ANALOG COMMUNICATION

By
J.Samrajam
Assistant Professor
DEPT. of E.C.E
Text books:
1. B. P. Lathi, “Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems,” Oxford Univ.
press, 3rd Edition, 2006.
2. Sham Shanmugam, “Digital and Analog Communication Systems”, Wiley-India
edition, 2006.
3. A. Bruce Carlson, & Paul B. Crilly, “Communication Systems – An Introduction to
Signals & Noise in Electrical Communication”, McGraw-Hill International Edition, 5th
Edition, 2010.

References:
1. Simon Haykin, “Communication Systems”, Wiley-India edition, 3rd edition, 2010.
2. Herbert Taub& Donald L Schilling, “Principles of Communication Systems”, Tata
McGraw-Hill, 3rd Edition, 2009.
3. R.E. Ziemer& W.H. Tranter, “Principles of Communication-Systems Modulation &
Noise”, Jaico Publishing House, 2001.
4. George Kennedy and Bernard Davis, “Electronics & Communication System”,
TMH, 2004.
 Introduction
Elements of Communication System:
Communication: It is the process of
conveying or transferring information from
one point to another.
(Or)
It is the process of establishing connection or link
between two points for information exchange.
 Elements of Communication System:
Information source:
The message or information to be communicated
originates in information source.
Message can be words, group of words, code, data,
symbols, signals etc.
Transmitter :
The objective of the transmitter block is to collect
the incoming message signal and modify it in a
suitable fashion (if needed), such that, it can be
transmitted via the chosen channel to the
receiving point.
 Elements of Communication System:
Channel :
Channel is the physical medium which connects the
transmitter with that of the receiver.
The physical medium includes copper wire, coaxial
cable, fibre optic cable, wave guide and free
space or atmosphere.
Receiver:
The receiver block receives the incoming modified
version of the message signal from the channel
and processes it to recreate the original (non-
electrical) form of the message signal.
 Signal, Message, Information
Signal:
It is a physical quantity which varies with respect to
time or space or independent or dependent
variable.
(Or)
It is electrical waveform which carries information.
Ex: m(t) = Acos(ωt+ϕ)
Where, A= Amplitude or peak amplitude(Volts)
w = Frequency ( rad/sec)
ϕ = Phase (rad)
 Types of Signals
• Analog or Continuous Signal
• Digital Signal
Analog or Continuous Signal: If the
amplitude of signal continuously varies with
respect to time or if the signal contains
infinite number of amplitudes, it is called
Analog or continuous signal.
 Types of Signals
Digital Signal: If the signal contains only two
discrete amplitudes, then it is called digital signal.
• With respect to communication, signals are
classified into,
• Baseband signal
• Bandpass signal
Baseband signal: If the signal contains zero
frequency or near to zero frequency, it is called
baseband signal.
Ex: Voice, Audio, Video, Bio-medical signals etc.
 Types of Signals
Bandpass signal: If the signal contains band
of frequencies far away from base or zero, it is
called bandpass signal.
Ex: AM, FM signals.

Message: It is sequence of symbols.

Ex: Happy New Year 2020.
Information: The content in the message is
called information. It is inversely
proportional to probability of occurrence of the
symbol.

• Information is measured in bits, decits, nats.

 Limitations of Communication System
• Technological Problems:
To implement communication systems, Tx, Rx, channel
are required which requires hardware.
Communication system is expensive and complex.
• Bandwidth & Noise:
The effect of noise can be reduced by providing
more bandwidth to stations but due to this less
number of stations can only be accommodated.
• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):Noise should be
low to increase channel capacity but it is an
unavoidable aspect of communication system.
 Modulation
It is the process of varying the characteristics of
high frequency carrier in accordance with
instantaneous values of modulating or message
or baseband signal.
(Or)
It is a frequency translation technique which
converts baseband or low frequency signal to
bandpass or high frequency signal.

Modulation is used in the transmitter.

Types of Modulation
 Types of Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation: Amplitude of the
carrier is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous values of modulating signal.

• Frequency Modulation: Frequency of the

carrier is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous values of modulating signal.

• Phase Modulation: Phase of the carrier is

varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of modulating signal.
 Benefits or Need of Modulation
• To reduce the length or height of antenna

• For multiplexing

• For narrow banding or to use antenna with single

or same length

• To reduce noise effect

• To avoid equipment limitation or to reduce the

size of the equipment.
 Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal.
 Amplitude Modulation

The carrier signal is given by,

C(t) = Ac Coswct
Where, Ac= Maximum amplitude of the carrier
signal.
W= 2πfc= Frequency of the carrier signal.
Modulating or baseband signal is given by,
X(t) = Am Coswmt
Where, Am = Amplitude of the baseband signal.
 Amplitude Modulation
The standard equation for amplitude modulated
signal is expressed as,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)]
Where, ma = Am/Ac = Modulation Index
Time Domain representation of AM:
S(t)=AcCos2πfct+μAc/2Cos[2πfc+2πfm]t+μAc/2Cos[2πfc-2πfm]t
I term: Carrier signal with amplitude Ac and frequency fc.
II.term: Amplitude= μAc/2, frequency= fc+fm , Upper
sideband frequency
III. term: Amplitude= μAc/2, frequency= fc-fm , Lower
sideband frequency
 Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Domain representation of AM:
The time domain representation of AM wave is
given by,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)]
Taking Fourier transform on both sides,
S(f) = Ac/2[δ(f-fc)+ δ(f+fc)] + Acma/2[M(f-fc)+ M(f+fc)]
 Modulation Index
Modulation index or depth of modulation is given
by,
ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]= Am/Ac

Percentage of modulation index is,

%ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]X100= [Am/Ac ]X100
Types of AM with respect to modulation
index:
• Under Modulation (ma <1)
• Critical Modulation (ma =1)
• Over Modulation (ma >1)
Types of AM
 Generation of AM Wave
Square Law modulator:
This circuit consists of,
• A non-linear device
• Band pass filter
• Carrier source and modulating signal
 Generation of AM Wave
The modulating signal and carrier are connected in
series with each other and their sum V1(t) is
applied at the input of non-linear device such as
diode or transistor.
V1(t) = x(t) + Ac cosWct --- (1)
The input-output relation of non-linear device is,
V2(t)= aV1(t) + b V12(t) --- (2)
Using (1) in (2),
V2(t) = a x(t) + a Ac Cos (2πfct)+bx2(t) + 2bx(t) Ac Cos (2πfct)+b Ac2 Cos2
(2πfct)---(3)
Out of these 5 terms, 1,3,5 terms are unuseful terms
are eliminated by BPF.
 Generation of AM Wave
Output of BPF is given by,
V0(t) = a Ac Cos (2πfct)+ 2bx(t) Ac Cos (2πfct)---(4)

Switching Modulator:
 Generation of AM Wave
The carrier signal c(t) is connected in series with
modulating signal x(t).
Sum of these two signals is passed through a diode.
Output of the diode is passed through a band pass
filter and the result is an AM wave.
V1(t) = x(t) + c(t) ---(1)
Amplitude of c(t) is much greater than x(t), so ON &
OFF of diode is determined by c(t)
When c(t) is positive, V2(t) = V1(t) ---(2)
When c(t) is negative, V2(t) = 0 ---(3), Finally,
V2(t) =
 Detection of AM Wave
Demodulation or detection is the process of
recovering the original message signal from the
received modulated signal.

Types of AM
Detectors:
1. Square Law detector
2. Envelope detector
3. Rectifier detector
 Detection of AM Wave
Square Law detector:

The amplitude modulated wave is given as input to the

square law device.
V2(t)= aV1(t) + b V12(t)---(1)
When this is passed through square law device,
V2(t) = aAcCoswct + aAcmx(t)Coswct+ bAc2Cos2wct+
2bAc2mx(t)Cos2wct+ bAc2m2x2(t)Cos2wct---(2)
 Detection of AM Wave
In order to extract the original message signal, V2(t)
is passed through a low pass filter .
The output of LPF is,
V0(t) = mbAc2x(t) ---(3)
Envelope Detector:
 Detection of AM Wave
• The standard AM wave is applied at the input of
detector .
• In every positive half cycle of input, diode is
forward biased which charges capacitor ‘C’.
• When capacitor chargesto peak value of input
voltage, diode stops conducting.
• The capacitor discharges through ‘R’ between
positive peaks.
• This process continuous and capacitor charges
and discharges repeatedly.
 Detection of AM Wave

Rectifier
detector:
 Detection of AM Wave
• In rectifier detector, diode acts as rectifier which
allows only positive half of the modulated signal
to the filter.

• The low pass filter removes all the high frequency

components giving envelope at its output.

• This envelope will have some dc value which can

be removed by passing through capacitor ‘C’.

• The output of rectifier detector is the envelope

with zero dc value.
Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier(DSB-SC)
The equation of AM wave in simple form is given
by,
S(t) = Ac Cos wct +
Here, carrier component remains constant and
does not convey any information.
Therefore, if the carrier is suppressed, only
sidebands remain in the spectrum requiring less
power.
• DSB-SC Contains two side bands i.e USB & LSB
• Power efficiency is 100%
• % Power saving in DSB-SC w.r.t AM is 66.67%.
 DSB-SCModulation
A DSB-SC signal is obtained by multiplying the
modulating signal x(t) with carrier signal c(t).
So, we need a product modulator for the
generation of DSB-SCwave.
 DSB-SCModulation
1. Balanced Modulator:
It consists of two amplitude modulators arranged
in balanced configuration to suppress the
carrier completely.
 DSB-SCModulation
Operation:
• Carrier c(t) is applied to both the modulators.
• Message signal x(t) is applied directly to
modulator 1 and with a phase shift of 1800 to
modulator 2.
Output of modulator 1 is,
S1(t) = Ac[1+ mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(1)
Output of modulator 2 is,
S2(t) = Ac[1- mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(2)
These two outputs are applied to subtractor,
whose output is, 2mAcx(t) cos 2πfct---(3)
 DSB-SCModulation
Ring Modulator:
2.

It operates in two modes

• Mode1: Without modulating signal x(t)
• Mode 2: With modulating signal x(t)
Mode1: c(t) is positive
• Diodes D1, D2 forward biased, D3,D4 Reverse biased
• Output of ring modulator will be zero.
C(t) is negative
• Diodes D1, D2 reverse biased, D3,D4 forward biased
• Output of ring modulator will be zero.
Mode2:
• When modulating signal is present, during positive half cycle D1,
D2 will be ON and secondary of T1 is directly applied to primary of
T2.
• Output will be positive
• During negative half cycle of modulating signal D3, D4 will be ON
producing positive voltage.
DSB-SCModulation
Time Domain representation of DSB-SC
Message signal is given by,
x(t) =Am cos(2πfmt) ---(1)
Carrier signal is given by,
C(t) = Ac cos(2πfct) ---(2)
DSB-SC modulated signal is given by,
S(t) = x(t) c(t) ---(3)
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]--(4)
Frequency Domain representation of DSB-SC
The frequency spectrum of DSB-SC is obtained by
taking Fourier transform of s(t)
S(f) = F{[1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]}

S(f) =
This is the spectrum of DSB-SCwave.
 Demodulation of DSB-SC
Coherent Detection:
The modulating signal x(t) is recovered from DSB-
SC wave s(t) by multiplying it with a locally
generated carrier and then passing through a
LPF.
 Demodulation of DSB-SC
V(t) = s(t) c(t) ---(1)
Where,
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]—(2)
C(t) = cos2πfct ---(3)
Substituting (2) & (3) in (1)

When this is passed through a LPF,

V0(t) =
 Single Sideband-Suppressed Carrier(SSB-SC)
The modulation process in which only one side band
is transmitted and with carrier suppression is
called Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-
SC).
Modulating Signal m(t) = Am Cos (2πfmt) and Carrier
Signal c(t) = Ac Cos (2πfct)
SSB-SC signal can be generated by passing DSB-SC
signal through BPF. And DSB-SC signal is
generated by multiplying m(t) & c(t).
ASSB-SC(t) = Cos2π( + )t (or)
ASSB-SC(t) = Cos2π( - )t
 Generation of SSB-SC
1. Filter or Frequency Discrimination
Method:

Filter method of generating SsB-SC Signal requires

product modulator and BPF as shown in figure.
Here Product Modulator generates DSB-SC Signal
which contains two side bands i.e USB & LSB.
By passing DSB-SC Signal through BPF either of
sidebands are removed for generating SSB-SC
Signal.
 (6)

Then we can obtain :

(8)

The expression for the double-sideband By expanding Equation 6, we are able to derive Equation 9.

(DSB) modulated signal can be given as

follows

After that we can obtain the upper sideband and

lower sideband respectively from the above (11)

formula of DSB:
 This describes the SSB (single sideband) wave, with the negative sign indicating the
upper sideband SSB wave, and the positive sign indicating the lower sideband SSB wave.
In the frequency domain,
upper sideband : f = fc + f m and f = ‐fc ‐ fm

lower sideband :f = fc ‐ fm andf = ‐fc + fm

We use a filter to remove the portion of the sideband that contains

duplicate information, and only keep either the upper or lower
sideband.
 Generation of SSB-SC
2.Phase Shift or Phase Discrimination
Method:

The figure shows the block diagram for the phase

shift method of SSB generation and this system is
used for the suppression of lower sideband.
This system uses two Product modulators
M1 and M2 and two 90o phase shifting networks.
 Vestigial Sideband Transmission
• VSB-SCis used to transmit Video Signal which is large
BW signal containing very low and very high
frequency components.
• Very low Frequencies raise sidebands near to carrier
frequency.
• It is not possible to suppress one complete sideband.
• Very low frequencies contain most of useful
information, any effect to complete suppress the one
sideband would result phase distortion at these
frequencies.
• Therefore compromise has been made to suppress
the part of sideband. Hence VSB-SCSignal contain
one full sideband & part of other side band.
 VSB Modulation & Demodulation
Modulation:
Modulating signal x(t) and carrier signal c(t) are
applied as inputs to the product modulator.
S(t) = x(t)c(t)
This is the DSB-SC wave. It is applied to a side band
filter which passes the wanted sideband
completely and vestige of unwanted sideband.
 VSB Modulation & Demodulation
Demodulation:
The demodulation of VSB signal can be achieved
using a coherent detector by multiplying s(t) with
a locally generated carrier.
V(t) = s(t)AcCos2πfct
This signal is then passed through a LPF which
passes low frequency message signal and rejects
carrier.
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
QAM is used to transmit color information in TV
signal transmission.
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
The output of Transmitter S (t) = m1 (t) Cos (2πfct + m2 (t) Sin (2πfct)

The output of multiplier S1(t) = [m1 (t) Cos (2πfct + m2 (t) Sin (2πfct)] x
Cos (2πfct)
= m1(t) Cos2(2πfct) + m2(t) sin(2πfct) Cos(2πfct)
= m1(t)/2(1+Cos4πfct)) + m2(t)/2 Sin(4πfct)
=m1(t)/2 + m1(t)/2 Cos(4πfct)+ m2(t)/2 Sin(4πfct)
Second and Third terms are high frequency signals are eliminated by
LPF. So that output of LPF is m1(t)/2
The output of multiplier S2(t) = [m1 (t) Cos (2πfct + m2 (t) Sin (2πfct)] x
Sin (2πfct)
=m2(t)/2Sin(4πfct)+m2(t)/2-m2(t)/2Cos(4πfct)
First and Third terms are high frequency signals are eliminated by LPF.
So that output of LPF is m2(t)/2 .
 Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
Heterodyne means mixing two frequencies and
generating single or constant frequency and the
output of mixer will be fixed frequency.
Specification of AM Receiver:
• The frequency range of AM-MW( Medium wave)
: (540-1640) KHz
• Band width of receiver:1640 KHz – 540 KHz = 1100 KHz
• Band width of each AM station : 10 KHz
• No. of stations available: 110
• Intermediate frequency (fIF): 455 KHz
Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
 Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal
into
electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
• It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
• Tuning circuit designed to select 110 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 1100 KHz band width.
• RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image signal
rejection and noise reduction.
Mixer:
• It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass Filter (BPF).
• Frequency generates sum and difference frequency of incoming signal
and locally generated signal.
• BPF selects difference frequency at the output whose center frequency is
equal to= 455 KHz.
Local Oscillator:
• It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
• It generates carrier frequency 455 KHz greater than the incoming carrier
frequency to produce constant or fixed frequency.
 Super Heterodyne AM Receiver
IF Amplifier:
• It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which provides
amplification for 10 KHz band width at center frequency of 455 KHz.
• It is cascade CE amplifier which provides 90% of total receiver
amplification.

Detector or Demodulator:
• It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating signal from
AM signal.
• Usually Envelope detector is used.
• Fidelity of the receiver is mainly depends on detector or demodulator.

Audio Amplifier:
• It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20- 20K) Hz.
• It contain cascade CE Voltage amplifier followed by Power amplifier.

Loud Speaker:
• It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.
ANGLE
MODULATION
Angle modulation is a process of varying angle of the
carrier in accordance with the instantaneous values of
modulating signal.

Angle can be varied by varying frequency or phase.

Angle modulation is of 2 types.

• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
 Frequency
Modulation
The process of varying frequency of the carrier in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the
modulating signal.

Relation between angle and frequency :

Consider carrier signal c(t)= Ac Cos (wct+φ)

= Ac Cos (2πfct +φ)
Where, Wc= Carrier frequency
φ = Phase

C(t) = Ac Cos[ψ(t)], where, ψ(t)= wct+φ

i.e Frequency can be obtained by derivating angle and

angle can be obtained by integrating frequency.
Frequency Modulation

Frequency modulator converts input voltage into

frequency i.e the amplitude of modulating signal m(t)
changes to frequency at the output.

Consider carrier signal c(t) =Ac Coswct

The frequency variation at the output is called
instantaneous frequency and is expressed as,
wi = wc + kf m(t)
Where, kf = frequency sensitivity factor in Hz/volt
 Frequency Modulation
The angle of the carrier after modulation can be
written as,

Frequency modulated signal can be written as,

AFM(t) = Ac Cos [ψi(t)] = Ac Cos [wct + kfʃm(t)dt]

Frequency Deviation in FM:

The instantaneous frequency, wi = wc + kf m(t)

= wc + Δw
Where, Δw = kf m(t) is called frequency deviation which
may be positive or negative depending on the sign of
m(t).
 Phase Modulation
The process of varying the phase of carrier in accordance
with instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Consider modulating signal x(t) and carrier signal c(t) =

Ac Coswct

Phase modulating signal,

APM(t) = Ac Cos[ ψi(t)]

Where, ψi(t) = wct + kpm(t)

Where, kp = Phase sensitivity factor in rad/volt

APM(t) = Ac Cos[wct + kpm(t)]

 Phase Modulation
Frequency deviation in
PM:

Conversion between Frequency and Phase Modulation:

Modulation
Index
Definition:
Modulation Index is defined as the ratio of frequency
deviation () to the modulating frequency (fm).

M.I.=Frequency Deviation
Modulating Frequency

mf =δ
fm

In FM M.I.>1

Modulation Index of FM decides −

(i)Bandwidth of the FM wave.
(ii)Number of sidebands in FM wave.
Deviation
Ratio
The modulation
index corresponding to maximum deviation
and maximum modulating frequency is called deviation ratio.

Deviation Ratio= Maximum Deviation

Maximum modulating Frequency

= δmax
fmax

In FM broadcasting the maximum value of deviation is limited to 75

kHz. The maximum modulating frequency is also limited to 15 kHz.
Percentage M.I. of
FM
The percentage modulation is defined as the ratio of the
actual frequency deviation produced by the modulating signal
to the maximum allowable frequency deviation.

% M.I = Actual deviation

Maximum allowable deviation


Mathematical Representation
of FM
(i) Modulating Signal:

It may be represented as,

em = Em cos mt (1)

Here cos term taken for simplicity

where,
em = Instantaneous amplitude
m = Angular velocity
= 2fm
fm = Modulating frequency
(ii) Carrier Signal:

Carrier may be
represented as, ec = Ec sin (ct + ) -----
(2)

where,
ec = Instantaneous
amplitude
c = Angular velocity
= 2fc
fc = Carrier frequency
(iii) FM Wave:

Fig. Frequency Vs. Time in FM

FM is nothing but a deviation of frequency.
From Fig. 2.25, it is seen that instantaneous frequency ‘f’ of the FM
wave is given by,
f =fc (1 + K Em cos mt) (3)
where,
fc =Unmodulated carrier frequency
K = Proportionality constant
Em cos mt =Instantaneous modulating signal
(Cosine term preferred for simplicity otherwise we
can use sine term also)
• The maximum deviation for this particular signal will occur, when
cos mt =  1 i.e. maximum.
 Equation (2.26) becomes,
f =fc (1  K Em)  (4)
 f =fc  K Emfc  (5)
So that maximum deviation  will be given by,
 = K Emfc  (6)
The instantaneous amplitude of FM signal is given by,
eFM = A sin [f(c, m)]
= A sin   (7)
where,
f(c, m)= Some function of carrier and modulating
frequencies
Let us write equation (2.26) in terms of  as,
 = c (1 + K Em cos m t)
To find ,  must be integrated with respect to time.
Thus,
 =  dt
= c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
 =c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
=  c (t+ KEm sin mt)
m
=ct + KEmc sin mt
m

=ct + KEmfc sin mt

m
=ct +  sinmt [...  = K Em fc]
fm

Substitute value of  in equation (7)
Thus,
eFM = A sin (ct +  sinmt )---(8)
fm
eFM = A sin (ct +mf sinmt )---(9)

This is the equation of FM.

 Frequency Spectrum
Frequency spectrum is a graph of amplitude versus frequency.
of FM
The frequency spectrum of FM wave tells us about number of
sideband present in the FM wave and their amplitudes.
The expression for FM wave is not simple. It is complex because it
is sine of sine function.
Only solution is to use ‘Bessels Function’.
Equation (2.32) may be expanded as,
eFM = {A J0 (mf) sin ct
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + m) t − sin (c − m) t]
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + 2m) t + sin (c − 2m) t]
+ J3 (mf) [sin (c + 3m) t − sin (c − 3m) t]
+ J4 (mf) [sin (c + 4m) t + sin (c − 4m) t]
+ }  (2.33)
From this equation it is seen that the FM wave consists of:
(i)Carrier (First term in equation).
(ii)Infinite number of sidebands (All terms except first term are
sidebands).
The amplitudes of carrier and sidebands depend on ‘J’ coefficient.
c = 2fc, m = 2fm
So in place of c and m, we can use fc and fm.
Fig. : Ideal Frequency Spectrum of FM
Bandwidth of
FM
From frequency spectrum of FM wave shown in Fig.
2.26, we can say that the bandwidth of FM wave is
infinite.
But practically, it is calculated based on how many
sidebands have significant amplitudes.
(i) The Simple Method to calculate the bandwidth is −

BW=2fmx Number of significant sidebands --(1)

With increase in modulation index, the number of

significant sidebands increases. So that bandwidth also
increases.
(ii) The second method to calculate bandwidth is by
Carson’s rule.
Carson’s rule states that, the bandwidth of FM wave is twice
the sum of deviation and highest modulating frequency.
BW=2( +fmmax) (2)

Highest order side band = To be found from table 2.1 after the
calculation of modulation Index m where, m = /fm

e.g. If m= 20KHZ/5KHZ

From table, for modulation index 4, highest order side band is 7th.
Therefore, the bandwidth is
B.W. = 2 fm  Highest order side band
=2  5 kHz  7
=70 kHz
Types of Frequency
Modulation
FM (Frequency Modulation)

Narrowband Wideband FM
FM (WBFM)
(NBFM) [When modulation index is
[When modulation index is large]
small]
Comparison between
Narrowband and Wideband
FM
Sr.
No.
Parameter NBFM WBFM

1. Modulation Less than or slightly Greater than 1

index greater than 1
2. Maximum 5 kHz 75 kHz
deviation
3. Range of 20 Hz to 3 kHz 20 Hz to 15 kHz
modulating
frequency
4. Maximum Slightly greater than 1 5 to 2500
modulation
index
5. Bandwidth Small approximately Large about 15 times
same as that of AM greater than that of
BW = 2fm NBFM.
BW = 2(+fmmax)
6. Applications FM mobile communication Entertainment
like police wireless, broadcasting (can be used
ambulance, short range for high quality music
ship to shore transmission)
communication etc.
Representation of
FM can be represented by two ways:
FM1. Time domain.
2. Frequency domain.
1.FM in Time Domain
Time domain representation means continuous variation of voltage with respect
to time as shown in Fig. .

Fig. 1 FM in Time Domain

2.FM in Frequency Domain
• Frequency domain is also known as frequency spectrum.
• FM in frequency domain means graph or plot of amplitude versus frequency as
shown in Fig. 2.29.

Fig. 2: FM in Frequency Domain

Pre-emphasis and De-
emphasis
•Pre and de-emphasis circuits are used only in frequency modulation.
• Pre-emphasis is used at transmitter and de-emphasis at receiver.
1. Pre-emphasis
• In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
• This effect can be reduced by increasing the value of modulation index (mf), for
higher modulating frequencies.
• This can be done by increasing the deviation ‘’ and ‘’ can be increased by
increasing the amplitude of modulating signal at higher frequencies.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher audio modulating frequencies in
accordance with prearranged response curve is called pre-emphasis.
• Pre-emphasis circuit is a high pass filter as shown in Fig.
As shown in Fig. 1, AF is passed through a high-pass filter, before
applying to FM modulator.
• As modulating frequency (fm) increases, capacitive
reactance decreases and modulating voltage goes on increasing.
fm  Voltage of modulating signal applied to FM modulat
Boosting is done according to pre-arranged curve as shown
in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: P re-emphasis Curve

•

The time constant of pre-emphasis is at 50 s in all CCIR standards.

• In systems employing American FM and TV standards, networks having
time constant of 75 sec are used.
• The pre-emphasis is used at FM transmitter as shown in Fig.

Fig. FM Transmitter with Pre-emphasis

De-emphasis
• De-emphasis circuit is used at FM receiver.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies in the
process of pre-emphasis is nullified at receiver by process called
de-emphasis.
• De-emphasis circuit is a low pass filter shown in Fig.

Fig. De-emphasis Circuit

 Fig. De-emphasis Curve

As shown in Fig.5, de-modulated FM is applied to the de-emphasis

circuit (low pass filter) where with increase in fm, capacitive reactance Xc
decreases. So that output of de-emphasis circuit also reduces •
Fig. 5 shows the de-emphasis curve corresponding to a time
constant
50 s. A 50 s de-emphasis corresponds to a frequency response curve
that is 3 dB down at frequency given by,
f = 1/ 2πRC
= 1/ 2π x 50x 1000
= 3180 Hz
Comparison between Pre-
and De-
emphasis
Parameter Pre-emphasis De-emphasis
emphasis
1. Circuit used High pass filter. Low pass filter.

2. Circuit diagram

Fig. 2.36 Fig. 2.37

3. Response curve
Fig. 2.38 Fig. 2.39

4. Time constant T = RC = 50 s T = RC = 50 s

5. Definition Boosting of higher Removal of higher

frequencies frequencies

6. Used at FM transmitter FM receiver.

Comparison between AM
andParameter
FM AM FM

1. Definition Amplitude of carrier is Frequency of carrier is

varied in accordance with varied in accordance with
amplitude of modulating the amplitude of
signal keeping frequency modulating signal keeping
and phase constant. amplitude and phase
constant.
2. Constant Frequency and phase. Amplitude and phase.
parameters

3. Modulated signal

4. Modulation Index
m=Em/Ec m = / fm

5. Number of Only two Infinite and depends on mf.

sidebands
6. Bandwidth BW = 2fm BW = 2 ( + fm (max))

7. Application MW, SW band broadcasting, Broadcasting FM, audio

video transmission in TV. transmission in TV.
FM
GENERATION
There are two methods for generation of FM wave.

Generation of FM

Direct Method Indirect Method

1.Armstrong Method
1.Reactance Modulator
2. Varactor Diode
Reactance
Method

Fig. : Transistorized Reactance Modulator

Varactor Diode
Modulator

Fig. : Varactor Diode Frequency Modulator

Limitations of Direct Method of FM
Generation
1. In this method, it is very difficult to get high order
stability in carrier frequency because in this method the
basic oscillator is not a stable oscillator, as it is controlled by
the modulating signal.

2.Generally in this method we get distorted FM, due

to non-linearity of the varactor diode.
FM Transmitter (Armstrong Method)
FM Generation using IC 566

Fig. : Basic Frequency Modulator using NE566 VCO

Advantages/
Disadvantages/Applications
Advantages of FM
of FM
1. Transmitted power remains constant.
2. FM receivers are immune to noise.
3. Good capture effect.
4. No mixing of signals.

Disadvantages of FM
The greatest disadvantages of FM are:
1. It uses too much spectrum space.
2. The bandwidth is wider.
3. The modulation index can be kept low to minimize the
bandwidth used.
4. But reduction in M.I. reduces the noise immunity.
5. Used only at very high frequencies.

Applications of FM
1. FM radio broadcasting.
2. Sound transmission in TV.
3. Police wireless.
Demodulation of FM Signal

Two steps involved in FM demodulation

• Conversion of FM signal into AM signal, Tank or
parallel resonance circuit converts FM into AM
signal.
• An envelope detector is used to extract
modulating signal from modulated signal.
Slope Demodulator:
 Demodulation of FM
The input signal is a frequency modulated signal. It is
•Signal
applied to the tuned transformer (T1, C1, C2 combination)
which converts the incoming FM signal into AM.
• This AM signal is applied to a simple diode detector
circuit, D1. Here the diode provides the rectification, while
C3 removes any unwanted high frequency components,
and R1 provides a load.
Advantages:
Simple and low cost
Enables FM to be detected without any additional circuitry.
Disadvantages:
Nonlinear operation
Both frequency and amplitude variations are demodulated
and this means that much higher levels of noise and
Demodulation of FM
Signal
Foster Seeley Demodulator or
detector:
Demodulation of FM
Signal
• Foster seeley demodulator contains two tuning
circuits and two envelope detectors.

• One section of tuning circuit and envelope

detector works for incoming frequency is greater
than carrier frequency and vice versa for incoming
frequency less than carrier frequency.

• Tuning circuit converts FM signal to AM signal and

Envelope detector extracts message signal from AM
signal.
Demodulation of FM
Signal Ratio
Demodulator:

• Ratio detector is similar to Foster seeley

demodulator except of Diode of D2 is reversed
potential divider circuit.
• Potential divider circuit suppress the noise and this
advantage of ratio detector.
Demodulation of FM
Signal PLL Demodulator
or detector:
• Phase Locked Loop is closed loop system which
contains Phase detector, VCO and loop filter or LPF
as shown in figure.

• It continuously finds the phase difference between

incoming FM signal and locally generated carrier.
• And based on Phase difference it generates
Modulating signal.
Demodulation of FM
Signal
Zero Crossing Demodulator or
detector:
Demodulation of FM
Signal
• Zero crossing detector contains hard limiter, Zero
crossing detector, Multi vibrator, and Averaging Circuit.

• Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper

which converts continuous FM signal into Digital.

• Zero crossing detector is differentiator which

generates spikes when signal crosses zero and no. of
zero crossings is proportional to modulating signal
amplitude.

• Mono stable multivibrator is generates pulses

with constant amplitude and width for each spike.

• Averaging is LPF circuit which integrates pulses

and generates modulating signal.
Super Heterodyne FM
Receiver

Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic

signal into electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
Tuning circuit designed to select 100 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 20MHz or20 000 KHzband width.
RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image
signal rejection and noise reduction.
Super Heterodyne FM
Receiver
Mixer: It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass
Filter (BPF).
Frequency generates sum and difference frequency of
incoming signal and locally generated signal.
BPF selects difference frequency at the output whose center
frequency is equal to = 10.7MHz.

Local Oscillator:
It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
It generates carrier frequency 10.7MHz.greater than the
incoming carrier frequency to produce constant or fixed
frequency.

IF Amplifier:
It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which
provides amplification for 20 MHz band width at center
frequency of 10.7 MHz.
Super Heterodyne FM
Receiver
Limiter:
It is combination of hard limiter and BPF.
Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper removes the noise
spikes.
Detector or Demodulator or Discriminator:
It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating
signal from FM signal.

De-emphasis:
It is LPF which attenuates frequencies of Audio signal from 2
KHz to 20 KHz to get the original modulating signal.
Audio Amplifier:
It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20-
20K) Hz.

Loud Speaker:
It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Allocation of different frequency bands or carrier
frequency to different channel is called “Frequency
Division Multiplexing”. And it is used to transmit
Radio & TV signals.
Frequency Division
Multiplexing
FDM Multiplexing:
• Different carrier frequencies are used for different
stations or channels.
• Modulator is used in the transmitter
Band width of FDM system,
BWFDM = N. BWCH+ (N-1) BWG

Where, N = No. of channels or stations

BWCH= Bandwidth of each channel
BWG= Bandwidth of guard band

Guard band is frequency gap between two channels

Frequency Division
Multiplexing FDM De-
Multiplexing:
• BPF filter is used select channels or stations
• Demodulator is used in the receiver.
 NOISE IN COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Noise: It is an unwanted signal which tends to
interfere with the modulating signal.
Types of noise:
Noise is basically divided into,
1. External Noise
2. Internal Noise
 Classification of Noise
1.External Noise:
• Atmospheric Noise: Radio noise caused by
natural atmospheric processes, primarily
lightening discharges in thunder storms.
• Extraterrestrial Noise:
Radio disturbances from
sources other than those related to the Earth.
Cosmic Noise: Random noise that originates outside
the
Earth’s atmosphere.
Solar Noise: Noise that originates from the Sun is
 Classification of Noise
• Industrial Noise: Noise generated by
automobile ignition, aircrafts, electric motors,
Switch gears, welding etc.
2. Internal Noise:
• Shot Noise: Random motion of electrons in
the semiconductor devices generates shot
noise.
• Thermal or Johnson’s Noise: Random
motion of electrons in the resistor is called
Thermal noise.
Vn = KT0BR
 Noise Temperature and Noise
Figure
Noise temperature(Te): It is a means for
specifying noise in terms of an equivalent
temperature. It is expressed as ,
Te = (Fn-1) T0
Where, Fn = Noise Figure, T0 = Absolute temperature
Noise figure(Fn): It is the ratio of output and
input noise of an amplifier or network. It is
expressed as, =
Where, N = Noise added by the network or
amplifier.
G = gain of an network or amplifier
 Noise Temperature and Noise
Figure Noise Figure of Cascade
Amplifier or Network:
Noise Figure of an cascade network or amplifier is
expressed as,
Fn =
Where, F1= Noise figure of 1st stage
G1= Gain of 1st stage
F2= Noise figure of 2nd stage
G2 = Gain of 2nd stage
Fn = Noise figure of nth stage
Gn = Gain of nth stage
 Noise equivalent Bandwidth
When white noise (flat spectrum of frequencies like
white light) is passed through a filter having a
frequency response , some of the noise power is
rejected by the filter and some is passed through
to the output.
The noise equivalent bandwidth is defined in the
following picture,
 Figure of
Figure Merit Merit
(FOM): It is ratio of output SNR
ofinput SNRtoof a communication system.
FOM =
Where S0= Output Signal Power &N0= Output
Noise Power
Si= Input Signal Power &Ni= Input Noise Power
Receiver model for noise calculation:
 Receiver model for noise
• Thecalculation
receiver is combination of Band Pass Filter
(BPF) and Demodulator.
• The BPF is combination of RF Tuned Amplifier,
Mixer and Local Oscillator whose band width is
equal to band width of modulated signal at
transmitter.
• Channel Inter connects transmitter & receiver.
Channel adds noise to the modulated signal while
transmitting and it is assumed to be white noise
whose Power Spectral Density is uniform.
• BPF converts white noise in to color or Band pass
 Receiver model for noise
calculation
PSD of white noise and Narrow band pass noise are,

Power of band pass noise P = =

Where B = Band width noise.
 Communication system model
for noise calculation

• The communication system model for noise calculation

contains transmitter, channel and receiver.
• Transmitter is replaced by modulator which converts low
frequency modulating signal x(t) into high frequency
bandpass signal with the help of carrier signal.
• Channel is replaced or modelled as additive noise which
adds white noise with PSD η/2 and it contains all
frequencies.
 Communication system model
for noise calculation
• Receiver is modelled as BPF followed by demodulator.
• BPF is combination of RF tuned amplifier, mixer , local
oscillator.
• Passband or badnwidth of BPF is equal to bandwidth of
modulated signal.
• BPF converts white noise into color or bandpass noise
ηB(t).
Input to BPF is s(t) + ηw(t)
Output of BPF is s(t) + ηB(t)
• Demodulator converts high frequency or bandpass signal
into low frequency or baseband signal.
 Bandpass noise
representation
Bandpass noise is represented by,
1. Time Domain representation
• Quadrature representation
• Envelope representation
2. Frequency Domain representation
Quadrature representation:
Bandpass noise can be represented as,
ηB(t) = ηi(t) ocs Wct ηq(t)SinWct
Where, ηB(t) = Bnadpass noise
ηi(t) = Inphase component of lowpass noise
ηq(t) = Quadrature component of lowpass noise
 Quadrature
ηi(t) andrepresentation
ηq(t) can be recovered from ηB(t),
 Bandpass noise
representation
Frequency domain representation:
Bandpass noise can be represented in frequency domain
as,

Properties of ηB(t):
• ηB(t), ηi(t) , ηq(t) will have same power.
• The PSD of ηi(t) & ηq(t) is,
 Figure of Merit calculation in
DSB-SC

• Transmitter contains DSB-SC modulator, whose

output s(t) = m(t) coswct.
• Noise generated by the channel is considered as
white noise ηw(t) with uniform noise power
spectral density η/2 .
 Figure of Merit calculation in
• BandDSB-SC
pass filter’s bandwidth is equal to modulated
signal bandwidth.
• BPF allows DSB-SC signal and converts white noise
into color noise or bandpass noise ηB(t).
Therefore, o/p of the BPF is yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t).
• Synchronous detector is used to extract modulating
signal m(t) which contain multiplier followed by low
pass filter.
Input signal power is , Si = m2(t)/2, Input noise power, Ni = η. 2fm,
Output signal power, S0 = [m(t)/2]2, Output noise power, N0 = η. fm/2
Substituting these values, FOM=(S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)= 2
 Figure of Merit calculation in
SSB-SC
SSB-SC signal,
Output of BPF, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
Bandpass noise, ηB(t) = ηi(t) ocs Wct ηq(t)SinWct

Input signal power is , Si = m2(t), Input noise power, Ni = η. fm

Output signal power,S0 = m2(t)/4 , Output noise power, N0 = η. fm/4
Substituting these values, FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)= 1
 Noise calculation in AM
system
AM signal, S(t) = [Ac+m(t)] Coswct
Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
= [Ac+m(t)] Coswct + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = [Ac2/2]+[m2(t)/2]

Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Fm, Output signal power,S0 = m2(t)
Output noise power, N0 = 2η. Fm
Using these values, FOM= 2.
 Noise calculation in FM system
Frequency modulated signal s(t) = Ac Cos [ wct + Kfʃm(t) dt]
Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
= Ac Cos [ wct + Kfʃm(t) dt] + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = Ac2/2, Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Δf

Output signal power, S0 = γ2K f2m2(t)
Substituting these values, FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)
FOM = (3/4π2)mf3, Where mf = Δf/fm
 Noise calculation in PM system
PM signal S(t) = Ac Cos[wct+ Kpm(t)]
Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)
= Ac Cos[wct+ Kpm(t)] + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = Ac2/2, Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Δf

Output signal power,S0 = γ2Kp2m2(t), Output noise power, N0 = 2η.
Fm
Substituting these values and substituting m2(t)= Am2/2
2
FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni) = m (Δf/ fm)
 Comparison between
different Modulation Systems
with respect to FOM
ANALOG PULSE MODULATION SCHEMES
Pulse Modulation:
The process of transmitting the signals in the form of
pulses by using some special techniques.

There are two types of pulse modulation systems,

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation
2. Pulse Time Modulation

Pulse time modulation is further divided into,

• Pulse Width Modulation
• Pulse Position Modulation
 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION(PAM)
In Pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of
pulses of carrier pulse train is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal.

In PAM , the pulses can be flat top type or natural

type or ideal type.

Out of these, flat top PAM is widely used because of

easy noise removal.
 PAM GENERATION

• The sample and hold circuit consists of two FETs

and a capacitor.
• The sampling switch is closed for a short duration
by a short pulse applied to the gate G1 of
transistor.
 PAM GENERATION
• During this period, the capacitor is quickly
charged to a voltage equal to instantaneous
sample value of incoming signal x(t)
• Now the sampling switch is opened and
capacitor holds the charge.
• The discharge switch is then closed by a pulse
applied to gate G2 of second transistor.
• Due to this the capacitor is discharged to zero
volts. The discharge switch is then opened and
the capacitor has no voltage.
• Hence the output of sample and hold circuit
consists of a sequence of flat top samples.
PAM GENERATION
 Transmission bandwidth of PAM
In PAM signal the pulse duration τ is assumed to be
very small compared to time period Ts i.e τ< Ts
If the maximum frequency in the modulating signal
x(t) is fm then sampling frequency fs is given by
fs<=2fm Or 1/Ts <= 2fm or Ts <= 1/2fm
Therefore, τ< Ts <= 1/2fm
If ON and OFF time of PAM pulse is equal then
maximum frequency of PAM pulse will be fmax =
1/ τ+ τ = 1/2 τ
Therefore, transmission bandwidth >=1/2 τ >=
1/[2(1/2fm)>= fm
 Demodulation of PAM
Demodulation is the reverse process of
modulation in which modulating signal is
recovered back from the modulated signal.
 Demodulation of PAM
• For PAM signals, demodulation is done using a
holding circuit.
• The received PAM signal is first passed through a
holding circuit and then through a lowpass filer.
• Switch S is closed during the arrival of the pulse
and is opened at the end of the pulse.
• Capacitor C is charged to pulse amplitude value
and holds this value during the interval between
two pulses.
• Holding circuit output is then passed through a
low pass filter to extract the original signal.
 Advantages, Disadvantages of PAM
Advantages:
• It is the simple process for modulation and
demodulation
• Transmitter and receiver circuits are simple and easy to
construct.
Disadvantages:
• Bandwidth requirement is high
• Interference of noise is maximum
• Power requirement is high
Applications:
• Used in microcontrollers for generating control signals
• Used as electronic driver for LED lighting
 SAMPLING
It is the process of converting a continuous time
signal into a discrete time signal
During sampling, sufficient number of samples of
the signal must be taken so that original signal is
correctly represented in its samples and possible
for reconstruction.
Number of samples to be taken depends on
maximum signal frequency present in the signal.
• Different types of samples are,
• Ideal
• Natural
• Flat top
 SAMPLING
Sampling theorem:
A continuous time signal may be completely
represented in its samples and recovered back if
the sampling frequency fs>2fm
Nyqyist rate and Nyquist interval:
When sampling rate becomes exactly equal to 2fm
samples per second, it is called Nyquist rate
fs=2fm Hz
Maximum sampling interval is called Nyquist
interval.
Ts = 1/fs=1/2fm sec
 NATURAL SAMPLING
In natural sampling, pulse has a finite width equal
to τ.
 NATURAL SAMPLING
Let an analog continuous time signal x(t) sampled
at a rate fs Hz and sampling function c(t) which is
a train of periodic pulse of width τ and frequency
fs Hz
Case i: When c(t) is high

Switch Sis closed and output g(t) is exactly equal to

input

g(t) = x(t)
 NATURAL SAMPLING
Case ii: When c(t) is low
Switch s is open
g(t) = 0
The time domain representation of naturally
sampled signal is given by,
g(t) = x(t)
The spectrum of naturally sampled signal is given
by,
G(f) =
 Pulse Width Modulation(PWM)
In PWM, the width of pulses of carrier pulse train is
varied in proportion with amplitude of
modulating signal.
 PWM GENERATION

A sawtooth generator generates a sawtooth signal

of frequency fs.
This is applied to inverting terminal of comparator.
 PWM GENERATION
• Modulating signal x(t) is applied to non-inverting
terminal of comparator.
• Comparator output remains high as long as
instantaneous amplitude of x(t) is higher than sawtooth
signal.
• This gives the PWM output at the output of
comparator.
• The leading edges of PWM waveform coincide with
falling edges of ramp signal
• Therefore, leading edges of PWM signal are always
generated at fixed time intervals
• Occurrence of falling edge of PWM signal is dependent
on instantaneous amplitude of x(t)
PWM GENERATION
 DETECTION OF PWM

• The PWM signal received at the input of detector

circuit will contain noise
• This signal is applied to a pulse generator which
regenerates the PMW signal.
• Some of the noise is removed and the pulses are
squared up.
 DETECTION OF PWM
• The regenerated pulses are applied to a reference pulse generator.
• It produces a train of constant amplitude and constant width
pulses.
• These pulses are synchronized to the leading edges of regenerated
PWM pulses but delayed by fixed intervals.
• The regenerated PWM pulses are also applied to a ramp generator
whose o/p is a constant slope ramp for the duration of the pulse.
• At the end of the pulse a sample and hold circuit retains the final
ramp voltage until it is reset at the end of the pulse.
• The constant amplitude pulses at the o/p of the reference
generator are then added to ramp signal.
• O/P of the adder is then clipped off at a threshold level to
generate a PAM signal.
• A low pass filter is used to recover the original modulating signal
back from PAM signal.
DETECTION OF PWM
 PULSE POSITION MODULATION(PPM)
Modulation technique in which position of pulses
of carrier pulse train is varied in accordance with
amplitude of modulating signal.
Generation:
 PPM GENERATION
• The block diagram is similar to PWM except
monostable multivibrator.
• PWM pulses obtained at the output of
comparator are applied to a monostable
multivibrator.
• monostable multivibrator is a negative edge
triggered circuit. At each trailing edge of PWM
signal the monostable output goes high.
• PPM output remains high for a fixed duration
from trailing edge of PWM signal.
PPM GENERATION
DETECTION OF PPM
 DETECTION OF PPM
• The circuit consists of S-R flipflop which is set or
gives high output when reference pulses arrive.
• Referencepulses are generated by a reference
pulse generator.
• Flip-flop circuit is reset and gives low output at
the leading edge of PPM signal.
• The process repeats and we get PWM pulses at
the output of flip-flop.
• PWM pulses are then demodulated in a PWM
demodulator to get original modulating signal.
DETECTION OF PPM
 Radio receiver measurements
The important characteristics of superheterodyne
radio receiver are,
• Sensitivity
• Selectivity
• Fidelity
Sensitivity:
• It is defined as the ability of receiver to amplify
weak signals
• It is defined in terms of voltage which must be
applied at the receiver input terminals to provide a
standard output power at the receiver output.
 Radio receiver measurements
• Sensitivity is expressed in milli volts
• For practical receivers sensitivity is expressed in terms of
signal power required to produce minimum acceptable
output with minimum acceptable noise.

• Sensitivity of superheterodyne radio receiver depends on

• Gain of RF amplifier
• Gain of IF amplifier
• Noise figure of RX
 Radio receiver measurements
Selectivity:
It is defined as the ability of receiver to reject unwanted
signals.

Selectivity depends on
• Receiving frequency
• Response of IF section
 Radio receiver measurements
Fidelity:
It is the ability of a receiver to reproduce all the
modulating frequencies equally.
 INFORMATION & CHANNEL
Information:
CAPACITY
Information is defined as a sequence of letters,
alphabets, symbols which carries a message with
specific meaning.
Source of Information:

The sources of information can be divided into 2 types.

• Analog Information sources
• Digital information sources
Analog information sources produce continuous
amplitude continuous time electrical waveforms.

Discrete information sources produces messages

consisting of discrete letters or symbols.
 Information content of a
• messagecontent of a message is represented by
The information
the probability or uncertainty of the event associated
with the message.
• The probability of occurrence of a message is inversely
related to amount of information.
• Therefore, a message with least probability of
occurrence will have maximum amount of information.
• The relation between information content of message
and its probability of occurrence is given by,
Ik = log (1/Pk)
• The unit of information is bit.
• Ik = log 2(1/Pk) bits, Ik = log10 (1/Pk)Decits, Ik = loge(1/Pk)
 Entropy (Average information
content)
Entropy is defined as the average amount of
information conveyed by a message. It is
denoted by H.

Properties of Entropy:
1. Entropy is always non negative i.e H(x) ≥ 0.
2. Entropy is zero when probability of all symbols is
zero except probability one symbol is one.
3. Entropy is maximum when probability
occurrence of all symbols is equal
i.e H(x) =
 Entropy of symbols in long
independent
• sequences
In a statistically independent sequence, the occurrence
of a particular symbol during a time interval is
independent of occurrence of symbols at other time
interval.
• If P1, P2, P3, ……. PM are the probabilities of occurrences
of M symbols, then the total information content of the
message consisting N symbols is given by,

• To obtain entropy or average information per symbol, the

total information content is divided by number of
symbols in a message.
Therefore, H(X) =
 Entropy of symbols in long
dependent
• In statisticallysequences
dependent sequences,
occurrence of one message alters the
occurrence of other message.
• Due to this type of dependency, amount of
information coming from a source is gradually
decreased.
• To determine the entropy and information
rate of symbols for long statistically
dependent sequences a special model is
developed which is Markoff statistical
model.
 Markoff statistical model for
information sources
A random process in which probability of future
values depends on probability of previous events
is called Markoff process.
The sequence generated from such process is
called Markoff sequence.
Entropy of Markoff sources:
Entropy of Markoff sources is defined as average
entropy of each state.
 Information rate of Markoff sources
The information rate of Markoff sources is given by,

R = rH

Where, r = Rate at which symbols are generated

H= Entropy of Markoff sources

Information rate is measured in bits/sec

 Different types of
Entropies
Marginal Entropies:

Joint entropy:
Conditional entropy:

Relation between Entropies:

H(X,Y)=H(X)+H(Y/X) = H(Y)+H(X/Y)
 Mutual
I(X; Y) of a channel is equal to difference between
Information
initial uncertainty and final uncertainty.
I(X;Y) = Initial uncertainty – final uncertainty.
I(X;Y) = H(X) - H(X/Y) bits/symbol
Where, H(X) - entropy of the source andH(X/Y)-
Conditional Entropy.
Properties of mutual information:
1. I(X;Y) = I(Y;X)
2. I(X;Y)>=0
3. I(X;Y) = H(X) - H(X/Y)
 Discrete communication channel
The communication channel in which both input
and output is a sequence of symbols is called a
discrete communication channel or coding
channel.

A discrete4 channel is characterized by a set of

transition probability Pij which depends on the
parameters of modulator, transmission medium
or channel, noise and demodulator.
 Discrete communication
channel
The input to the discrete channel is any of the M
symbols of an alphabet provided and output is
the symbol belonging to same alphabet.
Model of discrete channel is shown below:
 Rate of information over a
discrete channel
• In discrete channels, the average rate of
information transmission is assumed to be the
difference between input data rate and error
rate.
• The average rate of information transmission
over a discrete channel is defined as the amount
of information transmitted over the channel
minus information lost.
• It is denoted by Dt and is given by,
 Capacity of discrete memoryless
channel
The maximum allowable rate of information that
can be transmitted over a discrete channel is
called capacity of memoryless channel.

When channel matches with the source, maximum

rate of transmission takes place.

Therefore, channel capacity,

C= max [I(X,Y)] = Max [ H(X) – H(X/Y) ]
 M - Ary discrete memoryless
channel
The channel which transmit and receive one of the
‘m’ possible symbols depending on the present
input and independent of previous input is called
M-Ary discrete memoryless channel.

The relation between conditional entropy and joint

entropy can be written as,

H(X,Y) = H(X/Y) + H(Y) = H(Y/X) + H(X)

 Capacity of Gaussian channel-
Shannon Hartley
Theorem
Shannon- Hartley theorem states that the capacity
of Gaussian channel having bandwidth ‘W’ is
given as,

Where, W = Channel bandwidth

S= Average signal power
N= Average noise power
 Shannon- Fano algorithm
Shannon Fano coding is source encoding technique
which is used to remove the redundancy
(repeated information). The following steps
are involved
1. For a given list of symbols, develop a
corresponding list of probabilities or frequency
counts so that each symbol’s relative frequency of
occurrence is known.
2. Sort the lists of symbols according to frequency,
with the most frequently occurring symbols at
the left and the least common at the right.
 Shannon- Fano algorithm
3. Divide the list into two parts, with the total
frequency counts of the left part being as close to
the total of the right as possible.
4. The left part of the list is assigned the binary digit
0, and the right part is assigned the digit 1. This
means that the codes for the symbols in the first
part will all start with 0, and the codes in the
second part will all start with 1.
5. Recursively apply the steps 3 and 4 to each of the
two halves, subdividing groups and adding bits to
the codes until each symbol has become a
corresponding code leaf on the tree.