Contents

1 Chapter-3 2
1.1 Aspects of Problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Theories of Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Cognitive theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Newell’s theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Stages of problem-solving 4
2.1 Identifying the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Defining the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Creating a plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Organizing information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5 Allocating the resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.6 Monitoring progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.7 Evaluating (judge) the results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Strategies of problem solving 5

3.1 Trial and error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Heuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3.1 Availability heuristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3.2 Representative heuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3.3 Anchoring-and-Adjustment heuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4 Barriers of problem solving 8

4.1 Confirmation bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2 Hindsight bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 Overconfidence bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4 Escalation of commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.5 Functional fixedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5 Convergent and divergent thinking 9

5.1 Convergent thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2 Divergent thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.3 In other words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

6 Creativity 9
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

7 Measures of creativity 11

8 Theories of creativity 11
8.1 Investment theory of creativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.2 Creativity and intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.3 Fostering creativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.4 Providing equilibrium (a set of balance) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

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1 Chapter-3
Problem solving, a common component of most activities is a process of reaching out to a
goal by overcoming various barriers.
• The approach of problem solving differs depending on the nature of task and the
availability of resources.

• Two alternatives classifications of the problem solving are ill-defined and well-defined
problems.

• Well-defined problems have explicit goals , clearly defined solutions , and clearly stated
expected solutions while ill-defined problems are problems that lack distinct goals solutions
paths, or expected solutions.

• In addition to using pragmatics and semantics problem solving frequently calls for abstract
thought and creativity in order to come up with fresh solutions.
Key features of challenging tasks that are typical:
• Lack of understanding regarding the circumstance.

• Opacity from the start (There is uncertainty on where to begin stating the problem.)

• Persistent opacity (a lack of clarity about the issue that continues to cause uncertainity).

• Lack of expression (inability to state the issue clearly).

• Conflict

• Transience the issue changes frequently.

• Complexity (There are too many items, interactions and decisions, which is a problem)

• Enumerability (It cannot be enumerated or quantified).

• Connectivity (Relationship, communication, and allocation concerns are ranked in a

hierarchy).

• Heterogeneity (The issue is not uniform, making it challenging to solve).

• Dynamics (time related issues).

1.1 Aspects of Problem solving

The three aspects of problem solving are Givens, Goals and Operations. Where Givens are
the facts presented to describe the problem. Goal is the desired end state of the problem and
operation is the actions to be performed in reaching the desired goal. Each presenting problem
has a set of characteristics associated with it.
• Givens: are the facts or pieces of information presented to describe the problem.

• Goal : is the desired end state of the problem.

• Operations: are the actions to be performed in reaching the desired goal.

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1.2 Theories of Problem Solving
Behavioristic theories are based on cause-and-effect relationship, postulating (to suggest a
theory) that behavior followed by positive consequences will be repeated.
• Behavior with negative consequences will be followed by trial-and-error method. This
entails (means involve) tackling the issue in multiple ways until a desired solution is
discovered.

• These kinds of problem-solving skills are displayed by young children when they solve a
jigsaw puzzle.

• Behaviorists have placed a strong emphasis on habit formation and trial-and-error learning,
as well as th potential contribution of stimulus-response interactions to problem solving.

• These early theories of learning and problem-solving highlighted the observable aspects
of the process rather than attempting to explain the subject’s cognitive underpinnings.

1.2.1 Cognitive theory

Cognitive theory is a framework that studies how people learn, understand, and behave by
focusing on mental processes. It’s used in cognitive psychology, cognitive science, cognitive
sociology, and cognitive learning. Cognitive theory is based on the idea that people’s thoughts
and beliefs lead to their emotions and behaviors. It also focuses on how people acquire
knowledge and grow their mental structures.
• Cognitive theory: within the cognitive framework, wallas and polya, developed a four
stage modeling of problem solving.

• wallas identified four stages of problem-solving.

• Preparation, which involved defining the issue and acquiring relevant data

• incubation or subconsciously contemplating (think carefully about something) the

issue;

• inspiration : a moment of clarity.

• Verification - ascertaining that the solution was accurate by checking –insight into the
problem’s solution.

• understand the problem - devise a plan - carry out the plan - look backward.

1.2.2 Newell’s theory

The general problem-solving theory was supported by Newell’s early work in artificial intelligence.
AI refers to the study and creating of computer programmers for problem solving. An AI
programmer moves from the problem state to the solution state using a finite number of
functions.
1. A few broad characteristics of the problem-solving process are constant regardless of the
task or the problem solver.

2. The problem’s characteristics are sufficient to identify the problem space.

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 3. The structure of the task environment determines the potential structure of the problem
space.

4. The potential programmers that can be used to solve the problem are determined by the
structure of the problem space.

2 Stages of problem-solving
2.1 Identifying the problem
Finding the issue may seem like a simple first step, but it is not always that straightforward.
Sometimes people will incorrectly pinpoint the cause of an issue, rendering attempts to fix it
ineffectively or even pointlessly.

• Requesting information about the issue.

• dividing the issue into smaller components.

• Examining the issue from a variety of angles.

• Conducting research to determine the connections between various variables of the issue.

2.2 Defining the problem

It is crucial to properly characterize the issue after it has been identified so that it can be
resolved. By characterizing or operationalizing each part of the problem and creating goals for
those aspects you can handle , you will identify the problem.

2.3 Creating a plan

The next stage is to create a plan of actions to address the issue. The strategy will change
based upon the circumstance and the person’s particular preference. Heuristics and algorithms
are the methods used most often for solving problems.

2.4 Organizing information

The information at hand must be organizd before coming up with a solution. The more
knowledge you have , the better equiped you will be to find a precise solution. Making a
choice without having enough knowledge can produce results that are biased or incorrect (Yes
i thought psychology was easy didn’t consider this step back then.)

2.5 Allocating the resources

It’s crucial to take into account all the variables (basically all the choices) that could have
an impact on the current issue. This entails (entails == involve) examining the resources at
hand, the dates that must be reached, and any potential hazards associated with each solution.
A choice about the best course of action can be made after serious consideration.

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2.6 Monitoring progress
This step involves putting the plan into action after choosing a problem-solving approach to
test if it works.

• This step could involve experimenting with various solutions to see which is the most
successful.

• After implementing a solution, it is crucial to keep an eye on the situation to make

sure the issue has been resolved and that no new issue have appeared because of the
suggested remedy.

2.7 Evaluating (judge) the results

Once a solution has been found it is critical to assess the outcomes to see whether it truly
solves the issue.

3 Strategies of problem solving

3.1 Trial and error
Trial and Error is a well-known tactic. The proverb ”If at first you don’t succeed try, try again”
perfectly sums up trial and error.

• When using trial and error, you would keep attempting various fixes until your problem
is fixed. Strategies of problem solving are employed in the following situations:

• When too much information is presented.

• When one has a finite amount of time to decide

• When the choice at hand is not significant

• When there is minimal information available to employ in the decision-making.

• When an adequate heuristic simultaenously enters one’s head.

There are two major strategies of problem solving viz a. Algorthims and b. Heuristics

3.2 Algorithms
Algorithms in Psychology are like a recipe or set of instructions to solve mental problems,
understand behaviors, and predict outcomes. Just as a recipe tells us how to bake a cake,
algorithms in psychology help psychologists understand the mind and behavior.

• For example, suppose we want to know why people buy things. A psychologist could use
an algorithm to analyze what factors influence buying decisions, such as price, advertising,
or peer pressure. This helps them predict future buying behaviors and suggest ways to
improve marketing strategies.

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 • So if you’re a child, imagine that psychologists are like bakers who want to know how
to make people buy things (cakes in this example). They use recipes (algorithms) to
understand what ingredients (factors) they need to include to make the cake (buying
decision) taste good.

• (Book definition) An algorithm is a method or formula that relies on carrying out a

series of predetermined operations to solve a problem. It is a formula for solving problems
that gives you a detailed instructions on how to get the result you want.

• Search engines like Google utilise algorithms to determine which items will come first in
your list of results when you conduct a search on the internet.

Advantages of algorithms

• It is simple to understand because it represents a solution to a specific problem step by

step.

• An algorithm follows a predetermined process.

• Because it is independent of any programming language, even those without experience

can easily understand it

• An algorithm is simple to debug since each step has its own logical order.

• The difficulty is divided into smaller components or steps using an algorithm, making it
simpler for programmers to turn the problem into a working software.

Disadvantages

• Algorithms take a lot of time.

• It’s challenging to demonstrate looping and branching in algorithms

• Complex jobs are challenging for algorithms to handle.

3.3 Heuristics
Heuristics in Psychology are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb people use to make quick
decisions, solve problems and estimate probabilities.

• Just like using a rule or calculator to help us measure or count faster, heuristics help our
brains work more efficiently.

• For example, suppose you’re trying to cross the street and want to know if it’s safe. A
heuristic that could help you is called ”Look Left-Right-Left.” This means looking left ,
then right, and finally left again before crossing the street. This simple rule of thumb
helps us avoid cars quickly without having to calculate every car’s speed and direction.

• So if you’re a child, imagine that your brain uses shortcuts like a ruler or calculator to
help make decisions faster. Heuristics are those mental shortcuts we use to decide when
it’s safe to cross the street or guess if someone is telling the truth without thinking too
much.

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 • (Book definition) Another kind of approach for problem solving is heuristics. A heuristic
is a generic framework for problem-solving, in contrast to an algorithm, which must be
followed precisely to obtain the intended result.

• heuristics were initially established in psychology in 1950s by Nobel laureate economist

and cognitive psychologist Herbert Simon.

• A heuristic is what you may call a rule of thumb or shortcut. Such a rule spares the
decision-maker time and effort, but despite its time saving benefit, it is not necessary
the most effective strategy for arriving at an informed choice.

3.3.1 Availability heuristic

The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that people use to estimate how common or
likely an event is based on how easily they can remember similar examples of it.

• Just like when you guess if a word is more common by thinking of the words you know
, availability heuristics help us make quick decisions without having to calculate every
possibility.

• For example, suppose you want to know if plane crashes are common. A heuristic that
could help you is the Availability heuristic: You might think about a few plane crashes
you’ve heard of recently and decide that they must be common events.

• However, this could be misleading because it’s easier for us to remember dramatic plane
crashes than everyday flights that lands safely.

• So if someone’s a child, imagine that when you guess how many times your friends have
played video games or eaten ice cream, you think of the times you can easily remember.
The availability Heuristic is like that - we use examples that come to mind quickly to
make decisions without having to calculate every possiblity.

3.3.2 Representative heuristics

The Representative Heuristic is a mental shortcut that people use to judge how typical or
representative an object, person, or event is based on its similarity to a stereotype or prototype.

• Just like when you guess if someone is a good swimmer by thinking if they look like a
swimmer, the Representative Heuristic helps us make quick decisions without having to
analyze every detail.

• For example, suppose you see a person wearing glasses and a lab coat, and you think
they are a scientist. This is because scientists often wear glasses and lab coats, so they
seem more representative of a scientist in your mind.

• So an adult or child or anyone, imagine that when you guess if someone is a doctor or
a firefighter, you look at how much they look like the doctors or firefighters you know
from books or TV shows. The representative heuristic is like that - we use stereotypes
and prototypes to judge people, objects and events quickly without having to analyze
every detail.

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3.3.3 Anchoring-and-Adjustment heuristics
Anchoring and adjustment Heuristic is a mental shortcut where people rely too heavily on
the first piece of information (the ”anchor”) they receive when making decisions, and then
adjust their answers based on that anchor without considering other factors.

• Just like if you start guessing the number of jellybeans in a jar with a hint of 50, your
final answer might be influenced by that initial number.

• For example, suppose you are asked to guess how old a person is , and someone tells
you they are over 20 years old. Your first anchor is 20 years old and even though the
person could be much older your adjusted answer might still be close to 20.

• So basically, imagine that when you guess how many candies are in a bag you start with
a number someone tells you like 5. Your final answer might be influenced by that initial
number even though there could be many more candies in the bag.

• The Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic is like that - we rely too much on the first
information we receive when making decisions without considering all factors.

Other methods of problem solving:

1. Abstraction: Thinking about the main idea or essential parts of a problem without
getting lost in details. Just like when you’re solving a puzzle and focus on big pieces
instead of tiny ones.

2. Analogy: Using similar examples from other situations to help understand and solve
problems. Just like when you use a tool you know well, like a hammer to fix something
new because it’s similar.

3. Brainstorming: Generating many ideas quickly without judging or criticizing them. Just
like when you come up with lots of ideas what you want to be when you grow up.

4. Divide and conquer: Breaking down a big problem into smaller parts that are easier to
solve. Just like when you clean your room by first picking up toys, then clothes and
finally dusting.

5. Hypothesis Testing: Making educated guesses about the answer to a problem and testing
them through experiments or observations. Just like when you guess the number of
candies in a jar by counting how many you can see and then trying to find hidden ones.

6. Lateral thinking: Finding new, creating solutions to problems by looking at things from
different angles or points of view. Just like when you think outside the box to solve a
puzzle or come up with a new idea for a story.

4 Barriers of problem solving

4.1 Confirmation bias
Confirmation bias is when people pay attention to and remember information that suport their
beliefs, while ignoring or forgetting information that contradicts them.

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4.2 Hindsight bias
Hindsight bias is when people think they would have predicted an event if they had known
about it before it happened, but they wouldn’t have actually made the same prediction at the
time.

4.3 Overconfidence bias

Overconfidence bias is when people believe they are more correct or certain about something
than they really are.

4.4 Escalation of commitment

Escalation of commitment is when people continue to invest time, effort, or money in something
because they have already invested a lot and don’t want to admit they made a mistake.

4.5 Functional fixedness

Functional fixedness is when people have trouble seeing new uses for an object because they
are fixed on its usual function.

5 Convergent and divergent thinking

5.1 Convergent thinking
Convergent thinking is when you focus on finding the one best answer or solution to a problem.
It’s like solving math problems where there is only one correct answer.

5.2 Divergent thinking

Divergent thinking is when you come up with many different ideas or solutions for a problem,
even if some of them might not be practical or possible. It’s like brainstorming or daydreaming
and letting your mind wanders to lots of different possiblities.

5.3 In other words

In other words Convergent thinking helps us find the right answer to a question, while divergent
thinking helps us think outside the box and come up with lots of creative ideas.

6 Creativity
6.1 Introduction
Creativity is the ability to think about think about things in new and unique ways. It’s like
when you come up with an original idea or solve a problem in a different way than anyone else
would have thought of. It can be seen in many areas, such as art, science, invention, and even
everyday problem-solving. Just remember, being creative often means thinking outside the

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box.

Book defination

• The ability to create new ideas or use things or knowledge in innovative manners is
reffered to as creativity. It can entail grandiose concepts that has the potential to
transform the world, like creating tools that alter how people live, or it can involve tiny
acts of creativity, like coming up with a novel ways to complete an everyday chore.

• The capacity to develop, create, or uncover fresh concepts, ideas or possibilities. People
who are very creative frequently have a deep understanding of a subject, devote years to
it, consider creative solutions , consult other experts for guidance, and take chances.

• Although creativity is sometimes connected to the arts, it is also crucial aspect of intellect
that motivates people across many fields to make new discoveries.

• Components of creativity are originality, usefullnes, surpriseness.

• Utility is the second requirement. The concept must be useful or effective.

• Surprise is the third and final component The concept must be novel or at the very least
nonobvious.

• Guilford first offered up the idea of ”divergent thinking” after observing that those who
are creative frequently engage in this way of thinking more than others.

• He equated divergent thinking with creativity and identified its following traits: Fluency
is the capacity to simultaneously suggest several approaches to a particular problem.
Originality is the capacity to generate new , original ideas. Elaboration is the capacity
to systematise and organize the specifics of an idea in one’s mind and implement it.

There are four stages involved in creativity:

1. Preparation: This is when you gather all the information and ideas about your topic or
problem. It’s like studying for a test or doing research to learn everything you can about
what you want to create.

2. Incubation: After gathering all the information, you let it sit in your mind for a while
without trying to think about it. This is your brain can work on the problem and come
up with new ideas. It’s like taking a break from studying before you take the test.

3. Illumination: Suddenly, an idea or solution pops into your head! This is when everything
comes together and you hav a great idea or solution to your problem. It’s like getting
an answer to a difficult problem all of a sudden.

4. Verfication: Finally you check and double check your idea to make sur it works and
make sense. This is like proofreading your homework before turning it in or testing a
new invention to make sure it works properly. It’s important to be thorough so that your
creative work is the best it can be!.

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7 Measures of creativity
The Remote Association Test, reffered to as the RAT, was developed by Mednick in 1962.
According to Mednick, the ability ot mentally connect ideas that are seen to be quite far from
one another is necessary for the creative process. The RAT’s tasks ask respondants to choose
a term that can be connected to three somewhat distinct stimulus words.

• The Unusual Task is the second evaluation tool. Here the participant is invited to think
of different applications for an everyday object, such as brick. The responses can be
graded based on four factors a. fluency, which measures the total number of appropriate
uses generated; b. originality, which measures the total number of appropriate uses
generated; b. originality, which measureshow uncommon the uses are statistically. c.
flexibility: which measures the number of different conceptual categories implied by the
various uses; and d. elaboration: which measures the levels of detail provided for the
generated uses.

8 Theories of creativity
The secret to individual creativity lay in three interrelated factors. a. Domain relevant skills,
also known as technical aptitudes and specilised knowledge, came first. b. Processes that are
more broadly applicable to creativity include tolerating ambiguity and being prepared to take
calculated risks. She also mentioned intrinsic motivation, which is the practise of engaging
in an activity because it is pleasurable or meaningful. In contrast extrinsic motivation occurs
when a person is motivated by something outside of themselves, such as money, accolades or
grades.

• Synergistic extrinsic motivation: Imagine you have a task to do, like cleaning a room.
You might not want to do it because it seems boring or tough. But if your parent
promises you a reward that’s extrinsic motivation.

• Now, synergistic means working together to produce a better result than what could
be achieved separately. So, synergistic extrinsic motivation is when we work harder
or smarter because we see that the reward (extrinsic motivator) will help us achieve
something we really want to (intrinsic motivation).

• Here’s an example: (my example:) you want to learn to play a new video game well
(ex: elden ring). Your friend says, ”If you practice every day for a week, I’ll teach you
some cool tricks!” In this case, your desire to learn the tricks is intrinsic motivation.
The practice every day is extrinsic motivation. But when you see that practicing makes
you better at the game and learning new tricks (synergy of both motivations), that’s
Synergistic Extrinsic Motivation.

• So basicaly, it means we can get motivated by rewards or help from others which helps
us achieve something we really want to do!

• Book definition was short and hard to understand for me so

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8.1 Investment theory of creativity
First book defintion
The investment theory of creativity compares a creative individual to financial investor. In the
world of ideas one must buy low and sell high in order to be innovative.

• As a result, successful creator can spot underappreciated concepts, persuade others of

their value , and then move on to the next undertaking. Sternberg and Lubart suggests
six factor Intellectual qualities include the capacity to perceive issues from novel angles,
the discernment (the ability to judge people and things well) of which of one’s ideas
merit further development and the capacity to persuade others of these novel concepts.

• a. Knowledge Enough expertise in a field to advance it.

• The confluence approach contends that various elements must come together for creativity
to develop.

• Particular ways of thinking a preference for original thought and the capacity for
perspective-taking or the capacity to think both globally and locally.

• Personality traits, Qualities include, a readiness to take chances and a tolerance for
uncertainity

• Motivation that is intrinsic to the job at hand: Creative people typically enjoy what they
are doing and derive intrinsic satisfaction from it.

• An atmosphere that encourages creativity.

Now easy defintion Imagine you want to build a cool treehouse in your backyard. To do
that, you need to invest time, effort and materials. In return you get a fun place to play! This
is similar to how creativity works.

• The Investment Theory of creativity says that being creative requires an investment of
effort, developing skills, and persisting through challenges. Here are six factors Sternberg
and Lubart suggested to help us understand this investment / concept.

• a. Intellectual abilities: These are our natural talents , like thinking quickly or remem-
bering thing well.

• b. Knowledge : This is the information we learn from books, teachers and experiences.

• c. Creativity-Relevant Skills: These are skills that help us be creative such as problem
solving, brainstoring or drawing.

• d. Style of thinking: This is our way of thinking aboout things, like being open to new
ideas or willing to take risks.

• e. Motivation: This is what drives us to invest time and effort in creativity, such as
wanting to create something beautiful or solving a challenging problem.

• f. Environment: This is the place where we work on our creativity, like a quiet room at
home or a lively art studio.

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8.2 Creativity and intelligence
The threshold theory, which holds that having above-average intellect is a requirement for
having high levels of creativity, is one of the most well-known theories about how intelligence
and creativity interact. Although the threshold concept was mostly confirmed by prior research,
it has recently come under scrutiny. It is usual practice to test the threshold hypothesis by
dividing a sample at a predetermined point. There is no compelling reason to set the criterion
at an IQ of 120, and no attempts have been made to do so up to this point.

8.3 Fostering creativity

We require a variety of viewpoints to foster creativity. To generate as many ideas as possible,
diverse thinking is required. A list of the different creativity strategies that have been put forth
is provided by Nickerson (1999). These include tecniques created by academia and business
alike, such as

1. Identifying a goal and intention.

2. Developing fundamental abilities.

3. Promoting the acquisition of knowledge specific to a given topic.

4. Encouraging and encouraging discovery and curiosity.

5. Increasing motivation especially within

6. Promotiong self-assurance and a readiness to take chances.

7. Concentrating on self-competition and mastery.

8. Supporting rational perspectives on creativity.

9. Providing options and chances for exploration.

10. Developing metacognitive skills for self-management.

11. Methods and tactics for encouraging creative performance in the classroom.

8.4 Providing equilibrium (a set of balance)

According to Torrance’s (1995) research, soft thinking, deconstruction/reconstruction, visualiz-
ing playing, exploration, dialectical thinking,
learning from failure, and collaboration/cooperation

• In fact, there are various strategies, to encourage or hinder human creativity. Every time
humans encounter circumstances for which they have not already studied and prepared
a response some level or sort of creativity is required.

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