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Data Structures & Algorithms - Overview
Data Structure is a systematic way to organize data in order to use it efficiently. Following
terms are the foundation terms of a data structure.
• Interface − Each data structure has an interface. Interface represents the set of
operations that a data structure supports. An interface only provides the list of
supported operations, type of parameters they can accept and return type of these
operations.
• Implementation − Implementation provides the internal representation of a data
structure. Implementation also provides the definition of the algorithms used in
the operations of the data structure.
Basic Terminology
• Data − Data are values or set of values.
• Data Item − Data item refers to single unit of values.
• Group Items − Data items that are divided into sub items are called as Group
Items.
• Elementary Items − Data items that cannot be divided are called as Elementary
Items.
• Attribute and Entity − An entity is that which contains certain attributes or
properties, which may be assigned values.
• Entity Set − Entities of similar attributes form an entity set.
• Field − Field is a single elementary unit of information representing an attribute of
an entity.
• Record − Record is a collection of field values of a given entity.
• File − File is a collection of records of the entities in a given entity set.
Text Editor
This will be used to type your program. Examples of few editors include Windows
Notepad, OS Edit command, Brief, Epsilon, EMACS, and vim or vi.
The name and the version of the text editor can vary on different operating systems. For
example, Notepad will be used on Windows, and vim or vi can be used on Windows as
well as Linux or UNIX.
The files you create with your editor are called source files and contain program source
code. The source files for C programs are typically named with the extension ".c".
Before starting your programming, make sure you have one text editor in place and you
have enough experience to write a computer program, save it in a file, compile it, and
finally execute it.
The C Compiler
The source code written in the source file is the human readable source for your program.
It needs to be "compiled", to turn into machine language so that your CPU can actually
execute the program as per the given instructions.
This C programming language compiler will be used to compile your source code into a
final executable program. We assume you have the basic knowledge about a
programming language compiler.
Most frequently used and free available compiler is GNU C/C++ compiler. Otherwise,
you can have compilers either from HP or Solaris if you have respective Operating
Systems (OS).
The following section guides you on how to install GNU C/C++ compiler on various OS.
We are mentioning C/C++ together because GNU GCC compiler works for both C and
C++ programming languages.
Installation on UNIX/Linux
If you are using Linux or UNIX, then check whether GCC is installed on your system by
entering the following command from the command line −
$ gcc -v
If you have GNU compiler installed on your machine, then it should print a message such
as the following −
Using built-in specs.
Target: i386-redhat-linux
Configured with: ../configure --prefix = /usr .......
Thread model: posix
gcc version 4.1.2 20080704 (Red Hat 4.1.2-46)
If GCC is not installed, then you will have to install it yourself using the detailed
instructions available at https://gcc.gnu.org/install/
This tutorial has been written based on Linux and all the given examples have been
compiled on Cent OS flavor of Linux system.
Installation on Mac OS
If you use Mac OS X, the easiest way to obtain GCC is to download the Xcode
development environment from Apple's website and follow the simple installation
instructions. Once you have Xcode setup, you will be able to use GNU compiler for
C/C++.
Xcode is currently available at developer.apple.com/technologies/tools/
Installation on Windows
To install GCC on Windows, you need to install MinGW. To install MinGW, go to the
MinGW homepage, www.mingw.org, and follow the link to the MinGW download page.
Download the latest version of the MinGW installation program, which should be named
MinGW-<version>.exe.
While installing MinWG, at a minimum, you must install gcc-core, gcc-g++, binutils, and
the MinGW runtime, but you may wish to install more.
Add the bin subdirectory of your MinGW installation to your PATH environment variable,
so that you can specify these tools on the command line by their simple names.
When the installation is complete, you will be able to run gcc, g++, ar, ranlib, dlltool, and
several other GNU tools from the Windows command line.
Characteristics of an Algorithm
Not all procedures can be called an algorithm. An algorithm should have the following
characteristics −
• Unambiguous − Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous. Each of its steps
(or phases), and their inputs/outputs should be clear and must lead to only one
meaning.
• Input − An algorithm should have 0 or more well-defined inputs.
• Output − An algorithm should have 1 or more well-defined outputs, and should
match the desired output.
• Finiteness − Algorithms must terminate after a finite number of steps.
• Feasibility − Should be feasible with the available resources.
• Independent − An algorithm should have step-by-step directions, which should
be independent of any programming code.
Example
Hence, many solution algorithms can be derived for a given problem. The next step is to
analyze those proposed solution algorithms and implement the best suitable solution.
Algorithm Analysis
Efficiency of an algorithm can be analyzed at two different stages, before implementation
and after implementation. They are the following −
• A Priori Analysis − This is a theoretical analysis of an algorithm. Efficiency of an
algorithm is measured by assuming that all other factors, for example, processor
speed, are constant and have no effect on the implementation.
• A Posterior Analysis − This is an empirical analysis of an algorithm. The selected
algorithm is implemented using programming language. This is then executed on
target computer machine. In this analysis, actual statistics like running time and
space required, are collected.
We shall learn about a priori algorithm analysis. Algorithm analysis deals with the
execution or running time of various operations involved. The running time of an
operation can be defined as the number of computer instructions executed per operation.
Algorithm Complexity
Suppose X is an algorithm and n is the size of input data, the time and space used by
the algorithm X are the two main factors, which decide the efficiency of X.
• Time Factor − Time is measured by counting the number of key operations such
as comparisons in the sorting algorithm.
• Space Factor − Space is measured by counting the maximum memory space
required by the algorithm.
The complexity of an algorithm f(n) gives the running time and/or the storage space
required by the algorithm in terms of n as the size of input data.
Space Complexity
Space complexity of an algorithm represents the amount of memory space required by
the algorithm in its life cycle. The space required by an algorithm is equal to the sum of
the following two components −
• A fixed part that is a space required to store certain data and variables, that are
independent of the size of the problem. For example, simple variables and
constants used, program size, etc.
• A variable part is a space required by variables, whose size depends on the size
of the problem. For example, dynamic memory allocation, recursion stack space,
etc.
Space complexity S(P) of any algorithm P is S(P) = C + SP(I), where C is the fixed part
and S(I) is the variable part of the algorithm, which depends on instance characteristic I.
Following is a simple example that tries to explain the concept −
Algorithm: SUM(A, B)
Step 1 - START
Step 2 - C ← A + B + 10
Step 3 - Stop
Here we have three variables A, B, and C and one constant. Hence S(P) = 1 + 3. Now,
space depends on data types of given variables and constant types and it will be
multiplied accordingly.
Time Complexity
Time complexity of an algorithm represents the amount of time required by the algorithm
to run to completion. Time requirements can be defined as a numerical function T(n),
where T(n) can be measured as the number of steps, provided each step consumes
constant time.
For example, addition of two n-bit integers takes n steps. Consequently, the total
computational time is T(n) = c ∗ n, where c is the time taken for the addition of two bits.
Here, we observe that T(n) grows linearly as the input size increases.
Data Structures - Asymptotic Analysis
Asymptotic analysis of an algorithm refers to defining the mathematical
boundation/framing of its run-time performance. Using asymptotic analysis, we can very
well conclude the best case, average case, and worst case scenario of an algorithm.
Asymptotic analysis is input bound i.e., if there's no input to the algorithm, it is concluded
to work in a constant time. Other than the "input" all other factors are considered
constant.
Asymptotic analysis refers to computing the running time of any operation in
mathematical units of computation. For example, the running time of one operation is
computed as f(n) and may be for another operation it is computed as g(n2). This means
the first operation running time will increase linearly with the increase in n and the
running time of the second operation will increase exponentially when n increases.
Similarly, the running time of both operations will be nearly the same if n is significantly
small.
Usually, the time required by an algorithm falls under three types −
• Best Case − Minimum time required for program execution.
• Average Case − Average time required for program execution.
• Worst Case − Maximum time required for program execution.
Asymptotic Notations
Following are the commonly used asymptotic notations to calculate the running time
complexity of an algorithm.
• Ο Notation
• Ω Notation
• θ Notation
Big Oh Notation, Ο
The notation Ο(n) is the formal way to express the upper bound of an algorithm's running
time. It measures the worst case time complexity or the longest amount of time an
algorithm can possibly take to complete.
For example, for a function f(n)
Ο(f(n)) = { g(n) : there exists c > 0 and n0 such that f(n) ≤ c.g(n)
for all n > n0. }
Omega Notation, Ω
The notation Ω(n) is the formal way to express the lower bound of an algorithm's running
time. It measures the best case time complexity or the best amount of time an algorithm
can possibly take to complete.
Theta Notation, θ
The notation θ(n) is the formal way to express both the lower bound and the upper bound
of an algorithm's running time. It is represented as follows −
θ(f(n)) = { g(n) if and only if g(n) = Ο(f(n)) and g(n) = Ω(f(n))
for all n > n0. }
constant − Ο(1)
logarithmic − Ο(log n)
linear − Ο(n)
quadratic − Ο(n2)
cubic − Ο(n3)
polynomial − nΟ(1)
exponential − 2Ο(n)
Counting Coins
This problem is to count to a desired value by choosing the least possible coins and the
greedy approach forces the algorithm to pick the largest possible coin. If we are provided
coins of ₹ 1, 2, 5 and 10 and we are asked to count ₹ 18 then the greedy procedure will
be −
• 1 − Select one ₹ 10 coin, the remaining count is 8
• 2 − Then select one ₹ 5 coin, the remaining count is 3
• 3 − Then select one ₹ 2 coin, the remaining count is 1
• 4 − And finally, the selection of one ₹ 1 coins solves the problem
Though, it seems to be working fine, for this count we need to pick only 4 coins. But if
we slightly change the problem then the same approach may not be able to produce the
same optimum result.
For the currency system, where we have coins of 1, 7, 10 value, counting coins for value
18 will be absolutely optimum but for count like 15, it may use more coins than necessary.
For example, the greedy approach will use 10 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, total 6 coins. Whereas
the same problem could be solved by using only 3 coins (7 + 7 + 1)
Hence, we may conclude that the greedy approach picks an immediate optimized
solution and may fail where global optimization is a major concern.
Examples
Most networking algorithms use the greedy approach. Here is a list of few of them −
Divide/Break
This step involves breaking the problem into smaller sub-problems. Sub-problems
should represent a part of the original problem. This step generally takes a recursive
approach to divide the problem until no sub-problem is further divisible. At this stage,
sub-problems become atomic in nature but still represent some part of the actual
problem.
Conquer/Solve
This step receives a lot of smaller sub-problems to be solved. Generally, at this level,
the problems are considered 'solved' on their own.
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como o imposto. A unica occupação mesmo dos ministerios era esta
—cobrar o imposto e fazer o emprestimo. E assim se havia de
continuar...
O Cohen acudiu:
—Não senhor, Alencar, não senhor! Você tambem é dos taes... Até
lhe fica mal dizer isso... É exageração. Não senhor, ha talento, ha
saber.
Então, tendo assim, pela influencia do seu Banco, dos bellos olhos
da sua mulher e da excellencia do seu cosinheiro, chamado estes
espiritos rebeldes ao respeito dos Parlamentares e á veneração da
Ordem, Cohen condescendeu em dizer, no tom mais suave da sua
voz, que o paiz necessitava reformas...
—Isto é uma velha carcassa, meu rapaz, mas não está só para odes!
Ainda se agarra uma espingarda, e como a pontaria é boa, ainda vão
a terra um par de gallegos... Caramba, rapazes, só a idéa d'essas
cousas me põe o coração negro! E como vocés podem fallar n'isso, a
rir, quando se trata do paiz, d'esta terra onde nascemos, que diabo!
Talvez seja má, de accordo, mas, caramba! é a unica que temos,
não temos outra! É aqui que vivemos, é aqui que rebentamos... Irra,
fallemos d'outra cousa, fallemos de mulheres!
—Abaixo o traidor!
Ega rugiu. Para quem estavam elles fazendo essa pose heroica?
Então ignoravam que esta raça, depois de cincoenta annos de
constitucionalismo, creada por esses saguões da Baixa, educada na
piolhice dos lyceus, roída de syphlis, apodrecida no bolôr das
secretarias, arejada apenas ao domingo pela poeira do Passeio,
perdera o musculo como perdera o caracter, e era a mais fraca, a
mais covarde raça da Europa?...
Todos protestaram. Não, não era possivel... Mas se elle tinha visto,
que diabo!... Pois sim, talvez, mas com os olhos fallazes da
phantasia...
—Eu bem sei por que tu fallas, Alencar, dizia elle agora. E o motivo
não é nobre. É por causa do epigramma que elle te fez:
O Alencar d'Alemquer,
Acceso com a primavera...
O Alencar d'Alemquer
Que quer? Na verde campina
Não colhe a tenra bonina
Nem consulta o malmequer...
Que quer? Na verde campina
O Alencar d'Alemquer
Quer menina!
O Alencar d'Alemquer
Quer cacete!
Alencar passou a mão pela testa livida, e com o olho cavo fito no
outro, a voz rouca e lenta:
—Com effeito, não vale a pena ninguem zangar-se por causa d'esse
Craveirote da Idéa nova, esse caloteiro, que se não lembra que a
porca da irmã é uma meretriz de doze vintens em Marco de
Canavezes!
—Á tua, João!
—Á tua, Thomaz!
—Estimo bem que me digas isso, filho, porque tu sabes o que é ser
gentleman! E agora vamos lá por esse Aterro fóra... Mas deixa-me ir
alli primeiro comprar um pacote de tabaco...
—Oh senhor...
—Olhe que isto é sincero, sr. Maia! Acredite v. ex.a que isto é do
coração!
Era realmente sincero. Desde que Carlos habitava Lisboa, tivera alli,
n'aquelle moço gordo e bochechudo, sem o saber, uma adoração
muda e profunda; o proprio verniz dos seus sapatos, a côr das suas
luvas eram para o Damaso motivo de veneração, e tão importantes
como principios. Considerava Carlos um typo supremo de chic, do
seu querido chic, um Brummel, um d'Orsay, um Morny,—uma
«d'estas cousas que só se vêem lá fóra», como elle dizia arregalando
os olhos. N'essa tarde sabendo que vinha jantar com o Maia,
conhecer o Maia, estivera duas horas ao espelho experimentando
gravatas, perfumara-se como para os braços d'uma mulher;—e por
causa de Carlos mandara estacionar alli o coupé, ás dez horas, com
o cocheiro de ramo ao peito.
—Era outra cousa, meu Carlos! Vivia-se! Não existiriam esses ares
scientificos, toda essa palhada philosophica, esses badamecos
positivistas... Mas havia coração, rapaz! Tinha-se faisca! Mesmo
n'essas cousas da politica... Vê esse chiqueiro agora ahi, essa malta
de bandalhos... N'esse tempo ía-se alli á camara e sentia-se a
inspiração, sentia-se o rasgo!... Via-se luz nas cabeças!... E depois,
menino, havia muitissimo boas mulheres.
—De vista.
—Não te faz lembrar uma mulher da Biblia? Não digo lá uma d'essas
viragos, uma Judith, uma Dalila... Mas um d'esses lyrios poeticos da
Biblia... É seraphica!
Abraçou-o outra vez; e estava batendo uma hora, quando elle emfim
se affastou, mais ligeiro, mais contente de si, trauteando um trecho
de fado.
Mas Ega sabia tudo, pelos tios... Ora uma noite tinham ceiado
ambos; Ega muito bebedo, e n'um accesso de idealismo, lançara-se
n'um paradoxo tremendo, condemnando a honestidade das
mulheres como origem da decadencia das raças: e dava por prova
os bastardos, sempre intelligentes, bravos, gloriosos! Elle, Ega, teria
orgulho se sua mãe, sua propria mãe, em logar de ser a santa
burgueza que resava o terço á lareira, fosse como a mãe de Carlos,
uma inspirada, que por amor d'um exilado abandonara fortuna,
respeitos, honra, vida! Carlos, ao ouvir isto, ficara petrificado, no
meio da ponte, sob o calmo luar. Mas não poude interrogar o Ega,
que já taramellava, agoniado, e que não tardou a vomitar-lhe
ignobilmente nos braços. Teve de o arrastar á casa das Seixas,
despil-o, aturar-lhe os beijos e a ternura borracha, até que o deixou
abraçado ao travesseiro, babando-se, balbuciando—«que queria ser
bastardo, que queria que a mamã fosse uma marafona!...»
E elle mal podera dormir essa noite, com a idéa d'aquella mãe, tão
outra do que lhe haviam contado, fugindo nos braços d'um
desterrado—um polaco talvez! Ao outro dia, cedo, entrava pelo
quarto do Ega, a pedir-lhe, pela sua grande amisade, a verdade
toda...
Pobre Ega! Estava doente: fez-se branco como o lenço que tinha
amarrado na cabeça com pannos de agua sedativa: e não achava
uma palavra, coitado! Carlos, sentado na cama, como nas noites de
cavaco, tranquillisou-o. Não vinha alli offendido, vinha alli curioso!
Tinham-lhe occultado um episodio extraordinario da sua gente, que
diabo, queria sabel-o! Havia romance? Para alli o romance!
VII
Este dia pareceu bello a Damaso como se fosse feito de azul e oiro.
Mas melhor ainda foi a manhã em que Carlos, um pouco
incommodado e ainda deitado, o recebeu no quarto, como entre
rapazes... D'ahi datava a sua intimidade: começou a tratar Carlos
por você. Depois, n'essa semana, revelou aptidões uteis. Foi
despachar á alfandega (Villaça achava-se no Alemtejo) um caixote
de roupa para Carlos. Tendo apparecido n'um momento em que
Carlos copiava um artigo para a Gazeta Medica offereceu a sua boa
letra, letra prodigiosa, de uma belleza lithographica; e d'ahi por
diante passava horas á banca de Carlos, applicado e vermelho, com
a ponta da lingua de fóra, o olho redondo, copiando apontamentos,
transcripções de Revistas, materiaes para o livro... Tanta dedicação
merecia um tu de familiaridade. Carlos deu-lh'o.
—Oh Carlos, accrescentou elle, fazes favor? Ouve. Ouve esta que é
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