Contents

1 Cognitive revolution 2
1.1 Philosophical inputs to cognitive psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 What is nativism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 What is Rationalism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 What is Empiricism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 What is structuralism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5.1 Titchner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5.2 Functionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.3 John dewey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5.4 Harvey Carr (1873-1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Associationism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6.1 Role in Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6.2 Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting curve 1885 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6.3 Ivan Pavlov’s classical Conditioning (1897) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6.4 Edward Thorndike’s Law of effect (1898) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6.5 B.F skinner’s operant conditioning (1938) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6.6 Benjamin Whorf’s linguistic Relativity hypothesis (1956) . . . . . . . 5
1.7 Behaviourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7.1 John B. Watson’s ”Behaviorist Manifesto” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7.2 The principle of stimulus-response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7.3 Rise of operant conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7.4 Influence of technology and methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7.5 Practical applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7.6 Criticisms of behaviorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Gesalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.9 Age of computer and emergence of cognitive psychology . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.9.1 Criticisms of behaviorism tolman’s cognitive map . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.9.2 Advent of digital computers and influence of information processing
approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9.3 Input sensory information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9.4 Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9.5 Chomsky’s critique of Language acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9.6 Rediscovery of mental processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.9.7 Cognitive Neuroscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.9.8 Methodological advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.10 Seminal works in cognitive psychology oh man this will be long one . . . . . 9
1.11 Methodologies and scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.11.1 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.12 Self-reports, case studies and naturalistic observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.12.1 Self-reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.12.2 Case-studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.13 Computational models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.14 studies with patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.15 Brain scanning (Neuroimaging) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.15.1 Single cell recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.15.2 Electroencephalography(EEG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

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 1.15.3 PET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.15.4 FMRI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.15.5 MEG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.15.6 TMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.15.7 TDCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.16 Integration of methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.17 Bottom-up processing and top down processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.17.1 Bottom up processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.17.2 Top down processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.18 Chunking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.19 Ecological validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.20 Innate ability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.20.1 Language acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.20.2 Object permanence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.21 Modularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.22 Rehearsal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.23 Schemas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.24 Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.25 Practical implications of cognitive psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.26 CULTURE AND COGNITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.27 Yoga psychology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1 Cognitive revolution
The decade of the 1950s is generally recognized as the beginning of the cognitive revolution.

1.1 Philosophical inputs to cognitive psychology

• Philosophy has influenced many of the fundamental concepts and core theories of
cognitive psychology.

• These philosophical discussions were made through the method of introspection.

• Classic thinkers who contributed in shaping today’s psychology field are Plato (428-348
B.C ) and his student aristotle (384 - 322 B.C).

• Then came rene descartes (1596-1650), the british empiricist John Locke (1632-1704)
and David hume (1711-1776) among others.

1.2 What is nativism?

Nativism holds the idea that we come into the world with a great deal of innate knowledge.
It posits that certain ideas, principles, or cognitive structures are present in the human mind
from birth or early in development prior to any sensory experience.
Jean-Jacques Roussea(1712-1778) ideas laid the groundwork for nativist perspectives on human
development and cognition.
In his work ”Emile or On Education” Roussea proposed the concept of natural man which
posited that humans are born with innate goodness and a natural disposition to learn and

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develop.
Notable figures like Noam Chomsky who developed the theory of Universal Grammar and
proposed that humans are born with an innate capacity for language, have built upon Rousseau’s
foundational ideas.

1.3 What is Rationalism?

Rationalism holds the idea that reason and logic are the primary source of knowledge. Ratio-
nalism has made important contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in shaping the
understanding of human cognition, decision-making, and problem-solving.

1.4 What is Empiricism?

Empiricism holds the idea that primary source of knowledge is our experience and through our
sensory inputs. And to establish or derive the truth or right kind of knowledge, the only way is
through observation and experimentation.
Locke argued that the mind of birth is tabula rasa or blank slate and all knowledge is derived
from sensory experience.
Often considered the father of experimental psychology Wundt established the first psychological
labortary in Leipzig Germany, in 1879.

1.5 What is structuralism?

Structuralism was one of the earliest schools of thoughts in psychology.

• Structuralism aimed to break down complex mental experiences into their constituent
and how these elements combine to form conscious experience through the method
known as introspection.

• The major proponents of Structuralism in psychology were William Wundt (1832-1920)

and Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927).

• Wundt (Father of experimental psychology founded first psychological laboratory at

university of leipzig in Germany in 1879.)

1.5.1 Titchner
Titchener(British psychologist) who became a prominent advocate and promoter of Wundt’s
ideas in the United States.
He was a student of wundt and played a significant role in introducing structuralism in American
psychology.
Titchener established the first psychology laboratory in the United states at Cornell University.
He refined Wundt’s ideas and developed ideas and developed a more systematic and rigorious
method of introspection known as ”experimental introspection” Titchener’s introspective
technique focused on describing the elements of experience in a standarized and controlled
way.

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1.5.2 Functionalism
Functionalism was another early school of thought in psychology. Functionalism try to
understand how the minditemize works and mental processes help us to adapt and function in
the given environment.
Contributions of functionalism to the study of mind
1. Emphasis on mental processes: Laid the groundwork for studying mental processes.
Functionalists believed that mind is not a static entity but a dynamic system that serves
various functions to adapt to the environment and facilitat survival.
2. Focus on adaption: emphasized the importance of understanding how mental processes
enable to adapt and function effectively in their surroundings.
3. Purposeful behavior: Functionalism try to explain behaviour in terms of its purpose and
function.
4. Applications and evolutionary principles: Through the work of William james incorporated
evolutionary principles to explain the origins and development of mental processes.
5. Understanding consciouness: acknowledged the significance of consciousness as a conti-
nous and evolving stream of metnal activities.
6. One point: William james is considered the father of american psychology and major
proponent of functionalism.

1.5.3 John dewey

John dewey emphasized the practical and adaptive aspects of mental processes and viewed the
mind as an instrument for problem-solving and achieving goals.

1.5.4 Harvey Carr (1873-1954)

Harvey Carr was an american psychologist who contributed to development of functionalism.
Carr emphasized the role of learning and adaptation in shaping behavior and mental processs
His work focused on animal behavior and the adaptive functions in various species.

1.6 Associationism
Associationism is a psychological theory that proposes that learning and cognition are based
on the association of mental elements or ideas.
It played a significant role in the development of cognitive psychology by contributing to the
understanding of how mental processes, memory and knowledge formation occur.
Association of ideas: John locke and David hume proposed that complex ideas and knowledge
are formed through the association of simple sensory experience or ideas.
Associationists identified several laws of association that describe how ideas become associated
in the mind.
• Contiguity: Ideas that are experienced close together in time and space are more likely
to be associated.
• Similarity: Similar ideas are more likely to be associated with each other.
• Contrast ideas that are opposite may also become associated.

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1.6.1 Role in Memory
Associationism helped in explain how memory functions.

1. Memory is the result of the activation of assocation ideas.

2. When one idea is recalled it triggers the retrieval of related ideas through the network
associations.

3. Inspired research studies in psychology: in the areas of memory, learning and language.

1.6.2 Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting curve 1885

The forgetting curve is a memory model created by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus
. Moreover the memory curve shows how we lose information over time if we don’t try to
retain it. As such, understanding this model helps us to combat and conquer memory decay
— once and for all!

1.6.3 Ivan Pavlov’s classical Conditioning (1897)

Pavlov discovered that dogs could be conditioned to associate a neutral stimulus (a bell) with
a reflexive response (salivating to food).

1.6.4 Edward Thorndike’s Law of effect (1898)

1. Edward Thorndike conducted research on learning and problem-solving with cats in
puzzle boxes.

2. Observed cats learned to escape more easily and efficiently with repeated trials.

3. Formulated the Law of effect which is basically behaviors that is satisfying to us are
more likely to be repeated, while behaviors that is unstatisfying outcomes are less likely
to be repeated.

1.6.5 B.F skinner’s operant conditioning (1938)

B.F skinner studied how animals (and later humans) learned through the consequences of their
actions.

1.6.6 Benjamin Whorf’s linguistic Relativity hypothesis (1956)

Research focused on the influence of language on thought and cognition.

1.7 Behaviourism
Behaviourism emphasizing observable behavior as the primary subject of study.
Key factors to the development of behaviourism

• Dissatisfaction with structuralism and functionalism: Critics argued introspection lacked

scientific rigor. There was a growing demand for more objective and systematic methods
in psychology.

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 • Influence of Animal studies: Work of ivan pavlov (read above somewhere) and his
research on classical conditioning with dogs had a profound (basically huge) impact on
psychology.

1.7.1 John B. Watson’s ”Behaviorist Manifesto”

• Considered the father of behaviorism.
• In 1913 , published an influential paper title ”Psychology as the behaviorist Views It”,
which is often referred to as the ”Behaviorist Manifesto”.
• Watson argued that psychology should only concern itself with observable behavior.
• Watson call for scientific and objective approach to studying behavior laid the foundation
for the behaviorist movement.

1.7.2 The principle of stimulus-response

Behaviorism adopted the principle of stimulus response (S-R) to explain how behavior is
influenced by external stimuli.
According to this principle, behavior is a direct response to environmental stimuli, and learning
occurs through the association of stimuli and response.

1.7.3 Rise of operant conditioning

B.F skinner expanded on the principles of classical Conditioning and introduced operant
conditioning.

1.7.4 Influence of technology and methodology

Advancement in techonology allowed behaviorist to study behavior in a controlled and objective
manner.
The use of animal subjects and controlled environments facilitated systematic experimentation.

1.7.5 Practical applications

Behaviorism emphasis on observable behavior and the principles of learning had practical
applications in areas (education, therapy [behavioral therapy], animal training).

1.7.6 Criticisms of behaviorism

• Disregard of internal mental processes: Exclusive focus on observable behavior neglecting
internal mental processes.
• Ignoring Individual Differences: Considered all individuals as uniform in their learning
and behavior.
Failed to consider the role of individual differences, genetic factors and inherent cognitive
capabilities that can influence how people respond to environmental stimuli and learn.
• Overemphasis on Environmental determinism: Emphasized the influence of the environ-
ment on behavior, overlooking the potential role fo inherent dispositions, personality
traits, and cognitive factors in shaping behavior.

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 • Limited applicability to complex behaviors: Explained simple behavior but struggle to
explain complex processes and behaviors ( language acquisition, problem-solving and
creative thinking.)

• Ethical Concerns: Applications particularly in behavior modification and conditioning

techniques ( criticized for manipulation and control of individual behavior without
informed consent.)

1.8 Gesalt
• Gesalt psychology started in early 20th century in germany.

• Term comes from german word (form or configuration) reflecting the focus on studying
the organization of perceptual experiences as meaningful wholes.

Gesalt psychologist ( Max wertheimer, wolfgang kohler and kurt koffka [Sorry don’t have
german fonts installed on my pc nor german language]) emphasized that humans perception is
not simply the sum of individual sensory elements but is influenced by the way these elements
are organized in meaningful patterns or configurations.

Principles of gesalt psychology includes the law of organization (proximity, similarity, closure
and good continuation) which describes how the mind naturally organizes sensory information
into coherent and structured perceptions.

Gesalt psychologists emphasized the role of insight and problem-solving.

Highligthing how individuals perceive and solve problems by restructing their understanding of
a situation.
Gesalt psychologists also emphasized the importance of the perception of stimulus patterning
to our conscious experience.

1.9 Age of computer and emergence of cognitive psychology

Emergence of cognitive psychology can be attributed to combination of all of the above
mentioned historical, theoretical and methodological factors.

The cognitive revolution occured in mid 20th century marked a significant shift in the
field’s focus from behaviorism to the study of mental processes and cognition.

1.9.1 Criticisms of behaviorism tolman’s cognitive map

Edward chace Tolman called himself a behaviorist because his focus was on measuring behavior.
But in reality he was one of the early cognitive psychologist, because he used behavior to
conclude mental processes.
Concluded the rats had acquired an internal cognitive map indicating the maze’s approximate
layout.

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1.9.2 Advent of digital computers and influence of information processing approach
• First digital computers (developed late 1940s ) were huge machines that took up entire
buildings.

• But in 1954 IBM introduced a computer that was available to the general public.

• (Useless point imo) With this the famous analogy between the mind and computers
came into being known as the information processing analogy which played a significant
role in shaping the development of cognitive psychology.

Figure 1: mind-computer-analogy-but-better

1.9.3 Input sensory information

The input stage represents the sensory information that the mind receives from the external
environment.

1.9.4 Processing
The processing stage represents the mental processes that occur within the mind. These
processes involves manipulation, storage, and retrieval of information.
Information processing analogy has been usefil in advancing cognitive psychology, it is a
simplified representation. The human mind is immensely complex.

1.9.5 Chomsky’s critique of Language acquisition

• Chomsky argued that the ability to acquire language was not solely the result of
environmental conditioning.

• Instead , he proposed he proposed an innate language capacity and universal gramma-

mar, igniting interest in understanding the cognitive mechanisms underlying language
processing.

• His theory proposes : all language shares a universal grammar , a set of underlying
grammatical principles common to all human languages.

• This universal grammar guides language learning allowing children to generalize linguistic
rules from the specific example they encounter.

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1.9.6 Rediscovery of mental processes
Psychologists dissatisfied with behaviorism limitations renewed their interest in studying mental
processes and cognitive functions.

1.9.7 Cognitive Neuroscience

1. The integeration of cogntive psychology with neuroscience particularly (the study of
brain function and cognitive processes) further strengthened the cognitive revolution.

2. Cognitive neuroscience combines cognitive research with brain imaging and neuroscientific
techniques, providing a deeper understanding of the neural basis of cognition.

1.9.8 Methodological advances

Advancement in research methodologies including (experimental techniques, computational
modeling and cognitive tasks) facilitated the study of mental processes and cognitive functions
in a more systematic and scientific manner.

1.10 Seminal works in cognitive psychology oh man this will be long

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• Refers to influential and groundbreaking research studies , paper or books that have
significantly contributed to the development and establishment of cognitive psychology.

• The magical number (Seven plus or minus two) is a classical paper by george a. miller
(1956) that explores the limitations of human short-term memory capacity.
In this paper miller proposed that the average person can hold only seven items in their
short term memory.

• (Useless thing imo)This concept became known as miller’s law and had a significant
impact on the study of memory and information processing.

• Cognitive psychology (1967 by ulric neisser) is considered one of the foundational work
in the field of cognitive psychology
Neisser book which made the term cognitive psychology and emphasized the information
processing approach to studying the mind provided an overview of the emerging field of
cognitive psychology.

• Verbal behavior (1957 bf skinner) presented behaviorist account of language and verbal
beahvior
His views faced criticisms his work stimulated debates and discussions about the role of
behaviorism understanding language and cognition.

• In 1972 book the nature of thought by allen newell and herbert a. simon introduced
the concept of information processing psychology and proposed the influential ”General
problem solver (GPS)” model. It was one of the earliest attempt to ai program capable
of solving a wide range of problems like humans-like cognitive processes.

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 • Plans and the structure of behavior (donald broadbent 1958) introduced the concept
of information processing in cognitive psychology. He proposed the “filter” model of
attention, which suggested that the mind selectively processes information, focusing on
relevant stimuli and filtering out irrelevant ones.

1.11 Methodologies and scope

In methodologies and scope of cognitive psychology a wide range of research approaches and
areas of investigation related to human mental processes is involed.
The scientific method commonly follows the strict pattern:

• Create a testable hypothesis or theory that explains something.

• Design an experiment or a method of observing to test the hypothesis.

• Compare the results obtained with what was predicted

• And lastly correct or extend the theory based on the result found.

1.11.1 Experiments
a. Controlled experiments are a hallmark of cognitive psychology.

b. Experimenters take participants response usually in terms of measures fo response speed

and their accuracy.

c. and use statistics to work out whether the hypothesis and cognitive psychology model is
correct or not.

d. Researchers design experiments (to manipulate specific variable and measure the resulting
cognitive responses.) By carefully controlling conditions, researchers can draw cause-
and-effect conclusions about cognitive processes.

1.12 Self-reports, case studies and naturalistic observation

Cognitive psychology benifits from combitionations of self reports case studies and naturalistic
observation.

1.12.1 Self-reports
Self-reports are commonly used in cognitive psychology to gather information about individuals
(subjective experiences, beliefs, thoughts and perception.)
Self-reports can provide valuable insights and how individuals perceive their own memory
abilities strategies they use to remember information and their subjective experience during
memory tasks.

1.12.2 Case-studies
Case-studies are typically used to explore rare or unique cognitive psychology or to gain in-depth
understanding of specific individuals cognitvie processes.

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1.13 Computational models
• Computational models are computer-based simulations that replicate cognitive processes
and behaviors based on theoretical assumptions.

• Researchers can employ computers to mimic human cognition in what’s called computa-
tional modeling . Good model is specific enough to predict human behavior.

• Cognitive scientists develop models to test theories about cognitive functioning and to
understand how specific cognitive processes might work.

• these models have contributed to advances in ai and cognitive neuroscience briding the
gap between theory and application.

1.14 studies with patients

Cognitive neuropsychology is the study of brain-damaged patients in an attempt to understand
normal cognition.
Often the ingenious studies that cognitive psychology make are run on people with different
types of brain damage to see whether they perform differently.
Patient studies can also help identify cognitive deficits associated with specific neurological
conditions informing rehabilitation strategies and treatment approaches.

1.15 Brain scanning (Neuroimaging)

• Brain scanning techniques (ex: functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) and
pet(position emission tomography)) enable non-invasive observation of brain activity
during cognitive tasks.

• Neuroimaging allows researchers to link cognitive processes with specific brain regions
(and networds) proving deeper understanding of the neural basis of cognition.

• By mapping brain activity while participants engage in various cognitive tasks researchers
gain insights into the brain areas involved in attention memory language processing and
other cognitive functions.

1.15.1 Single cell recording

An electronode (no idea what that is) records the activity of single cells, which usually requires
drilling into the skull and brain.

1.15.2 Electroencephalography(EEG)
Electronode placed on surface of the scalp measure the electrical activity of the brain. Electical
spikes occure due to presentation of certain stimuli called event-related potentials (ERPs).
This technique records brain activity quickly but isn’t good at finding the source of the activity.

1.15.3 PET
Position emission tomography : Radioactive substances are absorbed into the blood and a
scanner picks them up when the blood enters the brain.

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1.15.4 FMRI
Functional magnetic resonance imaging: A large and noisy scanner detects the level of oxygen
in the blood as it enters the brain. The more blood in certain areas , the more it’s assumed to
be active.

1.15.5 MEG
Magneto-encephalography : similar to eeg, this method measures magnetic fields produced by
the brain’s electrical activity.

1.15.6 TMS
Transcranial magnetic stimulation: A large magnetic pulse is sent into part of the brain, which
stops that part working for a brief period.

1.15.7 TDCS
Transcranial direct current simulation: this method involves sending a small electrical current
parts of the brain to see how enhanced or reduced activity to a particular region affects
performance on certain cognitive tasks.

Who will remember this anyway ?

1.16 Integration of methods

The power of understanding cognition lies in the integration of these above different methods.
Brain scanning in healthy individuals can be used to validate the predictions made by compu-
tational models ensuring their accuracy in representing brain function.

1.17 Bottom-up processing and top down processing

These are fundamental approaches to information processing in human perception and cognition.

1.17.1 Bottom up processing

known as data driven processing refers to way we perceive and interpret information by starting
with individual sensory stimuli and building up to a complete perception.
In this approach the sensory information from the environment is analyzed and sythesized to
from a perception or understanding of a stimulus.
Read example in book

1.17.2 Top down processing

Also known as conceptually driven processing involves using preexisting knowledge , context
and expectations incoming sensory information.
In this approach our prior knowledge and experience influence how we perceive and understand
the world.

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 So bottom up processing starts with sensory input and builds up to a perception
while top down processing involves using prior knowledge and context to interpret
sensory information

1.18 Chunking
Cognitive process in which information is oranized into meaningful and manageable units or
chunks.

• Allows individuals to efficiently process and remember information by grouping smaller

pieces of information into large more meaningful units.

• By chunking people can work with larger amount of data and recall it more easily.

• Chunking is an effective mnemonic strategy used to enhance memory and information

processing in various contexts including learning new concepts things, and improving
problem-solving abilities.

• Commonly used in education (huh that’s why this book has too many concepts) to help
students better understand and remember complex information by organizing it into
meaningful chunks(they should organize their book in meaningful way).

1.19 Ecological validity

Refers to the extent to which the findings of a study or experiment accurately represent and
can be generalized to real-world situations or everyday life.

• essential consideration in cognitive psychology bcoz researchers want to understand how

cognitive processes operate in everyday life.

• The ecological validity of a study influences the external validity or generalizability of its
findings.

1.20 Innate ability

Refers to cognitive capacities (skills) that are believed to be present at birth and are genetically
determined
These abilities are considered to be a part of human nature and are thought universal across
individual of a species.

1.20.1 Language acquisition

Ability to acquire language believed to have an innate basis. Infants are born with the capacity
to learn and understand the structure of language.

1.20.2 Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, which
develops in infants around 6 - 8 months old is considered to have innate components.

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1.21 Modularity
Modularity refers to the concept that the human mind is composed of specialized cognitive
systems or modules that function as independent and domain-specific processors.
• The human mind works like a collection of specialized ”brain modules” that are small
machines.

• Each module is designed to handle specific tasks as recognizing faces, understanding

language or remembering locations.

• Faced criticisms and debates within the field of cognitive psychology.

• Some researchers argue that cognitive functions are more interconnected and interactive,
andthe strict modularity hypothesis might oversimplify the complexity of cognitive
processes.

• They propose that cognitive processes might be better understood as highly interactive
and interconnected networks, with different brain regions contributing to multiple
cognitive functions.

1.22 Rehearsal
Another key to cognitive process that has been used in cognitive psychology.
As the name suggests rehearsal involves the repitition of information or material that has
already been analyzed or perceived.
Rehearsal helps transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory making it
easier to remember and retrieve later.
So basically spaced-repitition in but complicated definition great

1.23 Schemas
Schema is a mental framework or structure that represents knowledge about a specific concept,
person, event or the world in general.
• Schemas are like building blocks of information stored in long-term memory

• they help us organize and interpret new information based on our knowlege and experience.

• Personal schema: Represents knowledge about ourselves (includes personality traits

preferences, value and experiences).

• Event schema: known as script , represents the typical sequence of events and actions
that occur in a particular situation.

• Example of event schema: movie theater includes buying tickets getting popcorn and
finding a set.

• Social schema: This includes our knowledge about different social roles, stereotypes,
and expectations.

• Cultural schema: Shared beliefs, customs, and values that characterize a particular
culture.

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 • Cultural schemas influence how people from a specific culture interpret and respond to
various situations.

• Schemas help make sense of the world.

• Pre-existing schemas may cause us to interpret new information based on our expec-
tations leading to memory distortions and misunderstanding (ahh confirmation bias
probably?)

1.24 Semantics
Branch of linguistics that deals with the study of meaning in language and the links between
meaningful concepts.

• Concerned with how words, sentences and language convey meaning and how people
interpret and understand the meaning of linguistic expression.

• Borrowed by cognitive psychology in order to understand valuable insights into how lan-
guage conveys meanings and the complex links b/w words and concepts they represents.

• leading to understand intricate (basically means complex) nature of human language

and cognition.

• Essential because help us communicate clearly and understand what others are saying .

• also helps us understand idioms and metaphors.

• Simple - about understanding the words and sentences and how they connect in real
world.

• play vital role in ai natural language processing and machine learning.

• where algorithms aim to understand and generate human-like language.

1.25 Practical implications of cognitive psychology

• Education: Cognitive psychology informs teaching methods and curriculam design.

• Teachers use cognitive psychology to design lessons plans that align with student’s
cognitive abilities (This book sure didn’t follow this principle itself).

• Memory improvement: Cognitive psychology research has led to the development of

memory enhancement techniques and strategies.

• Cognitive rehabilitation: In case of cognitive impairments due to brain injuries or neuro-

logical disorders cognitive psychology contributions to the development of rehabilitation
programs to restore or compensate for cognitive deficits.

• cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT): widely used therapeutic approach based on cognitive
psychology principles. It helps individuals identify and modify maladaptive thought
patterns and behaviors to address various mental health issues like anxiety, depression
and phobias.

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 • so here’s a question can cbt fix india’s instagram simping problem it’s always
instagram man

• Human-computer interaction (HCI): crucial in designing user-friendly interfaces and

experiences for technology making it easier for people to interact with computers
smartphones and other devices.

• Decision making and judgement: Understanding cognitive biases and heuristic helps
individuals make more informed decisions and avoid common judgment errors.

• Advertising and Marketing: Applied in advertising and marketing to create persuasive

messages that appeal to consumer cognitive processes and emotions (i guess ever tried
duolingo that uses this )

• AI : contributes to ai research by providing insights into human cognition perception,

and language processing leading to the development of more sophisticated AI systems.

1.26 CULTURE AND COGNITION

Culture has a powerful impact on how we think and understand the world around us.

• Different cultures have their own unique ways of perceiving, reasoning and solving
problems.

• Culture experience influence what we remember and how we organize knowledge in our
minds.

• Our cultural background affect our attention to certain details and our ability to see
things from different perspectives.

• Understanding the influence of culture help us appreciate the diverse ways people think
and behave in different parts of the world.

• Cognitive psychology examines how cultural factors shape cognitive processes and how
cognitive mechanisms contribute to development and maintenance of cultural norms and
practices.

1.27 Yoga psychology?

Yogic psychology explores the mind’s nature and how it can be harnessed to cultivate higher
states of awareness and understanding.
Indian thought encourages us to look beyond material things and explore deeper questions
about ourselves, consciousness and the connections between all living beings.

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