Where Do Systems Development Projects

Come From?

Problem – an undesirable situation that prevents

the organization from fully achieving its purpose,
goals, and/or objectives.
Opportunity – a chance to improve the
organization even in the absence of an identified
problem.
Directive - a new requirement that is imposed by
management, government, or some external
influence.
 Where Do Systems Development Projects Come
From?

• Planned Projects
• An information systems strategy plan has examined the
business as a whole to identify those system development
projects that will return the greatest strategic (long-term)
value to the business
• A business process redesign has thoroughly analyzed a series
of business processes to eliminate redundancy and
bureaucracy and to improve efficiency and value added.
 Where Do Systems Development Projects Come
From?

• Unplanned projects
• Triggered by a specific problem, opportunity, or directive that
occurs in the course of doing business.
• Steering committee – an administrative body of system
owners and information technology executives that prioritizes
and approves candidate system development projects.
• Backlog – a repository of project proposals that cannot be
funded or staffed because they are a lower priority than those
that have been approved for system development.
The PIECES Problem-Solving Framework

P the need to improve performance

I the need to improve information (and
data)
E the need to improve economics, control
costs, or increase profits
C the need to improve control or security
E the need to improve efficiency of people
and processes
S the need to improve service to customers,
suppliers, partners, employees, etc.
Process of System Development

System development process – a set of activities,

methods, best practices, deliverables, and automated
tools that stakeholders use to develop and continuously
improve information systems and software.

– Many variations
– Using a consistent process for system development:
▪ Create efficiencies that allow management to shift
resources between projects
▪ Produces consistent documentation that reduces
lifetime costs to maintain the systems
▪ Promotes quality
 Methods for systems development

❖Systems Development lifecycle method (SDLC)

• Set of activities analysts, designers, and users carry out to develop and
implement information systems
❖Structured analysis development
• Complex systems pose difficulties and hence
1) breakdown system into components, 2) construct a model of the system

❖Systems prototype method

• Develop prototypes – involves users more directly than SDLC or structured
analysis •
• Correct circumstances – requirements are not clear; users know that
improvements are necessary but not sure what the improvements are
Characteristics of systems development method
 SDLC

• is a structured process that is used to design, develop, and

test good-quality software.
• is a methodology that defines the entire procedure of software
development step-by-step.
• The goal of the SDLC life cycle model is to deliver high-
quality, maintainable software that meets the user’s
requirements.

• 70% of system development projects have failed to meet

expectations, cost more than budgeted and are delivered
much later than promised.
 SDLC Stages
Stage-1: Planning and Requirement Analysis

In this same stage, requirement analysis is also

performed by the developers of the organization.
This is attained from customer inputs, and sales
department/market surveys.
Stage-2: Defining Requirements

In this stage, all the requirements for the target software are
specified. These requirements get approval from customers,
market analysts, and stakeholders.

This is fulfilled by utilizing SRS (Software Requirement

Specification). This is a sort of document that specifies all those
things that need to be defined and created during the entire
project cycle.
Stage-3: Designing Architecture

SRS is a reference for software designers to come up with the best

architecture for the software.

This DDS is assessed by market analysts and stakeholders. After

evaluating all the possible factors, the most practical and logical
design is chosen for development.
Stage-4: Developing Product

At this stage, the fundamental development of the product starts.

For this, developers use a specific programming code as per the design in the DDS.

Hence, it is important for the coders to follow the protocols set by the association.
Conventional programming tools like compilers, interpreters, debuggers, etc. are
also put into use at this stage.
Some popular languages like C/C++, Python, Java, etc. are put into use as per the
software regulations.
 Stage-5: Product Testing and Integration

After the development of the product, testing of the software is necessary

to ensure its smooth execution. Although, minimal testing is conducted at
every stage of SDLC.

Therefore, at this stage, all the probable flaws are tracked, fixed, and
retested. This ensures that the product confronts the quality requirements
of SRS.
Stage-6: Deployment and Maintenance of Products

After detailed testing, the conclusive product is released in phases as per

the organization’s strategy. Then it is tested in a real industrial
environment.
It is important to ensure its smooth performance. If it performs well, the
organization sends out the product as a whole.
After retrieving beneficial feedback, the company releases it as it is or with
auxiliary improvements to make it further helpful for the customers.
 What is the need for SDLC?

• SDLC is a method, approach, or process that is followed by a

software development organization while developing any
software.
• SDLC models were introduced to follow a disciplined and
systematic method while designing software.
• With the software development life cycle, the process of
software design is divided into small parts, which makes the
problem more understandable and easier to solve.
• SDLC comprises a detailed description or step-by-step plan
for designing, developing, testing, and maintaining the
software.
 CMM Process Management Model
Capability Maturity Model (CMM) – a standardized framework for
assessing the maturity level of an organization’s information system
development and management processes and products. It consists
of five levels of maturity:

• Level 1—Initial: System development projects follow no

prescribed process.
• Level 2—Repeatable: Project management processes and
practices established to track project costs, schedules, and
functionality.
• Level 3—Defined: Standard system development process
(methodology) is purchased or developed. All projects use a
version of this process to develop & maintain IS and s/w
• Level 4—Managed: Measurable goals for quality and
productivity are established.
• Level 5—Optimizing: The standardized system development
process is continuously monitored and improved based on
measures and data analysis established in Level 4.
Capability Maturity Model (CMM)
 Impact of System Development “Process” on Quality

CMM Project Statistics for a Project Resulting in 200,000 Lines of Code

Organization’ Project Project Number of Median Lowest Highest
s CMM Level Duration Person- Defects Cost ($ Cost ($ Cost
(months) Months Shipped millions) millions) ($ millions)
1 30 600 61 5.5 1.8 100+
2 18.5 143 12 1.3 .96 1.7
3 15 80 7 .728 .518 .933
Principles of System Development

Get the system users involved.

Use a problem-solving approach.
Establish phases and activities.
Document through development.
Establish standards.
Manage the process and projects
Justify systems as capital investments.
Don’t be afraid to cancel or revise scope.
Divide and conquer.
Design systems for growth and change.
Use a Problem-Solving Approach
Classical Problem-solving approach
1. Study and understand the problem, its context,
and its impact.
2. Define the requirements that must be meet by
any solution.
3. Identify candidate solutions that fulfill the
requirements, and select the “best” solution.
4. Design and/or implement the chosen solution.
5. Observe and evaluate the solution’s impact, and
refine the solution accordingly.
Establish Phases and Activities
Overlap of System Development Phases
Justify Information Systems as Capital
Investments
Cost-effectiveness – The result obtained by striking a balance
between the lifetime costs of developing, maintaining, and
operating an information system and the benefits derived from that
system. Cost-effectiveness is measured by a cost-benefit analysis.

Strategic information systems plan – a formal strategic plan (3-5

years) for building and improving an information technology
infrastructure and the information system applications that use that
infrastructure.

Strategic enterprise plan – a formal strategic plan (3-5 years) for an

entire business that defines its mission, vision, goals, strategies,
benchmarks, and measures of progress and achievement. Usually,
the strategic enterprise plan is complemented by strategic business
unit plans that define how each business unit will contribute to the
enterprise plan. The information systems plan is one of those unit-
level plans.
Don’t Be Afraid to Cancel
or Revise Scope
Creeping commitment – a strategy in which
feasibility and risks are continuously reevaluated
throughout a project. Project budgets and deadlines
are adjusted accordingly.

Risk management – the process of identifying,

evaluating, and controlling what might go wrong in a
project before it becomes a threat to the successful
completion of the project or implementation of the
information system. Risk management is drive by risk
analysis or assessment.
Project Phases
• FAST - (Framework for the Application of Systems Thinking )
a hypothetical methodology to demonstrate a representative
systems development process.
• Each methodology will use different project phases.

FAST Phases Classic Phases (from Chapter 1)

Project System System System
Initiation Analysis Design Implementation
Scope Definition X
Problem Analysis X X
Requirements Analysis X
Logical Design X
Decision Analysis (a system analysis transition phase)
Physical Design and Integration X
Construction and Testing X X
Installation and Delivery X
FAST Project Phases
Scope Definition Phase
Problem statement – a statement and categorization of problems,
opportunities, and directives; may also include constraints and an
initial vision for the solution. Synonyms include preliminary study
and feasibility assessment.

Constraint – any factor, limitation, or restraint that may limit a

solution or the problem-solving process.

Scope creep – a common phenomenon wherein the requirements

and expectations of a project increase, often without regard to the
impact on budget and schedule.

Statement of work – a contract with management and the user

community to develop or enhance an information system; defines
vision, scope, constraints, high-level user requirements, schedule,
and budget.
Synonyms include project charter, project plan, and service-level
agreement.
Requirements Analysis Phase

• What capabilities should the new system provide for its users?
• What data must be captured and stored?
• What are the priorities of the various requirements?
Logical Design Phase
Logical design – the translation of business user requirements into a
system model that depicts only the business requirements and not
any possible technical design or implementation of those
requirements. Common synonyms include conceptual design and
essential design.

System model – a picture of a system that represents reality or a

desired reality. System models facilitate improved communication
between system users, system analysts, system designers, and system
builders.

Analysis paralysis – a term coined to describe a common project

condition in which excessive system modeling dramatically slows
progress toward implementation of the intended system solution.
Decision Analysis Phase

• Candidate solutions evaluated in terms of:

• Technical feasibility – Is the solution technically practical? Does our
staff have the technical expertise to design and build this solution?
• Operational feasibility – Will the solution fulfill the users’
requirements? To what degree? How will the solution change the
users’ work environment? How do users feel about such a solution?
• Economic feasibility – Is the solution cost-effective?
• Schedule feasibility – Can the solution be designed and implemented
within an acceptable time?
• Risk feasibility – What is the probability of a successful
implementation using the technology and approach?
Physical Design & Integration Phase

Physical design – the translation of business user requirements into a

system model that depicts a technical implementation of the users’
business requirements. Common synonyms include technical design
or implementation model.

Two extreme philosophies of physical design

• Design by specification – physical system models and detailed

specification are produced as a series of written (or computer-
generated) blueprints for construction.

• Design by prototyping – Incomplete but functioning applications or

subsystems (called prototypes) are constructed and refined based on
feedback from users and other designers.
Construction and Testing Phase

• Construct and test system components

• Software
• Purchased
• Custom-built
• Databases
• User and System Interfaces
• Hardware
• Networks
Installation and Delivery Phase

• Deliver the system into operation (production)

• Deliver User training
• Deliver completed documentation
• Convert existing data
System Operation & Maintenance

System support – the ongoing technical support for users of a

system, as well as the maintenance required to deal with any errors,
omissions, or new requirements that may arise.
Cross Life-Cycle Activities
Cross life-cycle activity – activities that overlap
multiple phases
• Fact-finding - formal process of using research, interviews,
meetings, questionnaires, sampling, and other techniques
to collect information about system problems,
requirements,and preferences.
• Documentation and presentation
• Documentation – recording facts and specifications for a systems
for current and future reference.
• Presentation – communicating findings, recommendations, and
documentation for review by interested users and mangers.
• Repository – database and/or file directory where system
developers store all documentation, knowledge, and artifacts for
information systems or project(s).
• Feasibility analysis
System Development Documentation,
Repository, and Presentations
Sequential versus Iterative
Development
Waterfall development
approach an approach to
systems analysis and design
that completes each phase one
after another and only once .

Iterative development
approach an approach to
systems analysis and design
that completes the entire
information system in
successive iterations. Each
iterations does some analysis,
some design, and some
construction. Synonyms include
incremental and spiral.
Process and Project Managers

• Process manager application – an automated tool that helps

document and manage a methodology and routes, its
deliverables, and quality management standards. An emerging
synonym is methodware.

• Project manager application – an automated tool to help plan

system development activities (preferably using the approved
methodology), estimate and assign resources (including
people and costs), schedule activities and resources, monitor
progress against schedule and budget, control and modify
schedule and resources, and report project progress.