead.

3. Flag-Based Framing: Frames are delimited by a special flag character, such as the ASCII
character SOH (Start of Heading).

4. Bit-Oriented Framing: Frames are delimited by a special bit pattern, such as a start bit and a
stop bit.

5. Frame Check Sequence (FCS) Framing: Each frame includes a Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
field, which contains a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) or other error-detecting code.

12. Explain about Difference between TCP UDP

TCP UDP

Connection Connection-Oriented Connectionless

Reliability Guaranteed Delivery Best-Effort Delivery

Error-Checking Error-Checking No Error-Checking

Speed Slower Faster

12. Explain the working of Go-back-N,selective Repeat ARQ protocols with Examples.

ANS-Go-Back-N (GBN) ARQ Protocol

In GBN, the sender sends a window of frames (e.g., N frames) and waits for an acknowledgement
(ACK) from the receiver. If an ACK is received, the sender sends the next window of frames. If an
error occurs, the receiver sends a negative acknowledgement (NAK) specifying the erroneous frame.
The sender then retransmits all frames from the erroneous frame onwards.

Example:

Suppose we have a sender (S) and a receiver (R) using a GBN protocol with a window size of 3 frames.

1. S sends frames 1, 2, and 3 to R.

2. R receives frames 1 and 2 correctly but detects an error in frame 3.

3. R sends a NAK specifying frame 3 as the erroneous frame.

4. S retransmits frames 3, 4, and 5 (since the window size is 3).

5. R receives frames 3, 4, and 5 correctly and sends an ACK for frame 5.

6. S sends the next window of frames (6, 7, and 8).

Selective Repeat (SR) ARQ Protocol

In SR, the sender sends a window of frames, and the receiver acknowledges each frame individually.
If an error occurs, the receiver sends a NAK specifying the erroneous frame, and the sender
retransmits only that frame.

Example:

Suppose we have a sender (S) and a receiver (R) using an SR protocol with a window size of 3 frames.

1. S sends frames 1, 2, and 3 to R.

2. R receives frames 1 and 2 correctly but detects an error in frame 3.

3. R sends a NAK specifying frame 3 as the erroneous frame.

4. S retransmits only frame 3.

5. R receives frame 3 correctly and sends an ACK for frame 3.

6. S sends the next window of frames (4, 5, and 6).

**Key differences between GBN and SR:

In GBN, the sender retransmits all frames from the erroneous frame onwards, whereas in SR, the
sender retransmits only the erroneous frame.

GBN is simpler to implement but less efficient than SR, as it requires retransmitting multiple frames.

SR is more efficient but requires more complex logic to manage individual frame acknowledgements.
13. Explain the frame format and working of HDLC protocol.

ANS-HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) Protocol: A Bit-Oriented Framing Protocol

HDLC is a bit-oriented framing protocol used for point-to-point and multipoint connections. It's a
widely used protocol in WANs (Wide Area Networks) and is an ISO (International Organization for
Standardization) standard. Let's dive into the frame format and working of HDLC.

HDLC Frame Format:

An HDLC frame consists of the following fields:

**Flag: A unique 8-bit pattern (01111110) that marks the beginning and end of a frame.**Address: A
1- or 2-byte field that specifies the destination station.**Control: A 1- or 2-byte field that specifies
the frame type (e.g., information, supervisory, or unnumbered).**Information: A variable-length field
that carries the user data.

• FCS (Frame Check Sequence): A 2- or 4-byte field that contains a cyclic redundancy check
(CRC) or other error-detecting code.

• Flag: A unique 8-bit pattern (01111110) that marks the end of a frame.

HDLC Frame Types:

HDLC frames can be classified into three categories:

**Information Frames (I-Frames): Carry user data and are numbered sequentially.**Supervisory
Frames (S-Frames): Used for flow control and error recovery.**Unnumbered Frames (U-Frames):
Used for connection establishment, disconnection, and other control functions.

HDLC Working:-Here's a step-by-step explanation of the HDLC protocol:

1. Connection Establishment: The sender and receiver establish a connection by exchanging U-

Frames.

2. Frame Transmission: The sender transmits I-Frames, which are numbered sequentially.

3. Frame Reception: The receiver checks the FCS and acknowledges correct frames by sending
an S-Frame with a receive sequence number (RSN).

4. Error Detection: If the receiver detects an error, it sends an S-Frame with an error
indication.

5. Error Recovery: The sender retransmits the erroneous frame and subsequent frames.

6. Flow Control: The receiver can send an S-Frame with a receive ready (RR) or receive not
ready (RNR) indication to control the flow of data.

7. Connection Termination: The connection is terminated by exchanging U-Frames.

HDLC Modes:-HDLC operates in three modes:

• Normal Response Mode (NRM): The receiver sends an acknowledgement for each frame
received correctly.**Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM): The receiver sends an
acknowledgement only when it has received a certain number of frames correctly.

• Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM): A combination of NRM and ARM modes.

14. Explain about Elementary Data Link Layer Protocols

ANS-Elementary Data Link Layer Protocols: Building Blocks for Reliable Data Transfer

Elementary data link layer protocols are simple protocols that provide basic error detection and
correction mechanisms for data transfer over a communication channel. These protocols are the
building blocks for more complex data link layer protocols, such as HDLC and PPP. Let's explore three
elementary data link layer protocols: Stop-and-Wait, Sliding Window, and Bisynchronous.

1. Stop-and-Wait Protocol

In the Stop-and-Wait protocol, the sender sends a single frame and waits for an acknowledgement
(ACK) from the receiver before sending the next frame. If an error occurs, the receiver sends a
negative acknowledgement (NAK), and the sender retransmits the frame.

Key Features:

• Simple to implement

• Low overhead in terms of buffer space and processing

• Not suitable for high-speed networks due to low throughput

2. Sliding Window Protocol

In the Sliding Window protocol, the sender sends a window of frames and waits for an ACK from the
receiver. The receiver sends an ACK for each frame received correctly, and the sender slides the
window forward. If an error occurs, the receiver sends a NAK, and the sender retransmits the
erroneous frame and subsequent frames.

Key Features:

• Improves throughput compared to Stop-and-Wait

• Requires more buffer space and processing power

• Can be used in high-speed networks

3. Bisynchronous Protocol

In the Bisynchronous protocol, the sender and receiver maintain separate sequence numbers for
transmitted and received frames. The sender sends a frame and waits for an ACK from the receiver.
If an error occurs, the receiver sends a NAK, and the sender retransmits the erroneous frame.

Key Features:

• Provides full-duplex operation, allowing simultaneous transmission and reception

• More complex to implement compared to Stop-and-Wait and Sliding Window

• Used in applications requiring high reliability and throughput

24.ATM-Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a high-speed, packet-based switching and

transmission technology that is used to transfer data, voice, and video signals over a network. It is a
connection-oriented technology, which means that a connection is established between the sender
and receiver before data is transmitted.
15. What is pure ALOHA and slotted ALOHA? Mention the advantages ALOHA

ANS-Pure ALOHA:

In Pure ALOHA, a station sends a frame whenever it has data to transmit. If a collision occurs (i.e.,
two or more stations transmit at the same time), the frames are destroyed, and the stations wait for
a random period before retransmitting. This process is called a "backoff" algorithm.

Key Features:-**Simple to implement**No synchronization required among stations**Low throughput

due to collisions.

Slotted ALOHA:

In Slotted ALOHA, time is divided into discrete slots, and stations can only transmit at the beginning
of a slot. If a collision occurs, the stations wait for a random period before retransmitting in the
next slot.

Key Features:**Higher throughput compared to Pure ALOHA due to reduced

collisions**Synchronization required among stations**More complex to implement compared to Pure
ALOHA

Advantages of ALOHA:

1. Simple Implementation: ALOHA protocols are relatively simple to implement, especially Pure
ALOHA.

2. Low Delay: ALOHA protocols have low delay, as stations can transmit frames as soon as they
have data to send.

3. Flexibility: ALOHA protocols can be used in a variety of network topologies and

configurations.

4. Robustness: ALOHA protocols can tolerate a certain level of noise and interference in the
communication channel.

16. Write short notes about repeaters, routers and gateways

ANS-Repeaters-A repeater is a network device that amplifies and retransmits a signal to extend the
distance of a network.It operates at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.Repeaters are
used to connect two segments of a network, allowing the signal to travel farther without
degrading.They do not examine or modify the data being transmitted, only amplifying the signal.

Routers-A router is a network device that connects multiple networks together and routes traffic
between them.It operates at the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.Routers examine the
destination IP address of incoming packets and forward them to the next hop on the path to the
destination network.They use routing tables and protocols to determine the best path for forwarding
packets.

Gateways-A gateway is a network device that connects multiple networks together and provides
access to a wider area network (WAN) or the Internet.It operates at the Network Layer (Layer 3)
and above of the OSI model.Gateways are often used to connect a local area network (LAN) to a
WAN or the Internet.They can perform routing, address translation, and other functions to enable
communication between different networks.
16. What is CSMA? Explain CSMA/CD CSM AJ/CA Methods.

ANS-CSMA: Carrier Sense Multiple Access

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) is a protocol that allows multiple devices to share a common
communication channel. It is a contention-based protocol, meaning that devices compete with each
other to access the channel. CSMA is used in wired and wireless networks, including Ethernet, Wi-Fi,
and other local area networks (LANs).

1. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)

In CSMA/CD, a device sends a frame and listens to the channel for collisions. If a collision is
detected, the device stops transmitting and sends a jam signal to notify other devices of the
collision. The device then waits for a random period before retransmitting.

Key Features:

• Used in wired networks, such as Ethernet

• High throughput and low latency

• Collision detection and retransmission mechanism

2. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)

In CSMA/CA, a device senses the channel and waits for a random period before transmitting. If the
channel is idle, the device sends a frame. If the channel is busy, the device waits until the channel
becomes idle.

Key Features:

• Used in wireless networks, such as Wi-Fi

• Lower throughput and higher latency compared to CSMA/CD

• Collision avoidance mechanism using random backoff

17. Explain the two approaches of packet switching techniques

ANS-Connection-Oriented Packet Switching

In connection-oriented packet switching, a dedicated communication path is established between the

sender and receiver before data is sent. This approach is also known as Virtual Circuit (VC) switching.

Key Characteristics:

1.Establishment of a Virtual Circuit: A dedicated communication path is established between the

sender and receiver before data is sent.2.Sequence Numbering: Packets are assigned sequence
numbers to ensure correct ordering.3.Acknowledgments: The receiver sends acknowledgments for
received packets.

Connectionless Packet Switching-In connectionless packet switching, packets are sent independently
without establishing a dedicated communication path. This approach is also known
as Datagram switching.

.Key Characteristics:1.No Virtual Circuit: No dedicated communication path is established between

the sender and receiver.2.No Sequence Numbering: Packets are not assigned sequence numbers.
18. Explain basic IEEE 802.11 Ethernet MAC Data Frame.

ANS-IEEE 802.11 Ethernet MAC Data Frame

The IEEE 802.11 Ethernet MAC (Media Access Control) data frame is a standardized format used to
transmit data over wireless local area networks (WLANs). It is a crucial component of the IEEE
802.11 protocol, which defines the MAC and physical layer (PHY) specifications for WLANs.

Frame Structure:

The IEEE 802.11 MAC data frame consists of the following components:

1. Preamble (16 μs): A 16-microsecond preamble that alerts the receiver to the start of a new
frame.

2. Header (30 bytes): The header contains control information, such as source and destination
MAC addresses, frame length, and sequence number.

3. Data (variable length): The data payload, which can be up to 2304 bytes in length.

4. FCS (Frame Check Sequence) (4 bytes): A 32-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) used to
detect errors in the frame.

5. Tail (6 bytes): A 6-byte tail that marks the end of the frame.

Header Fields:

The header contains the following fields:

• Frame Control (2 bytes): Specifies the type of frame (data, control, or management) and
other control information.

• Duration/ID (2 bytes): Specifies the duration of the transmission or the ID of the frame.

• Address 1 (6 bytes): The destination MAC address.

• Address 2 (6 bytes): The source MAC address.

• Address 3 (6 bytes): The transmitter MAC address (optional).

• Sequence Control (2 bytes): Specifies the sequence number and fragment number.

• Address 4 (6 bytes): The receiver MAC address (optional).

Data Transmission:

When a station wants to transmit data, it constructs a MAC data frame by filling in the necessary
fields and attaching the data payload. The frame is then transmitted over the wireless medium using
the physical layer (PHY) specifications.

Error Detection and Correction:

The FCS (Frame Check Sequence) is used to detect errors in the frame. If an error is detected, the
receiver discards the frame and sends an acknowledgement (ACK) frame to the transmitter,
indicating that the frame was received in error. The transmitter then retransmits the frame.
19. Explain the architecture of IEEE 802.15.

ANS-IEEE 802.15 Architecture

IEEE 802.15 is a standard for wireless personal area networks (WPANs) that defines the
architecture and protocols for low-power, low-data-rate wireless communication between devices.
The architecture of IEEE 802.15 is designed to provide a flexible and scalable framework for
WPANs, enabling devices to communicate with each other in a variety of applications.

Physical Layer (PHY):

The PHY layer is responsible for transmitting and receiving raw bits over the wireless medium. IEEE
802.15 defines two PHY layers:

1. IEEE 802.15.1 (Bluetooth): Operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency band and uses frequency
hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) modulation.

2. IEEE 802.15.4 (Low-Rate WPAN): Operates in the 2.4 GHz, 915 MHz, or 868 MHz
frequency bands and uses direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) modulation.

Medium Access Control (MAC) Layer:

The MAC layer is responsible for managing access to the wireless medium and providing error-free
transfer of data between devices. The MAC layer is divided into two sublayers:

1.MAC Sublayer: Responsible for frame formatting, error detection and correction, and flow
control.2.Logical Link Control (LLC) Sublayer: Responsible for multiplexing and demultiplexing data
streams, error detection and correction, and flow control.

Device Roles:

IEEE 802.15 devices can operate in one of two roles:

1.PAN Coordinator (PANC): Responsible for managing the WPAN, including device discovery,
synchronization, and data transmission.2.Device: A device that connects to a WPAN and
communicates with the PANC.

Network Topology:

IEEE 802.15 WPANs can operate in one of two topologies:

1.Star Topology: A single PANC device connects to multiple devices.2.Peer-to-Peer

Topology: Devices connect to each other directly.

Data Transmission:-Data transmission in IEEE 802.15 WPANs occurs through a process called
carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). Devices sense the wireless medium
for activity before transmitting data, and if a collision is detected, the device backs off and retries
transmission.

Security:-IEEE 802.15 WPANs provide security features such as encryption, authentication, and
access control to ensure secure data transmission.

Applications:

IEEE 802.15 WPANs are used in a variety of applications, including:Wireless sensor

networks,Wireless home automation,Wireless healthcare devices,Wireless gaming devices.
20. Write in detail about E-Mail architecture.

ANS-E-Mail Architecture

E-mail architecture refers to the underlying structure and components that enable the exchange of
electronic mail messages between users over a network. The architecture consists of several key
components that work together to facilitate the sending, receiving, and storing of e-mail messages.

Components of E-Mail System:

1. Mail User Agent (MUA): A Mail User Agent, also known as an e-mail client, is a software
application that enables users to compose, send, and receive e-mail messages. Examples of
MUAs include Microsoft Outlook, Mozilla Thunderbird, and Apple Mail.

2. Mail Transfer Agent (MTA): A Mail Transfer Agent, also known as a mail relay or mail server,
is responsible for transferring e-mail messages between mail servers. MTAs use Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to route messages between servers. Examples of MTAs include
Sendmail, Postfix, and Microsoft Exchange.

3. Mail Delivery Agent (MDA): A Mail Delivery Agent is responsible for delivering e-mail
messages to a user's mailbox. MDAs use protocols such as POP3 (Post Office Protocol version
3) or IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) to retrieve messages from the mail server.

4. Mailbox: A Mailbox is a storage location for e-mail messages. Mailboxes can be stored on a
local machine or on a remote mail server.

E-Mail Communication Process:

The e-mail communication process involves the following steps:

1.Composition: The user composes an e-mail message using an MUA.2.Submission: The MUA submits
the message to an MTA using SMTP.3.Relaying: The MTA relays the message to the recipient's MTA
using SMTP.4.Delivery: The recipient's MTA delivers the message to the recipient's mailbox using
POP3 or IMAP.5.Retrieval: The recipient retrieves the message from the mailbox using an MUA.

E-Mail Protocols:

1.Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Used for transferring e-mail messages between mail
servers.2.Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3): Used for retrieving e-mail messages from a mail
server to a local machine.3.Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP): Used for accessing and
managing e-mail messages on a remote mail server.

E-Mail Message Format:

1. Header: The header contains information such as the sender's and recipient's addresses,
subject, and timestamp.2.Body: The body contains the actual message content.

E-Mail Security:

E-mail security is a critical concern, as e-mail messages can be vulnerable to interception, tampering,
and spamming. Several security measures are used to protect e-mail communication, including:

1.Encryption: Encrypting e-mail messages to prevent unauthorized

access.2.Authentication: Authenticating the sender's identity to prevent spoofing.3.Digital
Signatures: Using digital signatures to ensure the integrity and authenticity of e-mail messages.
21. Write about TCP Connection Management.

ANS-TCP Connection Management: Establishing and Managing Connections

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented protocol that establishes a connection

between the sender and receiver before data is sent. This connection is maintained throughout the
duration of the communication session. TCP connection management involves the establishment,
maintenance, and termination of connections between devices.

TCP Connection Establishment

The TCP connection establishment process involves a three-way handshake between the client and
server:

1. SYN (Synchronize) Packet: The client sends a SYN packet to the server to initiate the
connection. The SYN packet includes the client's initial sequence number (ISN).

2. SYN-ACK (Synchronize-Acknowledgment) Packet: The server responds with a SYN-ACK

packet, which acknowledges the client's SYN packet and sends its own SYN packet with its
ISN.

3. ACK (Acknowledgment) Packet: The client responds with an ACK packet, which completes the
connection establishment process.

TCP Connection States

A TCP connection goes through several states during its lifetime:

1.LISTEN: The server listens for incoming connections.2.SYN_SENT: The client sends a SYN
packet to the server.3.SYN_RCVD: The server receives the SYN packet and sends a SYN-ACK
packet.4.ESTABLISHED: The connection is established, and data can be sent.5.FIN_WAIT_1: The
client sends a FIN (Finish) packet to the server to terminate the connection.6.FIN_WAIT_2: The
server acknowledges the FIN packet and sends its own FIN packet.7.TIME_WAIT: The connection
is closed, and the client waits for a timeout period before releasing the connection.8.CLOSED: The
connection is closed, and all resources are released.

TCP Connection Maintenance

During the connection, TCP performs several functions to maintain the connection:

1. Sequence Numbering: TCP assigns sequence numbers to each byte of data sent to ensure
correct ordering.2.Acknowledgments: The receiver sends ACK packets to acknowledge
received data.3.Retransmission: TCP retransmits lost or corrupted packets to ensure reliable
data transfer.4.Flow Control: TCP regulates the amount of data sent to prevent network
congestion.

TCP Connection Termination-The TCP connection termination process involves a four-way handshake:

1. FIN Packet: The client sends a FIN packet to the server to terminate the connection.

2. ACK Packet: The server acknowledges the FIN packet.

3. FIN Packet: The server sends a FIN packet to the client.

4. ACK Packet: The client acknowledges the FIN packet, and the connection is closed.
 22. Explain error control mechanism.(Stop and wait ARQ, Sliding window ARQ,Go back-n,
Selective-reject)

Ans-Error Control Mechanisms: Stop and Wait ARQ, Sliding Window ARQ, Go-Back-N, and
Selective Reject

Error control mechanisms are used to detect and correct errors that occur during data
transmission. There are several error control mechanisms, including Stop and Wait ARQ, Sliding
Window ARQ, Go-Back-N, and Selective Reject.

Stop and Wait ARQ

• In Stop and Wait ARQ, the sender sends a packet and waits for an acknowledgment (ACK)
from the receiver before sending the next packet.

• If the receiver detects an error in the packet, it sends a negative acknowledgment (NAK) to
the sender.

• The sender then retransmits the packet until an ACK is received.

• This mechanism is simple but inefficient, as the sender must wait for an ACK before sending
the next packet.

Sliding Window ARQ

• In Sliding Window ARQ, the sender sends multiple packets before waiting for an ACK from
the receiver.

• The sender maintains a window of packets that have been sent but not yet acknowledged.

• The receiver sends an ACK for each packet received correctly, and the sender slides the
window forward.

• If the receiver detects an error, it sends a NAK, and the sender retransmits the packet.

Go-Back-N ARQ

• In Go-Back-N ARQ, the sender sends multiple packets before waiting for an ACK from the
receiver.

• If the receiver detects an error, it sends a NAK, and the sender goes back to the packet that
was in error and retransmits all packets from that point forward.

• The receiver discards all packets received after the erroneous packet.

Selective Reject ARQ

• In Selective Reject ARQ, the receiver sends a NAK only for the packet that was in error.

• The sender retransmits only the packet that was in error, while the receiver continues to
receive and process other packets.

• This mechanism is more efficient than Go-Back-N ARQ, as only the erroneous packet is
retransmitted.