EXPERIMENT 1

AIM: To study about different physical equipments used for networking.

1.0 Learning Objective:

At the end of the session you will be able to become familiar with different types of
equipment’s and cables used in the networked lab.

1.1 What is a Computer Network?

Computer network means an interconnected collection of autonomous
computers. Two computes said to be connected if they are able to exchange
information. The connection needs to be done via some transmission media such as
a coaxial cable, twisted pair cable; fiber optics, microwares and
communication satellite can also be used. To interconnect the devices in the
network requires some networking devices such as a hub, a switch or a router etc.
To be autonomous means a device to be able to start or stop of its own. Benefits of
Computer network:
Resource Sharing
High Reliability
Saving Money
1.2 Network Components
1.2.1 Server
Concept of a server is based on one or more personal computers to perform specific
tasks for a number of other PCs. The most common function is disk, file and print
servers.
A Disk Server provides low-level support and performs basic read/write
operation to disk sectors.
A File Sever is a higher-level support mechanism, performing such function as
lockout and dynamic allocation of space on disk. In a star topology the server is the
principal connection point. All nodes, including the server, are connected to a hub.
This enables the server to house and administer software, fie sharing, file
saving and to allocate printers or other peripherals. In a bus topology, the server acts
like arbitrator, each node talks to the server when requesting information. The server
then locates the information on one of the connected clients and sends it to the
requesting client. Servers in any network can be an ordinary node but having more
capabilities of handling the data and having more speed.
1.2.2 Workstation
A node or stand-alone PC that is connected with network is called Workstation. A
workstation is generally a Client.
NIC (Network Interface Card): The network Interface Card (NIC) is the
interface between the PC and physical network connection. It is also called as Network
Adapter Card. The NIC is responsible for the operation that tasks place in the physical
layer of the OSI model. It is only concerned with sending and receiving) 0s and 1s,
using the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard.
In windows, the NIC card is identified in the network property; to use protocol with
NIC you must bind the protocol to the adapter card.
Function of NIC:
Data Transfer
Data Buffering
Frame Construction
Media Access Control
Parallel/Serial Conversion
Data Encoding/Decoding
Data Transmission/Reception
1.2.3 Cables
To transmit the data the medium must exist, usually in the form of cables or wireless
media. Here are some most commonly used cable types.
1.2.3.1 Thick Coaxial Cables (thick net) (RG-11)
Thick coaxial cables or thick wire is known as the Ethernet standard RG-11. This
cable is mostly used as backbone cable, distributing Ethernet signal throughout a
building, an office complex or other large installation. It is used in
10base5 Ethernet standard. The length may be up to 500 meters with a max of
five segments connected by repeaters. This gives a total distance of 2500 meters. This
is called a network diameter. RG-11 cable is typically orange; with black rings around
the cable every 2.5-meter to allow taps into the cable.
1.2.3.2 Thin coaxial cables (thin net) (RG-58)
RG-58 is typically used for wiring laboratories and offices, or another small group of
computers. The maximum length of thin wire Ethernet segment is 185 meters, which
is due to the nature of the CSMA/CD method of operation, the cable attenuation, and
the speed at which signals propagate inside the coax.

Fig: Thin coaxial cables (thin net) (RG-58)

The length is limited to guarantee that collision is detected when machines that are
apart transmit at the same time. BNC connectors are used to terminate each end of the
cable. When many machines are connected to the same Ethernet segment, a daisy
chain approach is used. The BNC connectors allow the network interface card to the
next machine. The machine each end of the cable must use a terminating resistor to
eliminate collision-causing reflection in the cable.

1.2.3.3 Coaxial Cable Connectors

Coaxial connectors are needed to connect coaxial cable to devices. The most common
type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neil-Concelman, in short, BNC
connector.

Coaxial Cable Connector

The three popular types of connectors are: the BNC connector, the BNC T connector,
and the BNC terminator. The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable
to a device, such as a TV set. The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to
branch out to a connection to a computer or other device.
 The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the
signal.

Applications
1. Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, and later with
digital telephone networks.
2. Cable TV networks use coaxial cables (RG-59) at the network boundaries.
However, coaxial cable has largely been replaced today with fiber-optic cable due
to its higher attenuation.
3. Traditional Ethernet LAN
– 10Base-2, or thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coax cable with BNC
connectors.
– 10Base-5, or thick Ethernet, uses RG-11 coax cable with specialized
connectors.
1.2.3.4 Twisted pair cables
Twisted pair is probably the most widely used cabling system in Ethernet in networks.
Two copper wires twist around each other to form the twisted pair cable. Depending
on category several insulated wire strands can reside in the cable.
Twisted pair is available in two basic types
a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Fig: Twisted pair cables

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Mostly the UTP is used. A twisted pair segment can’t exceed 100 meters. This
limitation is the only drawback to twisted pair. Twisted pair is used for 10/100 based
Ethernet networks. UTP cables are wired as straight through or crossover cables.
Straight through cables typically connect the computer’s networks interface can’t to
be a port on the hub. Crossover cables are used for NIC to
communication and for hub-to-hub connections when no crossover port is
available.
Category Descriptor
1 Used for voice for data.
2 Contains four twisted pair and a data transmission up to 4 Mbps.
Used for some token ring network.
3 Contains four twisted pair and a data transmission up to 10 Mbps.
Used for some token ring network.
4 Contains four twisted pair and a data transmission up to 16 Mbps.
Used for some token ring network.
5 Contains four twisted pair and a data transmission up to 100 Mbps.
Used for some token ring network.
Category-5 cables can be purchased or crimped as either straight through or crossed.
A category-5 cable has 8 thin. Colours coded wires inside that run from one end of the
cable to the other. Ethernet networks for communication use only wires 1, 2, 3 and to
be connected in both jacks. Straight through cables are used for connecting to a hub.
Crossed cables are used for connecting a hub to another hub (there is an exception:
some hubs are a built in uplink port that is crossed internally, which allows you to
uplink hubs with a straight cable instead.) In a straight through cable wires 1, 2, 3….
and 6 at the other end. In a crossed cable, one order of the wires change from one end
to the other wire 1 becomes 3 and 2 becomes 6.
For PC 2 PC Communication without HUB (Cross Cable Connection)
Sl. No. One Site Second Site Pin Configuration
01 Orange White Green White Transmit
02 Orange Green Transmit
03 Green White Orange White Receive
04 Blue Blue Not Use
05 Blue White Blue White Ground
06 Green Green Receive
07 Brown White Brown White DTR
08 Brown Brown DTS
For PC 2 PC Communication with HUB (Simple Cable Connection)

Sl. No. One Site Second Site Pin Configuration

01 Orange White Orange White Transmit
02 Orange Green Transmit
 03 Green White Orange White Receive
04 Blue Blue Not Use
05 Blue White Blue White Ground
06 Green Green Receive
07 Brown White Brown White DTR
08 Brown Brown DTS
For One Cable in Two PC Communication through HUB (Simple Cable
Connection)

First Connection
Sl. No. One Site Second Site Pin Configuration
01 Orange White Green White Transmit
02 Orange Orange Transmit
03 Green White Green White Receive
04 Green Green Receive
Second Connection:
Sl. No. One Site Second Site Pin Configuration
01 Blue Green White Transmit
02 Blue White Orange Transmit
03 Brown White e Green White Receive
04 Brown Green Receive
Shielded Twisted Pair It is 150Ω cable containing additional shielding that protects
signals against electromagnetic Interference (EMI) produced by electric motors power
lines etc. It is primarily used in Token Ring Network & where UTP cable would
provide insufficient protection against interface. Wires within cables are encased in a
metallic sheath that is conductive as copper in wires. This sheath when properly
grounded converts it ambient noise into current, like antenna. This current is carried
to wires within where it creates an equal and opposite current flowing in twisted pair
thus getting cancelled and no noise signal is resulted.

Unshielded Twisted-Pair Connector

The most common Unshielded Twisted-Pair connector is RJ45. RJ stands for registered
jack.

Inside the Ethernet cable, there are 8 color coded wires, with all eight pins used as
conductors. These wires are twisted into 4 pairs and each pair has a common
 color theme. RJ45 specifies the physical male and female connectors as well as the pin
assignments of the wires.

RJ45 uses 8P8C modular connector, which stands for 8 Position 8 Contact. It is a keyed
connector which means that the connector can be inserted only in a single way. RJ45 is
used almost exclusively to refer to Ethernet-type computer
connectors.
Characteristics of twisted pair cable
1. Requires amplifiers every 5-6 km for analog
signals
2. Requires repeaters every 2-3 km for digital
signals
3. Attenuation is a strong function of frequency
4. Susceptible to interference and noise
Applications
1. Used in telephone lines to provide voice
Fig: Unshielded Twisted-Pair
and data channels.
Connector
2. The local loop –the line connecting the subscriber to the central telephone office-
commonly consists of UTP cables.
3. DSL lines are also UTP cables.
4. LANs such as, 10Base-T and 100Base-T use UTP cables.
1.2.3.5 Fibre Optic.
Fibre Optic relies on pulsed as light to carry information. Two types of plastic or glass
with different physical properties are used (the inner core and the outer cladding) to allow
a beam of light to reflect off the boundary between the core and cladding. Some fibre
optic cables allow many different paths other allow one single mode. They are called
multimode and single mode fibres. A popular multimode fibre has core/cladding
dimensions of 62.5/125 nanometres.

Fiber Optic cable connector

EXPERIMENT 2
Aim: To study different internetworking devices in a computer network.

1.0 Learning Objective: At the end of the session you will be able to be familiar
with different types of internetworking devices and their functions.

1.1 REPEATER

A Repeater is a purely electrical device that extends maximum distance a LAN cable
can span by Amplifying signals passing through it. A Repeater connects two segments
and broadcasts packets between them. Since signal loss is a factor in the maximum
length of a segment, a Repeater is used to amplify the signal and extend the usable
length.

Repeaters

A common Ethernet rule is that no more than four repeaters may be used to join
segments together. This is a physical limitation designed to keep collision detection
working properly. Repeaters operate at layer 1 (Physical layer) of the OSI model.
1.2 BRIDGES
The networks bridge provides an inexpensive and easy way to connect network
segments. A bridge provides Amplification function of a repeater plus, ability to select
filter packets based on their addresses. When network grows in size, it is often
necessary to partition it in to smaller group of nodes to help isolate traffic
and improve performance. One way to do this is to use bridge, the operation of it is
to keep one segment traffic to that side and other side will cross the bridge.
The bridge learns which packets should cross it as it is used.

Bridged network
1.3 ROUTERS

A router is a device that connects two LANs together to form an inter-network. A

router is the basic building block of the Internet. Each router connects two or more
networks together by providing an interface for an Ethernet network and ring network
to which it is connected.

Routers
The router examines each packet of information to detection weather the packet must
be translated form on one network to another network performing a function
similar to a bridge. Unlike a ridge, a router can connect network that use
different technologies, addressing methods, media type, frame format and speeds.
A router is a special purpose device designed to interconnect networks. Such that
three networks can be connected using two routers. Routers maintain routing tables
in their memories to store information about the physical connection on he network;
the router examines each packet of data, checks the routing table and then forwards
the packet if necessary. Every other router in the path (between any state destinations)
performs a similar procedure. Note that a router does not maintain any state
information about the packets; it simply moves them along the network. Routers
are operated at layer 3(network) of OSI model.
1.4 GATEWAYS
A gateway is node in a network that serves as an entrance to another network. In
enterprises, the gateway node often acts as a proxy server and a firewall. The gateway
is also associated with both a switch, which provides the actual path for the packet in
and out of the gateway. It is also known as a computer system located on earth that
switches data signals and voice signals between satellites and terrestrial networks.
A gateway can operate at any layer of the OSI or TCP/IP reference model. The
hub of a gateway, also called a protocol converter, is much more complex than that
of a router or switch. Typically a gateway must convert from one protocol stack to
another. E.g. a gateway may connect a TCP/IP network to an IPX. /SPX network.
A Circuit Level Gateway function provided by Application level gateway products
enables trusted users on private network to access Internet services with all security
of a proxy server. An Application Level Gateway provide much stricter form of
security that packet filters, but they are designed to regulate access only for a
particular application.
1.5 HUBS
Hubs are also called concentrators; expand one Ethernet connection into many. For
example, a four-port hub connects up to four machines via UTP cables. The hub
provides a star connection for the four ports. Many hubs contains a single BNC
connectors as well to connect the hub to existing 10base2 network wiring, the hub
can also be connected via one of its ports. One pot is desired to operate
in either straight through or crossover mode, selected by a switch on the hub. Hubs
that can connect in this fashion are called stackable hubs. A hub is similar to a
repeater, expect it broadcasts data received by any port to all other ports on the hub.
Most hubs contain a small amount of intelligence as well. Examining received packets
and checking them for integrity. If a bad packet arrives or the hub determines that a
port is unreliable. It will shut down the line under the error condition is appears. The
hub also acts like a repeater. Because of its slight delay when processing a packet, the
numbers of hubs that may be connected in a series are limited.

There are three types of HUB passive hub, active hub and intelligent hub. The
Passive hubs do not process data signals with only purpose to combine the signal
from several networks cables segments. All devices attached to the passive
hub receive another packets that pass through the hub .Hub does not clear up or
amplify the signals, on the contrary absorbs a small part of the signals that is why the
distance between a hub and a computer should not be more than half of the
permissible distance between two computers. Passive hubs have limited
functionality so are inexpensive and easy to configure. It has four ports with four
BNC (British Naval Connectors) female connectors to configure networks
station or terminated with a 93 Ω BNC Terminator. The active hubs incorporate
electronic components that amplify and cleanup the signals, that flaw between
devices on the network. The process of cleaning up signal is called
“signal regeneration”. The benefits of signals regeneration are:
A network is more robust i.e. less sensitive errors.
Distance between devices can be increased.
Active hubs cost is considerable more than passive hub (active hub function impart
as multi port repeaters). Intelligent hubs are enhanced active hubs the following
functions add intelligence to a hub. Intelligent Hubs are units have form of
integrated management capability.
Hub Management A hub supports networks network management protocols that
enable the hub to send packets to central network console. Theses protocols enable
network console to manage or control hub.
Switching hubs
Switching hubs include circuitry that quickly routes signals between ports on the hub.
Insured of repeating a packet to all ports on the hub, it repeats a packet only to the port
that connects to the destination computer for the packet.
1.6 SWITCHES
It is similar to a bridge, with some important enhancement. First, as witch may have
multiple ports, thus directing packets to several different segments further partitioning
and isolating network traffic in as way similar to router. For example, if 8-port
n way switch is there it can route packets from any input to

any output.

Some or all of incoming packet is called store and forward, which stores the received
packet before examining it to for error before retransmitting. Bad packets are
not forwarded. A switch typically has auto-sensing 10/100 mbps ports and will just
the speed of each port accordingly; furthermore, a managed switch supports SNMP
for further control over network traffic. Switches operated at layer 2 (Data Link)
of OSI model.
EXPERIMENT 3

Aim: To study the working of Basic Networking Commands.

1.0 Learning objective:
At the end of the session you will be able to be familiar with working of different
networking commands like: hostname, ifconfig, ping, host, telnet, ftp, net, arp, Winipcg,
nslookup etc.
Networking Commands: The following commands are essentially used for
network management.
1.1 hostname
This command is used for finding host/domain name and IP address.
Example:
hostname with no options displays the machines host name hostname –d displays the domain
name the machine belongs to hostname –f displays the fully qualified host and domain name
hostname –i displays the IP address for the current machine
1.2 ifconfig
This command will display the assigned IP address of ETHERNET
adapter.
Ubuntu : ifconfig | grep inet
Windows : ipconfig
1.3 ping
This command is used for checking the network connectivity.
Ping verifies IP-level connectivity to another TCP/IP device by sending Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo Request messages. If received, the
corresponding Echo Reply messages are displayed, along with round-trip times.
Otherwise, a timed-out request or an ICMP unreachable message is displayed.
(i.e. You can “ping” an IP address to see if a machine is alive. If there is
no response, you know something is wrong)
1.4 host
This command is used for mapping name to IP addresses? Example: host
www.google.com
www.google.com has address 74.125.200.147 www.google.com has address
74.125.200.106
www.google.com has address 74.125.200.103 www.google.com has address
74.125.200.104 www.google.com has address 74.125.200.105 www.google.com
has address 74.125.200.99
www.google.com has IPv6 address 2404:6800:4003:c00:: 69
1.5 telnet
This command is used for connecting to a host on a particular port. Example:
telnet osou.ac.in 80
telnet command is also used to make a connection to a remote machine and
execute programs as if one were physically present.
telnet (data are travelled without encryption; not secured)
1.6 ftp
This command allows you to send and receive files between two
computers.
1.7 net
net command is used for checking/starting/stopping networking services, users,
messaging, configuration and so on... ?
1.8 arp
This command is used for displaying or manipulating the ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol) information on a network device or computer.
Explanation: The ARP protocol maps Layer 3 IP addresses to Layer 2
MAC addresses. If a packet must move across networks, the Layer 2
MAC address changes with each hop across a router, but the Layer 3 address never
changes. ARP cache stores ARP address mappings. If the entry was learned
dynamically, it will eventually be deleted from cache. If the entry was manually
inserted in ARP cache, it is a static entry and will remain until the computer is
turned off or the ARP cache is manually flushed.
On Windows, arp displays and modifies entries in the Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) cache, which contains one or more tables that are used to store IP addresses
and their resolved Ethernet or Token Ring physical addresses. There is a separate
table for each Ethernet or Token Ring network adapter installed on your
computer. Used without parameters, arp displays help.
1.9 Winipcg
This command is used to know the IP configuration of the PC in a graphical form. It
shows the following in the windows command prompt.
IP Address
Subnet Mask
Type of H/W used for communication & it’s address
1.10 nslookup
This command displays information from Domain Name System (DNS)
name servers.
NOTE: If you write the command as above it shows as default your pc's server
name firstly.
1.11 netstat
This command is used for finding connection to and from the host?
Example:
netstat nap| grep port will display process id of application which is using that port
netstat a or netstat –all will display all connections including TCP and
UDP
netstat tcp or netstat –t will display only TCP connection netstat udp or netstat –u
will display only UDP connection netstat g will display all multicast network
subscribed by this host.
EXPERIMENT 4
Aim: To assign IP address to the PC connected to the internet.
1.0 Learning Objective: At the end of the session you will be able to know how to assign
IP address to a PC connected to the Internet.
1.1 Assigning IP address in Windows 7 or Windows 10
Step-1
To assign or change the computer’s IP address in Windows, type network and sharing
into the Search box in the Start Menu and select Network and Sharing Center when it comes
up. If you’re in Windows 7 or 10 it’ll be in the start menu.

Step-2
Then when the Network and Sharing Center opens, click on Change adapter settings. This
will be the same on Windows 7 or 10.
Step-3

Right-click on your local adapter and select Properties.

Step-4

In the Local Area Connection Properties window highlight Internet Protocol Version 4
(TCP/IPv4) then click the Properties button.
Now select the radio button Use the following IP address and enter in the correct IP,
Subnet mask, and Default gateway that corresponds with your network setup. Then enter
your Preferred and Alternate DNS server addresses. Here we’re on a home network and
using a simple Class C network configuration and Google DNS.

Step-5

Check Validate settings upon exit so W indows can find any problems with the
addresses you entered. When you’re finished click OK.

Step-6

Now close out of the Local Area Connections Properties window.

Windows will run network diagnostics and verify the connection is good. Here we had no
problems with it, but if you did, you could run the network troubleshooting wizard.
Step-7

Now you can open the command prompt and do an ipconfig to see the network adapter
settings have been successfully changed.
EXPERIMENT 5
AIM: To connect the computers in Local Area Network

1.0 Learning Objective: At the end of the session you should be able to learn how to
connect your PC to a Local Area Network.

1.1 PROCEDURE ON THE HOST COMPUTER

On the host computer, follow these steps to share the Internet connection:
1. Log on to the host computer as Administrator or as Owner.
2. Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
3. Click Network and Internet Connections.
4. Click Network Connections.
5. Right-click the connection that you use to connect to the Internet. For example, if you
Connect to the Internet by using a modem, right-click the connection that you want
under Dial-up / other network available.
6. Click Properties.
7. Click the Advanced tab.
8. Under Internet Connection Sharing, select the Allow other network users to
connect through this computer's Internet connection check box.
9. If you are sharing a dial-up Internet connection, select the Establish a dial-up connection
whenever a computer on my network attempts to access the Internet check box if you
want to permit your computer to automatically connect to the Internet.
10. Click OK. You receive the following message:
When Internet Connection Sharing is enabled, your LAN adapter will be set to use IP
address 192.168.0.1.
Your computer may lose connectivity with other computers on your network. If these other
computers have static IP addresses, it is a good idea to set them to obtain their IP addresses
automatically. Are you sure you want to enable Internet Connection Sharing?
11. Click Yes.
The connection to the Internet is shared to other computers on the local area network (LAN). The
Network adapter that is connected to the LAN is configured with a static IP address of 192.168.0.1
and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0

1.2 PROCEDURE ON THE CLIENT COMPUTER

To connect to the Internet by using the shared connection, you must confirm the LAN
adapter IP configuration, and then configure the client computer.
To confirm the LAN adapter IP Configuration, follow these steps:
1. Log on to the client computer as Administrator or as Owner.
2. Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
3. Click Network and Internet Connections.
4. Click Network Connections.
5. Right-click Local Area Connection and then click Properties.
6. Click the General tab, click Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) in the connection uses the
Following items list, and then click Properties.
7. In the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog box, click Obtain an IP
address automatically (if it is not already selected), and then click OK.
Note: You can also assign a unique static IP address in the range of 192.168.0.2 to
192.168.0.254.
For example, you can assign the following static IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway:
8. IP Address 192.168.31.202
9. Subnet mask 255.255.255.0
10. Default gateway 192.168.31.1
11. In the Local Area Connection Properties dialog box, click OK.
12. Quit Control Panel

21
EXPERIMENT 6
Aim: Study of LAN transmission media’s , topologies , interconnection devices &
LAN standards and Practically implement the cross-wired cable and straight
through cable using clamping tool.
Resources: RJ-45 connector, Clamping Tool, Twisted pair Cable
Theory:

Transmission Media
1) Guided media
a. Twisted pair
1) UTP-EIA categories, connectors
2) STP
b. Coaxial cable
Radio Government ratings
RG-8, RG-9, RG-11,RG-58, RG-59 Connectors c. Optical fiber
Propagation modes
Fiber sizes
Light-source for optical cable
Fiber optic connectors
2) Unguided Media or wireless communication
1.RF transmission
2 Terrestrial microwave
3.Satellite communication
4.Cellular telephony
3) Transmission impairments : Attenuation , Distortion and noise.
4) Media comparison
5) Network topologies : Mesh, Tree ,Bus Ring and Hybrid topology.
6) Connection Devices : Repeaters ,Bridges ,Routers ,Gateways ,Hubs ,Switches
7) Project 802 : Categories ,Broadband & base band,1 Base 2,100 Base T, Fast Ethernet,
100 Base-TX, 100 Base T4, Gigabit Ethernet and FDDI.

Procedure:
To do these practical following steps should be done:

1. Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be
very careful at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing
so could alter
the characteristics of your cable, or even worse render is useless. Check the wires, one
more time for nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off, and start over.

22
2. Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other
hand. You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket. Category
5 cable must only have 1/2 of an inch of 'untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will be
'out of spec'. At this point, you obviously have ALOT more than 1/2 of an inch of un-
twisted wire.

3. You have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable. If you are using a pre-
made cable, with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install - the
crossed over end. Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the
cables for each type of cable
end.

The codes are commonly depicted with RJ-45 jacks as follows (the view is from the
front of the jacks)

Diagram shows you how to prepare Cross wired connection

Purpose of Crossover Cable-

Crossover cables are very similar to straight-through cables, except that they have pairs
of wires that crisscross. This allows for two devices to communicate at the same time.
Unlike straight
through cables, we use crossover cables to connect like devices.

23
Crossover cables are typically used in the following situations:

Use a crossover cable when:

1. Connecting a computer to a router

2. Connecting a computer to a computer

3. Connecting a router to a router

4. Connecting a switch to a switch

5. Connecting a hub to a hub

Diagram shows you how to prepare straight through wired connection

Purpose of Straight through Cable-

Straight-through cables get their name from how they are made. Out of the 8 pins that
exist on both ends of an Ethernet cable, each pin connects to the same pin on the
opposite side.

A straight-through cable is typically used in the following situations:

Use a straight-through cable when:

1. Connecting a router to a hub

2. Connecting a computer to a switch

3. Connecting a LAN port to a switch, hub, or computer

24
Conclusions

25
EXPERIMENT 7
Aim: Implementation of parity checker.
Resources: Turbo C, C++.
Theory:
Parity checking refers to the use of parity bits to check that data has been
transmitted accurately. Parity checking is the most basic form of error detection
in communications.

Two transmitting devices are communicating with even parity. As the transmitting device
sends data, it counts the number of set bits in each group of seven bits. If the number of set
bits is even, it sets the parity bit to 0; if the number of set bits is odd, it sets the parity bit to
1.

Every byte has an even number of set bits. On the receiving side, the device checks each
byte to make sure that it has an even number of set bits. If it finds an odd number of set
bits, the receiver knows there was an error during transmission.

Code:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{ int
i=0,j=0;
char msg1[9],msg2[9];
clrscr();
printf("Enter any 9-bits:");
scanf("%s",&msg1);
for(i=0;i<=strlen(msg1);i+
+)
{ if(msg1[i]=='1')
{j=j+1;}}
if(j%2==0)

26
 printf("\n Even Parity");
els

intf("\n Odd Parity");

j=0;
printf("\n \nEnter any 9-bits:");
scanf("%s",&msg2)
;
for(i=0;i<=strlen(msg2);i++)
{if(msg2[i]=='1')
{j=j+1;}}
if(j%2==0)
printf("\n Even Parity");
else
printf("\n Odd Parity");
getch();}
Output:

Conclusions:

27
Experiment 8
Aim: Write a program to implement Hamming code.
Resources: Turbo C, C++.
Theory:

Hamming code is a set of error-correction code s that can be used to detect and correct bit
errors
that can occur when computer data is moved or stored.

Hamming code is technique developed by R.W. Hamming for error correction. This
method corrects the error by finding the state at which the error has occurred.

Code:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int x1,x2,x3,i,x[4],y[7];
printf("Enter 4-bit data:
"); for(i=0;i<4;i++)
{scanf("%d",&x[i]);}
y[2]=x[0];
y[4]=x[1];
y[5]=x[2];
y[6]=x[3];
x1=y[2]+y[4]+y[6
];
28
x2=y[2]+y[5]+y[6
];
x3=y[4]+y[5]+y[6
]; y[0]=x1%2;

y[1]=x2%2;
y[3]=x3%2;
printf("\n \n Generated Hamming Code (even parity): ");
for(i=0;i<6;i++)
printf("%d",y[i]);
getch();}

Output:

Conclusions:

29
EXPERIMENT 9
Aim: Write a program to find Hamming distance

Resources: Turbo C, C++.

Theory:

In information theory, the Hamming distance between two strings of equal length is the number
of positions at which the corresponding symbols are different.

In another way, it measures the minimum number of substitutions required to change one string
into the other, or the minimum number of errors that could have transformed one string into the
other.

Code:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int i,j=0,a[5],b[5];
printf("Enter 5-bit data1: ");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);

printf("Enter 5-bit data2: ");

for(i=0;i<5;i++)
scanf("%d",&b[i]);
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
if(a[i]!=b[i])
j=j+1;

30
printf("Hamming distance: %d",j);
getch();}
Output:

Conclusions:

31
 Experiment – 11

Aim: Configure a Network topology using packet tracer software.

Resources: Command Prompt And Packet Tracer software.

Procedure:

To implement this practical following network topology is required to be configured using the
commands. After configuring the given network a packet should be ping from any one machine to
another.

(1) Ring Topology:-

32
(2) Star Topology:-

(3) Tree Topology:-

33
(4) Hybrid Topology (Star Ring) :-

(5) Bus Topology:-

34
 (6) Mesh Topology:-

Conclusions:

35
EXPERIMENT 10
Aim: To configure FTP server on windows server.

Resources: Windows 2003 Server, Windows XP Professional Client

Theory:

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from one host
to another host over a TCP-based network, such as the Internet.

FTP is built on a client-server architecture and uses separate control and data connections
between the client and the server.[1] FTP users may authenticate themselves using a clear-text
sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username and password, but can connect
anonymously if the server is configured to allow it. For secure transmission that hides (encrypts)
the username and password, and encrypts the content, FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS
("FTPS")

Procedure:

SETUP IIS Server and host website

IIS (Internet Information Services) is an easy-to-use web server from Microsoft. IIS is not
installed on Windows XP Professional by default. It is however installed when you upgrade from
Windows NT or Windows 2000 to Windows XP Pro. If not installed IIS can be installed as
follows:
1- Start-> control panel-> Add/Remove program->Add/Remove windows component
2- When the Windows Components Wizard appears, click Next. From here select IIS.
The IIS is configured using the IIS snap-in, previously called the Internet Services Manager. This
can be accessed in one of three ways:
Method 1:
1- From the Start menu, select Settings and then Control Panel
2- Open Administrative Tools
3- Open Internet Information Services
Method 2:
1- Right click on My Computer on your desktop
2- Select Manage to open the Computer Management console
3- Select Internet Information Services under Services and Applications
Method 3:
1- From the Start menu, select Run
2- Type inetmgr and run the command

To install the FTP service on our IIS machine

1. Begin by opening Add or Remove Programs in Control Panel and selecting Add/Remove
Windows Components. Then select the checkbox for Application Server:

36
2. Click Details and select the checkbox for Internet Information Services

37
3. Click Details and select the checkbox for File Transfer Protocol (FTP) services

4. Click OK twice and then Next to install the FTP service.

During installation you’ll need to insert your Windows Server 2003 product CD or
browse to a network distribution point where the Windows Server 2003 setup files are
located. Click Finish when the wizard is done.

Creating an FTP Site: Open IIS Manager in Administrative Tools, select FTP Sites in the
console tree, and right-click on Default FTP Site and select properties :

38
 Assign the IP address 172.16.11.210 for the Human Resources FTP site and make D:\HR
the folder where its content is located. To create the new FTP site, right-click on the FTP
Sites node and select New --> FTP Site. This starts the FTP Site Creation Wizard. Click
Next and type a description for the site.

Click Next and specify 172.16.11.210 as the IP address for the new site

39
 Click Next and select Do not isolate users, since this will be a site that anyone (including
guest users) will be free to access:

Click Next and specify C:\HR as the location of the root directory for the site.

40
Click Next and leave the access permissions set at Read only as this site will only be used
for downloading forms for present and prospective employees:

Click next and then Finish to complete the wizard. The new Human Resources FTP site
can now be seen in IIS Manager under the FTP Sites

41
To view the contents of this site, go to a Windows XP desktop on the same network and
open the URL ftp://172.16.11.210 using Internet Explorer :

To view all users currently connected to the Human Resources FTP site, right-click on
the site in Internet Service Manager and select Properties, then on the FTP Site tab click
the Current Sessions button to open the FTP User Sessions dialog :

42
 Now to create another FTP site using a script instead of the GUI. We’ll create a site
called Help and Support with root directory C:\Support and IP address 172.16.11.211:

The figure shows the result of running the script:

Configure the FTP Service:

To configure the FTP Service to allow only anonymous connections, follow these steps:

1. Start Internet Information Services Manager or open the IIS snap-in.

2. Expand Server_name, where Server_name is the name of the server.
3. Expand FTP Sites
4. Right-click Default FTP Site and then click Properties.
5. Click the Security Accounts tab.
6. Click to select the Allow Anonymous Connections check box (if it is not already
selected), and click to select the Allow only anonymous connections check box.
When you click to select the Allow only anonymous connections check box, you

43
 configure the FTP Service to allow only anonymous connections. Users cannot log on by
using user names and passwords.
7. Click the Home Directory tab.
8. Click to select the Read and Log visits check boxes (if they are not already selected), and
then click to clear the Write check box (if it is not already cleared).
9. Click OK.
10. Quit Internet Information Services Manager or close the IIS snap-in.
The FTP server is now configured to accept incoming FTP requests. Copy or move the files that
you want to make available to the FTP publishing folder for access. The default folder is
drive:\Inetpub\Ftproot, where drive is the drive on which IIS is installed.

Conclusions:

44
EXPRIMENT 11
Aim: To configure DNS server on windows server.

Resources: Windows 2003 server, Windows XP client

Theory: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical distributed naming system for
computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. it translates
easily memorized domain names to the numerical IP addresses needed for the purpose of
locating computer services and devices worldwide.

Procedure:

Setting up active directory using the run command dcpromo is a straightforward procedure. To
begin, from your windows 2003 server desktop:

1. Go to Start click on Run and type dcpromo and hit Enter. The “Welcome to the Active
Directory Installation Wizard” should come up:

2. Click on Next. On the following window, you will get a warning about comparability
issues with other Operating Systems. Improve security settings in Windows Server
2003affect older versions of windows:

45
3. Click Next. On the next screen, you will get two options. The first option asks you if you
want the server to become a domain controller for a new domain or if you want the server
to be an additional domain controller for for an existing domain:

4. Select the first option and click Next. On the next window, you will get three options:
a. The first option is to setup the domain in a new forest. Select this option if its the
first domain controller on your organization, or if you want it to be totally
independent from any forest.
b. Child domain in an existing domain tree. select this option if you want the domain
to be a child domain from an existing domain.
c. Domain tree in an existing forest. if you don’t want any of the above, select this.

46
5. Choose the first option, and click Next. On the next screen, we need to type the full DNS
name for the new domain:

6. Type the full DNS name like helpdeskgeek.com, and click on Next. On the next screen,
we need to choose the NETBIOS name.

47
7. Choose the name, and click Next. On the next screen, you need to select the location of
where you want to store the database and log files. for best performance store them in
separate disks.

8. Choose the location where you want the active directory database and logs, and click
Next.
9. Next, the Shared system volume window will come up. You need to choose the location
where you want to store the SYSVOL files. This folder contains the domain public files
and are replicated to all the domain controllers in the domain.

48
10. Choose the folder location, and click Next.
11. On the next window, the DNS registration diagnostic will show up. You will get ”
Diagnostic failed” and will get three options:
a. It will allow you to perform the DNS diagnostic again.
b. It gives you the option to allow the active directory wizard to install and configure
DNS for you, and use this DNS as the primary DNS for this server.
c. It allows you to bypass this window if you plan to correct the problem later on.

12. We have to configure its services, so we will choose the option to Install and configure
DNS server on this computer and set this computer to use this DNS server as its
preferred DNS server. then click Next.

13. On the next window, you need to choose what type or permissions you want for users and
group objects. Here you will get two options.
a. Select this option if you run server programs with pre-windows 2000.
b. Select this option, if you only run windows servers 2000 and windows servers
2003 your domain.

49
14. Select the second option, and click Next. On the next window, you need to enter the
Directory services restore mode administrator password.

50
 15. Type your chosen password, and click Next. Next, you will get the summary of all the
options you have chosen during the active directory wizard. Remember, the domain
administrator account password is the same as the current local administrator password.

16. Click Next. the active directory installation should begin.

51
 17. Click on Finish. and restart the computer. Active Directory should be now
installed.

Conclusions:

52