INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKING

 A computer network can be defined as a collection of interconnected nodes. A node can be any
device capable of transmitting or receiving data. The communicating nodes are connected by
communication links.
 A Compute network should ensure reliability of the data communication process, security of
the data and performance by achieving higher throughput and smaller delay times.

PURPOSE OF NETWORKING
Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include:
1). Resource sharing
A Network resource refers to any component that can be attached to the network for access by
users.
Some of the shared resources include:
i). Application programs. vii).Network Printers
ii). Data and information. viii). Fax machines
iii). Modems ix) Storage devices (optical drives).
iv). Graphics.
v). Communication ports.
vi). Computer processing power.
Users whose computers are connected to a network can, for example, share their files,
exchangemails, send faxes, schedule meetings, and print documents from any point on the
network. This centralized access to data & information leads to less waste of time, and
hence greater productivity.

2). Remote communications

Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two communication
devices located at different geographical locations.
E.g., using remote communication, one can work from home just as if he/she is in the office.
It is mainly through remote communications that people can be able to share ideas, and pass
messages over the Internet.
A computer that tries to access resources from another computer on the network is called a
remote client, while the computer being accessed is called a remote host.
Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless transmission media such as
radio waves, microwave, and satellite.
3). Distributed processing facilities
Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on different
computers, which are on the same network but placed in separate locations.
Each computer has its own local peripherals, e.g., disks, printers, terminals, etc.

For example;
In a large organization, each branch office has its own server that stores data, information, and
other resources required for their daily operations.
This implies that, files reside on the user’s computer rather than on a central computer, and are
only transmitted periodically to update the central computer.

Advantages of distributed processing.

1. Failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals.
2. Processing load is shared equally; hence, no time wastage.
3. There is faster access of data as each machine can process & store its data.
4. It doesn’t need powerful and expensive servers for data storage.
5. It can accommodate users with variety of needs.

Disadvantages of distributed processing.

1. It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an infected file and spread it
throughout the network.
2. Developing an effective back up plan is more difficult when users store data in their individual
systems.
3. File management (organization) is difficult as the files are stored in different locations.

4). Cost effectiveness

The initial cost of purchasing and laying down of networks components may be expensive.
However, the savings experienced and the value added to service delivery make networks cost
effective.
 Networks greatly increase the efficient use of scarce resources. E.g., a large organization with
many stand-alone computers will need a printer for each computer. However, if the computers
are networked, only one printer is used.
  Computer networks have also enhanced daily communication, i.e., they have made the flow of
information from one place to another easy. Users can send mails (e.g., e-mails) to each other,
without having to bear the cost of stamp duty or delivery charges.
Similarly, company executives can hold electronic video conferences, thus reducing the traveling
costs.

5). Reliability
A computer network is reliable especially when communicating or accessing information:
i). Data can be transferred with minimum errors from source to destination.
ii). Incase one computer breaks down; the user can still access data & information from the other
computers using another computer on the network.

LIMITATIONS (DISADVANTAGES) OF NETWORKING

1). Security issues -Data & information held on a network is open to many people across the
world, and can easily be accessed illegally. In addition, when information is sent over the
network from one place to another, it can be tapped or listened to by unauthorized parties.
2). High initial cost-The initial cost of buying network hardware & software is very high.
3). Moral and cultural effects-Large networks such as the Internet have chat rooms and
messaging services. These enable underage children to meet peers and adults on the net, some
of whom may have bad intentions. Access to pornographic and other negative material on the
Internet has made the fight against social problems such as HIV/AIDS, bad sexual behaviour,
and drug abuse more complicated.

4). Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking-The Internet makes it easy for terrorists and drug
traffickers to operate. This is because; they use information networks for their business
communications.

5). Over-reliance on networks-Most organizations have done away with manual operations.
This means that, all business processes, and the society depend on computer networks.
Therefore, if by any chance the network fails or goes down, then many systems in the society
will stop working.
 CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS
1. Peer-to-Peer network.
 A Peer is a computer that acts both as the client and a server.
 In this network, all the connected computers are equal & each machine acts as both client and
Server. This means that, there is no central storage area for information & no dedicated central
Server.
 No system administrator. Therefore, the user of each computer determines what data &
resources the computer will shares with other computers on the network.
 Peer-to-peer networks are appropriate in an environment where:
i. There are 10 or less users.
ii. The users are located in a general area.
iii. Security is not an issue, e.g. in Bulletin boards.

Advantages of Peer-to-peer networks.

(i). It is small & inexpensive.
(ii). It is easier to maintain.
(iii). It is easier to setup.

Disadvantages of Peer-to-peer networks.

(i). It is difficult to locate information stored in the connected computers due to Shared level
security.
(ii). Difficult to update documents and files.
(iii). It is expensive to train staff on how to share resources, as each user is an administrator.
(iv). It is difficult to maintain security, as it is the user’s responsibility to ensure that only
authorized individuals can access their data.
(v). It is more tedious as the user has to memorize password for resources, and in case of any
change, they have to inform others.

2. Server-basednetworks.
 In this network, there is usually a Server, e.g. a company which is dedicated to handle files
and/or information for clients, make & service requests from network clients, and ensure
security of files and directories for them.
 Server-based networks require a network operating system.
 Advantages of Server based networks.
(i). There is security since the Server controls the resources the clients need to access.
(ii). It can support a large number of users.
(iii). The server can be optimized to hand out information as fast as possible.
(iv). Fewer connections are required by the clients to get the resources.
(v). Easier to maintain backup for files (synchronization of files).
(vi). Cost effective as client workstations don’t need large hard disk (storage capacity).

Disadvantages of Server based networks.

(i). It is dependent on a Network administrator.
(ii). Requires servers, which are expensive.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

 Computer networks are usually classified according to size. The three most common types of
networks are:
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN).
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
4. Wide Area Network (WAN).
5. RAN
6. EAN
Local Area Network (LAN).
 This is a computer network that is formed whenever computers are connected together in a
relatively small geographical area, e.g., in one building or a school.
 LAN is the smallest size of network & it normally covers an area within the radius of 10M – 3
Km.
 LAN is usually owned by one organization. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs
over any distance via data transmission lines or wireless media.
 A LAN connects several Personal Computers to a Server computer. The server computer
makes available the resources requested by the other computers (workstations) on a network.
 In most LANs, each workstation has its own CPU which it uses to execute programs, but still the
workstation user can also access data & devices anywhere on the network.
Advantages of LANs.
1). They enable many users to share expensive devices such as Laser printers, as well as data.
However, the no. of computers that can be connected & the distance to be covered is limited.
2). Have Low cost (requires less expensive equipment).
3). Enable users to communicate with each other, by sending messages or engaging in chat
sessions.
4). LANs transmit data at very fast rates. They are much faster than data transmitted over
telephone lines.
5). Small error counts (low error rates).

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).

 A MAN is made up of many LANs connected together.
 It covers a metropolitan (medium-sized geographical) area, e.g., a town or an entire city, within
a radius of 5 – 50 Km.
Characteristics of MAN
- Larger than LAN.
- Slower than LAN, but faster than WAN with data rates of 100MBps & above.
- Are more expensive than LANs, since special equipment is needed to connect the different
networks together.
- Prone to few errors (moderate error rates).
Wide Area Network (WAN).
 This is the largest size of network.A WAN covers a large geographical area such as an entire
country, a continent, or even the whole world.
 It consists of many LANs and MANs connected together to form one large network such as the
Internet.
Characteristics of WAN
 They cover an unlimited (a very large) geographical area, e.g., can cover the whole world.
 They are expensive to build since it requires special equipment for connection.
 Their transmission links are also expensive.
 Long distance transmission.
 Have low data transfer rates compared to LANs (i.e., they are slower than LANs & MANs)
 More prone to errors (very high possible error rates compared to LANs and MANs).
Differencesbetween a Local Area Network and a Wide Area Network.
1. LAN is limited to a small geographical distance.
2. Data transmission speed in LANs is higher.
3. Cost of data transmission in LANs is small.
4. There are less transmission errors in LANs.
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORK
A) Computer
B) Switches
C) NIC
D) Router
E) Gateways
B) Repeaters
C) Bridges
D) Hub
E) Modem
A) ROUTER
 Routers are devices which connect two are more networks that use similar protocol.
 Routers operate at a network layer of O.S.I model. Routers use logical and physical address to
connect two or more logically separate network.
 Advantages of Router
· They use high level of intelligence to rout data
· Routers can also act as a bridge to handle non rout able protocols such as NetBEUI (Network
Bios Extended User Interface )
Disadvantages of Router:
· High level of intelligence take more processing time which can effect performance
· Routers are very complicated which installation and maintenance difficult.
B) GATEWAYS
 Gateways are devices which connect two are more networks that use different protocols.
 Gateway can operate at all seven layer of OSI model. Since Gateway perform data
conversion so they are slower in speed and very expensive devices.
C) REPEATERS
 Repeaters are used within network to extend the length of communication.
 The transmission media weaken signals that move through it. The weakening of signal is
called attenuation. If the data is to be transmitted beyond the maximum length of a
 communication media, signals have amplified.
 The devices that are used to amplify the signals are called repeaters. Repeaters work at the
physical layer of OSI model.
Advantages of Reapeater
· Repeaters easily extend the length of network.
· They require no processing over head, so very little if any performance degradation occurs.
· It can connect signals from the same network type that use different types of cables.
Disadvantages of Repeaters
· Repeaters can not be used to connect segments of different network types.
· They cannot be used to segment traffic on a network to reduce congestion .
· Many types of network have a limit on the number of network s that can be used at once .

D) BRIDGES
Bridges are used to connect similar network segments. A bridge does not pass or signals it
receives. When a bridge receive a signal, it determines its destination by looking at its
destination and it sends the signals towards it. For example in a above figure a bridge has been
used to join two network segments A AND B. When the bridge receives the signals it read
address of both sender and receiver. If the sender is a computer in segment A and the receiver
is also segment A, it would not pass the signals to the segments B. It will however pass signals if
the sender is in one segment and the receiver in other segment. Bridge works at the data link
layer of O.S.I model.
Advantages of Bridges
· Bridge extends network segments by connecting them together to make one logical network.
· They can affect the segment traffic between networks by filtering data if it does not need to
pass.
· Like repeaters they can connect similar network types with different cabling.
Disadvantages of Bridges
· Bridge possess information about the data they receive which can slow performance.

E) HUB
Hubs are basically multi ports repeaters for U.T.P cables. Some hubs have ports for other type of
cable such as coaxial cable. Hubs range in size from four ports up to and for specific to the
network types. These are some hubs which are
I. Passive Hub
II. Active Hub
III. Switch/ Intelligent Hub
I Passive Hub
It provides no signal regeneration. They are simply cables connected together so that the signal is
broken out to other nodes without regeneration. These are not used often today because of loss
of cable length that is allowed.

II Active Hub
It acts as repeaters and regenerates the data signals to all ports. They have no real intelligence to
tell weather the signal needs to go to all ports that is blindly repeated.
III Switch Hub
Switches are multi ports bridges. They filter traffic between the ports on the switch by using the
address of computers transmitting to them.
Switches can be used when data performance is needed or when collision need to be reduce.
Advantages of Hub
· Hubs need almost no configuration.
· Active hub can extend maximum network media distance. No processing is done at the hub to
slow down performance
Disadvantages of Hub
· Passive hubs can greatly limit maximum media distance.
· Hubs have no intelligence to filter traffic so all data is send out on all ports whether it is need or
not.
Since hubs can act as repeaters the network using them must follow the same rules as repeaters
F) MODEM
 The device that converts digital signals into analog signals and analog signals to digital
signals is called Modem.
 The word modem stands for modulation and demodulation. The process of converting
digital signals to analog signals is called modulation. The process of converting analog
signals to digital signals is called demodulation.
 Modems are used with computers to transfer data from one computer to another computer
through telephone lines.
Modems have two connections these are.
I Analog connection
II Digital connection
Analog connection.
The connection between the modem and the telephone line is called analog connection.
Types of Modem
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF MODEMS
· Internal modem
· External modem
Digital connection.
The connection of modem to computer is called digital connection
INTERNAL MODEM
It fits into expansion slots inside the computer. It is directly linked to the telephone lines through
the telephone jack. It is normally less inexpensive than external modem. Its transmission speed
is also less external modem.
EXTERNAL MODEM
It is the external unit of computer and is connected to the computer through serial port. It is also
linked to the telephone line through a telephone jack. External modems are expensive and have
more operation features and high transmission speed.
Advantages of Modem
· Inexpensive hardware and telephone lines.
· Easy to setup and maintain.
Disadvantages of Modem
Very slow performance.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
 A topology defines the arrangement of nodes, cables, and connectivity devices that make up the
network as well as how the data is passed from the source to destination.
 it can also be defined as the way in which computers in a network are linked together. It
determines the data paths that may be used between any two communicating computers in a
network.
It can be categorised into:
i. Physical topology-it defines the arrangement of the network nodes and transmission links
ii. Logical topology-it defines how the data is passed from source to destination through the
intermediate devices and links.
Types of network topologies
There are four principal network topologies:
a) Star
b) Bus
c) Ring
d) Hierarchical (hybrid)
e) Completely connected (mesh)

They are: point-to-point and multi-point.

Point-to-point connections provide a direct link between twodevices; for example, a
computer connected directly to a printer, or a modem to a mainframe.

Star network
In a star network there are a number of small computers or peripheral devices linked to a central
unit called a main hub. The central unit may be a host computer or a file server. All
communications pass through the central unit and control is maintained by polling. This type of
network can be used to provide a time-sharing system and is common for linking
microcomputers to a mainframe.

Advantages:
 It is easy to add new and remove nodes
 A node failure does not bring down the entire network
 It is easier to diagnose network problems through a central hub

Disadvantages:
 If the central hub fails the whole network ceases to function
 It costs more to cable a star configuration than other topologies (more cable is required
than for a bus or ring configuration).
 Node

Bus network
In a bus network each device handles its communications control. There is no host computer;
however there may be a file server. All communications travel along a common connecting cable
called a bus. It is a common arrangement for sharing data stored on different microcomputers. It
is not as efficient as star network for sharing common resources, but is less expensive. The
distinguishing feature is that all devices (nodes) are linked along one communication line - with
endpoints - called the bus or backbone.

Advantages:
 Reliable in very small networks as well as easy to use and understand
 Requires the least amount of cable to connect the computers together and therefore is
less expensive than other cabling arrangements.
 Is easy to extend. Two cables can be easily joined with a connector, making a longer
cable for more computers to join the network
 A repeater can also be used to extend a bus configuration

Disadvantages:
 Heavy network traffic can also slow a bus considerably. Because any computer can
transmit at any time, bus networks do not coordinate when information is sent.
Computers interrupting each other can use a lot of bandwidth
 Each connection between two cables weakens the electrical signal
 The bus configuration can be difficult to troubleshoot. A cable break or malfunctioning
computer can be difficult to find and can cause the whole network to stop functioning.
Ring network
In a ring network each device is connected to two other devices, forming a ring. There is no central
file server or computer. Messages are passed around the ring until they reach their destination.
Often used to link mainframes, especially over wide geographical areas. It is useful in a
decentralized organization called a distributed data processing system.

Advantages:
 Ring networks offer high performance for a small number of workstations or for larger
networks where each station has a similar work load
 Ring networks can span longer distances than other types of networks
 Ring networks are easily extendable

Disadvantages
 Relatively expensive and difficult to install
 Failure of one component on the network can affect the whole network
 It is difficult to troubleshoot a ring network
 Adding or removing computers can disrupt the network

Hierarchical (hybrid) network

A hierarchical network consists of several computers linked to a central host computer. It is similar
to a star. Other computers are also hosts to other, smaller computers or to peripheral devices in
this type of network. It allows various computers to share databases, processing power, and
different output devices. It is useful in centralized organizations.

Advantages:
  Improves sharing of data and programs across the network
 Offers reliable communication between nodes

Disadvantages:
 Difficult and costly to install and maintain
 Difficult to troubleshoot network problems

Completely connected (mesh) configuration

Is a network topology in which devices are connected with many redundant interconnections
between network nodes.

Advantages:
 Yields the greatest amount of redundancy (multiple connections between same nodes) in
the event that one of the nodes fail where network traffic can be redirected to another
node.
 Network problems are easier to diagnose

Disadvantages
 The cost of installation and maintenance is high (more cable is required than any other
configuration)
 1.0 BUS TOPOLOGIES
 A bus physical topology is one in which all devices connect to a common, shared cable (called
the backbone).
 Bus networks broadcast signals in both directions on the backbone cable, enabling all devices
to directly receive the signal.

ADVANTAGES
i. It is very reliable since any line break down only affects the connected computers
ii. Computer to computer communication is very fast
iii. Transmission may take different routes between any two communicating stations.
iv. Easy to expand the network since computers/nodes are connected to the backborn.

DIS-ADVANTAGES
i. It is expensive because of many transmission channels or links required as compared to
wireless transmission.
ii. In case several devices are transmiting at the same time it can lead to traffic collision hence the
data is corrupt.
iii. Incase of backborn failure no communication, the whole channel breaks.
2.0 RING TOPOLOGIES
 Ring topologies are wired in a circle. Each node is connected to its neighbors on either side, and
data passes around the ring in one direction only.
 Ring topologies are ideally suited for token-passing access methods.
 The token passes around the ring, and only the node that holds the token can transmit data.
 The token has sender address as well as destination address.
 ADVANTAGES
i. It is more reliable since a breakdown of one computer does not affect others in the network
ii. Processing task is distributed to local computer stations thus not reliant to host computer
iii. If one line between any two computers breaks down alternate routing is possible

DIS-ADVANTAGES
(i) There is communication delay which is directly proportional to the number of computers in
network
(ii) There is duplication of resources at various stations of the network
(iii) High data security is needed.

3.0 STAR TOPOLOGIES

In this configuration, one host computer is connected to various computers in a network. Star
topologies require that all devices connect to a central hub. The hub receives signals from other
network devices and routes the signals to the proper destinations.
 ADVANTAGES
(i) Data can be shared by all computers
(ii) There is minimal line cost because to connect n computers only n-1 lines are required
(iii) If any computer fail, the entire network is not affected
(iv) Addition of new computers does not increase transmission delays between computers

DIS-ADVANTAGES
(i) If the central host computer fails, the entire network is affected.
(ii) All computers must be functioning for the network to work.
(iii) It is expensive to set due to the number of terminals needed.
(iv) Not easy to expand the network.
(v) Communication is slow due to high network traffic.

4.0 MESH TOPOLOGY

A mesh topology is really a hybrid model representing an all-channel sort of physical topology. It is
a hybrid because a mesh topology can incorporate all the topologies covered to this point.
Computers are interconnected.

ADVANTAGES
(i) Breakdown of one station does not affect the entire network
(ii) It is easy to add new stations
(iii) Number of the physical links are reduced

DIS-ADVANTAGES
(i) Each computer in the network must have a good decision making capability
(ii) If the shared transmission channel breaks down the entire network fails

Multi-point connections provide a link between three or moredevices on a network. All

computer networks rely upon point-to-point and multi-point connections.

1. Point-to-point topology,
2. Bus (point-to-multipoint) topology,
3. Ring topology,
4. Star topology,
5. Hybrid topology,
6. Mesh topology and
7. Tree topology.

The interconnections between computers whether logical or physical are the foundation of this
classification.
Logical topology is the way a computer in a given networktransmits information, not the way it
looks or connected, along with the varying speeds of cables used from one network to another.
On the other hand the physical topology is affected by a number of factors:
Troubleshooting technique,
Installation cost,
Office layout and
Cables‘types.
The physical topology is figured out on the basis of a
network‘s capability to access media a tolerance desired and the cost of telecommunications
circuits.

The classification of networks by the virtue of their physical span is as follows: Local Area
Networks (LAN), Wide Area Internetworks (WAN) and Metropolitan Area Networks or campus
or building internetworks.

11.6.3 How Is the Physical Topology Classified?

Point-to-Point Network Topology

 It is the basic model of typical telephony. The simplest topology is a permanent connection
between two points.
 The value of a demanding point-to-point network is proportionate to the number of
subscribers‘ potential pairs. permanent circuit within many switched telecommunication
systems: the telephone present in a lobby would always connect to the same port, no matter
what number is being dialed. A switch connection would save the cost between two points
where the resources could be released when no longer required.
Bus Network Topology
 LANs that make use of bus topology connects each node to a single cable/ common terminal
refered to as backbone.
 Some connector connects each computer or server to the bus cable.
 For avoiding the bouncing of signal a terminator is used at each end of the bus cable.
 The source transmits a signal that travels in both directions and passes all machines unless it
finds the system with IP address, the intended recipient. The data is ignored in case the
address is unmatched.
 The installation of one cable makes bus topology an inexpensive solution as compared to
other topologies; however the maintenance cost is high. If the cable is broken all systems
 would collapse.
o Linear Bus:If all network nodes are connected to a combine transmission medium that has two
endpoints the Bus is Linear. The data transmitted between these nodes is transmitted over the
combine medium and received by all nodes simultaneously.
o Distributed Bus:If all network nodes are connected to a combine transmission medium that has
more than two endpoints created by branching the main section of the transmitting medium
Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
i. Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
ii. Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
i. Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
ii. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
iii. Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
iv. Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
Star Network Topology
 The topology when each network host is connected to a central hub in
LAN is called Star.
 Each node is connected to the hub with a point-to-point connection. All
traffic passes through the hub that serves as a repeater or signal
booster.
 The easiest topology to install is hailed for its simplicity to add more
nodes but criticized for making hub the single point of failure.
 The network could be BMA (broadcast multi-access) or NBMA (non-
broadcast multi-access) depending on whether the signal is
automatically propagated at the hub to all spokes or individually
spokes with those who are addressed.
o Extended Star:A network that keeps one or more than onerepeaters
between the central node or hub and the peripheral or the spoke node,
supported by the transmitter power of the hub and beyond that
supported by the standard of the physical layer of the network.
o Distributed Star:The topology is based on the linearconnectivity that is
Daisy Chained with no top or centre level connection points.
Advantages of a Star Topology
i. Easy to install and wire.
ii. No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
iii. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
i. Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
ii. If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
iii. More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the
hubs, etc.
Ring Network Topology
 Ring topology is one of the old ways of building computer network design
and it is pretty much obsolete.
 FDDI, SONET or Token Ring technologies are used to build ring
technology.
 It is not widely popular in terms of usability but incase if you find it
anywhere it will mostly be in schools or office buildings.

Such physical setting sets up nodes in a circular manner where the

data could travel in one direction where each device on the right serves
as a repeater to strengthen the signal as it moves ahead.
Mesh Network Topology

The exponent of the number of subscribers is proportionate to the value of

the fully meshed networks.

o Fully Connected:For practical networks such topology istoo complex and

costly but highly recommended for small number of interconnected
nodes.
131

o Partially Connected:This set up involves the connection ofsome nodes to

more than one nodes in the network via point-to-point link. In such
connection it is possible to take advantage of the redundancy without
any complexity or expense of establishing a connection between each
node.

Hybrid Topology

Hybrid topologies are a combination of two or more different

topologies. WANs sometimes have hybrid topologies because they
 connect a variety of LAN topologies. The big advantage of hybrid
topologies is that they connect disparate topologies. However, the
disadvantage of hybrid topologies is that they are potentially complex to
establish and manage.

Tree Network Topology

The top level of the hierarchy, the central root node is connected to some
nodes that are a level low in the hierarchy by a point-to-point link where
the second level nodes that are already connected to central root would
be connected to the nodes in the third level by a point-to-point link. The
central root would be the only node having no higher node in the
hierarchy. The tree hierarchy is symmetrical. The BRANCHING FACTOR
is the fixed number of nodes connected to the next level in the hierarchy.
Such network must have at least three levels. Physical Linear Tree
Topology would be of a network whose Branching Factor is one.
132

Advantages of a Tree Topology

Point-to-point wiring for individual segments. Supported by several
hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. More difficult to
configure and wire than other topologies.

Considerations When Choosing a Topology

Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensiveway to install a

network; you do not have to purchase concentrators.

Length of cable needed. The linear bus network usesshorter lengths of

cable.

Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network iseasily done by

adding another concentrator.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
CHARACTERISTICS
 Each type of transmission media has special characteristics that make it suitable for a specific
type of service.
 The following factors are considered in selecting a media:
. Cost
. Installation requirements
. Bandwidth
. Band usage (baseband or broadband)
. Attenuation
. Immunity from electromagnetic interference

Cost
Often the fastest and most robust transmission media is desired, but a network designer must often
settle for something that is slower and less robust, because it more than suffices for the business
solution at hand. The major deciding factor is almost always price. As with nearly everything else in
the computer field, the fastest technology is the newest, and the newest is the most expensive. Over
time, economies of scale bring the price down, but by then, a newer technology comes along.
Installation Requirements
Installation requirements typically involve two factors. One is that some transmission media require
skilled labor to install. The second has to do with the actual physical layout of the network. Some
types of transmission media install more easily over areas where people are spread out, whereas
other transmission media are easier to bring to clusters of people or a roaming user.

Bandwidth
The term bandwidth refers to the measure of the capacity of a medium to transmit data. A medium that
has a high capacity, for example, has a high bandwidth, whereas a medium that has limited capacity
has a low bandwidth.
Data transmission rates are frequently stated in terms of the bits that can be transmitted per second. An
Ethernet LAN theoretically can transmit 10 million bits per second and has a bandwidth of 10
megabits per second (Mbps). The bandwidth that a cable can accommodate is determined in part by
the cable’s length. A short cable generally can accommodate greater bandwidth than a long cable,
 which is one reason all cable designs specify maximum lengths for cable runs. Beyond those limits,
the highest-frequency signals can deteriorate, and errors begin to occur in data signals. You can see
this by taking a garden hose and snapping it up and down. You can see the waves traveling down the
hose get smaller as they get farther from your hand. This loss of the wave’s amplitude represents
attenuation, or signal degradation. Band Usage (Baseband or Broadband)
The two ways to allocate the capacity of transmission media are with baseband and broadband
transmissions. Baseband devotes the entire capacity of the medium to one communication channel.
Broadband enables two or more communication channels to share the bandwidth of the
communications medium.
Baseband is the most common mode of operation. Most LANs function in baseband mode, for example.
Baseband signaling can be accomplished with both analog and digital signals.
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique that enables broadband media to support multiple data channels.
Attenuation
Attenuation is a measure of how much a signal weakens as it travels through a medium.
Attenuation is a contributing factor to why cable designs must specify limits in the lengths of
cable runs. When signal strength falls below certain limits, the electronic equipment that
receives the signal can experience difficulty isolating the original signal from the noise present
in all electronic transmissions.
Electromagnetic Interference
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) consists of outside electromagnetic noise that distorts the
signal in a medium. When you listen to an AM radio, for example, you often hear EMI in the
form of noise caused by nearby motors or lightning. Some network media are more
susceptible to EMI than others.
Crosstalk is a special kind of interference caused by adjacent wires. Crosstalk occurs when the
signal from one wire is picked up by another wire. You may have experienced this when
talking on a telephone and hearing another conversation going on in the background.
Crosstalk is a particularly significant problem with computer networks because large
numbers of cables often are located close together, with minimal attention to exact placement.

CABLE MEDIA
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables were the first cable types used in LANs. Coaxial cable gets its name because two
conductors share a common axis; the cable is most frequently referred to as a “coax.” A type of
 coaxial cable that you may be familiar with is your television cable. The components of a
coaxial cable are as follows:
. A center conductor, although usually solid copper wire, is sometimes made of stranded wire.
. An outer conductor forms a tube surrounding the center conductor. This conductor can consist of
braided wires, metallic foil, or both. The outer conductor, frequently called the shield, serves
as a ground and also protects the inner conductor from EMI.
. An insulation layer keeps the outer conductor spaced evenly from the inner conductor.
. A plastic encasement (jacket) protects the cable from damage.
Types of Coaxial Cable.
Thinnet
Thinnet is a light and flexible cabling medium that is inexpensive and easy to install.

Thicknet
Thicknet is thicker than Thinnet. Thicknet coaxial cable is approximately 0.5 inches (13 mm) in
diameter. Because it is thicker and does not bend as readily as Thinnet, Thicknet cable is
harder to work with. A thicker center core, however, means that Thicknet can carry more
signals a longer distance than Thinnet. Thicknet can transmit a signal approximately 500
meters (1,650 feet).
Thicknet can be used to connect two or more small Thinnet LANs into a larger network.
Because of its greater size, Thicknet is also more expensive than Thinnet. However, Thicknet can
be installed relatively safely outside, running from building to building.

Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable is inexpensive to install and offers the lowest cost per foot of any cable type.
Your telephone cable is an example of a twisted-pair type cable. A basic twisted-pair cable
consists of two strands of copper wire twisted together. The twisting reduces the sensitivity of
the cable to EMI and also reduces the tendency of the cable to radiate radio frequency noise
that interferes with nearby cables and electronic components, because the radiated signals
from the twisted wires tend to cancel each other out.

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

Shielded twisted-pair cabling consists of one or more twisted pairs of cables enclosed in a foil
wrap and woven copper shielding.
The shield is connected to the ground portion of the electronic device to which the cable is
connected. A ground is a portion of the device that serves as an electrical reference point, and
usually, it is literally connected to a metal stake driven into the ground. A properly grounded
shield prevents signals from getting into or out of the cable.

Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

Unshielded twisted-pair cable doesn’t incorporate a braided shield into its structure. Several
twisted pairs can be bundled together in a single cable. These pairs are typically color-coded
to distinguish them. UTP cable is the least costly of any cable type and cable is easy to install.

Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-optic cable is the ideal cable for data transmission. Not only does this type of cable
accommodate extremely high bandwidths, but it also presents no problems with EMI and
supports durable cables and cable runs as long as several kilometers. The two disadvantages
of fiber-optic cable, however, are cost and installation difficulty. Despite these disadvantages,
fiber-optic cable is now often installed into buildings by telephone companies as the cable of
choice.
The center conductor of a fiber-optic cable is a fiber that consists of highly refined glass or plastic
designed to transmit light signals with little loss. A glass core supports a longer cabling
distance, but a plastic core is typically easier to work with. The fiber is coated with a cladding
or a gel that reflects signals back into the fiber to reduce signal loss. A plastic sheath protects
the fiber. A fiber-optic network cable consists of two strands separately enclosed in plastic
sheaths. One strand sends and the other receives. Two types of cable configurations are
available: loose and tight configurations. Loose configurations incorporate a space between
the fiber sheath and the outer plastic encasement; this space is filled with a gel or other
 material. Tight configurations contain strength wires between the conductor and the outer
plastic encasement.

Fiber-optic cable can support high data rates (as high as 200,000Mbps) even with long cable runs.
Although UTP cable runs are limited to less than 100 meters with 100Mbps data rates, fiber
optic cables can transmit 100Mbps signals for several kilometers.

COMPARISON OF CABLE MEDIA

Type Cost Installation Capacity Range EMI

Thinnet Less than STP Inexpensive/easy10Mbps typical 185 m Less sensitive than
UTP
Thicknet Greater than STP
Easy 10Mbps typical 500 m Less sensitive than
less than fiber UTP
d twisted pair
Greater than UTP.
Fairly easy 16Mbps typical up to
100 m typical Less sensitive than
Less than 500Mbps UTP
Thicknet
ded twisted
Lowest Inexpensive/easy10Mbps typical up to
100 m typical Most sensitive
r 100Mbps
ptic Highest Expensive/difficult
100Mbps typical 10s’ of km Insensitive
WIRELESS MEDIA

The extraordinary convenience of wireless communications has placed an increased emphasis on

wireless networks in recent years. Technology is expanding rapidly and will continue to
expand into the near future, offering more and better options for wireless networks.
Presently, you can subdivide wireless networking technology into three basic types
corresponding to three basic networking scenarios:
a) Local area networks (LANs). Occasionally you will see a fully wireless LAN, but more typically
one or more wireless machines function as members of a cable-based LAN.
b) Extended local networks. A wireless connection serves as a backbone between two LANs. For
instance, a company with office networks in two nearby but separate buildings could connect
those networks using a wireless bridge.
c) Mobile computing. A mobile machine connects to the home network using cellular or satellite
technology.
 UNGUIDED (WIRELESS) TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
 Unguided media transport data without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
Reasons for Wireless Networks
1) Spaces where cabling would be impossible or inconvenient. These include open lobbies,
inaccessible parts of buildings, older buildings, historical buildings where renovation is
prohibited, and outdoor installations.
2) People who move around a lot within their work environment. Network administrators, for
instance, must troubleshoot a large office network. Nurses and doctors need to make rounds
at a hospital.
3) Temporary installations. These situations include any temporary department set up for a
specific purpose that soon will be torn down or relocated.
4) People who travel outside of the work environment and need instantaneous access to
network resources.
5) Satellite offices or branches, ships in the ocean, or teams in remote field locations that need to
be connected to a main office or location.

 There are three types of Unguided Media

I. Radio waves
II. Micro waves
III. Infrared.
 Propagation of signals in wireless transmission media
1. Ground-wave propagation
2. Sky-wave propagation
3. Line-of-sight propagation

1. Ground-wave propagation

characteristics of Ground-wave propagation are as follows:

i. Follows contour of the earth
ii. Can Propagate considerable distances
iii. Frequencies up to 2 MHz
iv. Example
a. AM radio

2. Sky-wave propagation
 Characteristics of Sky Propagation are as follows:
i. Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earth
ii. Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between ionosphere and earth‘s surface
iii. Reflection effect caused by refraction
iv. Examples
a. Amateur radio
b. CB radio

3. Line-of-sight propagation

Line of Sight Propagation of waves

Characteristics of Line of Sight Propagation are as follows:
i. Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight
a. Satellite communication –signal above 30 MHz not reflected by ionosphere
b. Ground communication – antennas within effective line of site due to refraction
1. Radio waves:
• Electromagnetic wave ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1GHz are normally called
radio waves.
• Radio waves are omni-directional when an antenna transmits radio waves they are
propagated in all directions. This means that sending and receiving antenna do not have to he
aligned. A sending antenna can send waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
• Radio waves particularly those waves that propagate in sky mode, can travel long distances.
This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
• Radio waves particularly those of low and medium frequencies can penetrate walls. It is an
advantage because; an AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is the disadvantage
because we cannot isolate a communication to first inside or outside a building.

2. Microwaves:
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional; when an antenna transmits microwaves they can be narrowly
focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The
unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without
interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
• Microwaves propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas needs
to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall, the curvature
of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short towers to communicate
using microwaves, Repeaters are often needed for long distance communication very high
frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls.
• Parabolic dish antenna and horn antenna are used for this means of transmission
3.Infrared
• Infrared signals with frequencies ranges from 300 GHz to 400 GHz can be used for short range
communication.
• Infrared signals, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This helps to prevent
interference between one system and another. Infrared Transmission in one room cannot be
affected by the infrared transmission in another room.
 • Infrared band, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Transfer digital data is
possible with a high speed with a very high frequency. There are number of computer devices
which are used to send the data through infrared medium e.g. keyboard mice, PCs and
printers. There are some manufacturers provide a special part called the IrDA port that allows
a wireless keyboard to communicate with a PC.

Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is a technique to mix and send multiple data streams over a single medium.
 This technique requires system hardware called multiplexer (MUX) for multiplexing the
streams and sending them on a medium, and de-multiplexer (DMUX) which takes information
from the medium and distributes to different destinations.
 When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device a Multiplexer divides the
physical channel and allocates one to each.
 On the other end of communication, a De-multiplexer receives data from a single medium,
identifies each, and sends to different receivers.

Types of multiplexing.

i) Frequency Division Multiplexing

 When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog technology.
 FDM divides the spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to
each channel.
 Each user can use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it.
 All channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each other.
 Channels are separated by guard bands. Guard band is a frequency which is not used by either
channel.

ii) Time Division Multiplexing

 TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as well.
 In TDM the shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot.
 Each user can transmit data within the provided time slot only.
 Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent to time slot i.e. frame of an optimal size which
can be transmitted in given time slot.
 TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-multiplexer are timely
synchronized, and both switch to next channel simultaneously.

 When channel A transmits its frame at one end, the De-multiplexer provides mediato channel
A on the other end.
 As soon as the channel A’s time,this slotside ex switches to channel B. On the other end, the
De-multiplexer works in a synchronizedmanner and provides media to channel B.
 Signals from different channels travel the path in interleaved manner.

iii)Wavelength Division Multiplexing

 Light has different wavelength (colors).
 In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are multiplexed into an optical fiber by
using different wavelengths.
 This is an analog multiplexing technique and is done conceptually in the same manner as FDM
but uses light as signals.
  Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can be incorporated to accommodate
more data signals.

iii) Code Division Multiplexing

 Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single frequency by using Code Division
Multiplexing.
 FDM divides the frequency in smaller channels but CDM allows its users to full bandwidth and
transmit signals all the time using a unique code.
 CDM uses orthogonal codes to spread signals.
 Each station is assigned with a unique code, called chip. Signals travel with these codes
independently, inside the whole bandwidth.
 The receiver knows in advance the chip code signal it has to receive.
Unguided Media

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type
of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally
broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them. Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation. Wireless transmission is
of three types as shown below in Fig 1.22:
Fig 1.22 Wireless Transmission

Radio Waves: Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio

waves and microwaves, electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies
between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves; waves
ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
However, the behavior of the waves, rather than the frequencies, is a
better criterion for classification. Radio waves use omni-directional
antennas that send out signals in all directions. The omni-directional
characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in
which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM
radio,television, cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting.

Microwaves: Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300

GHz are called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. When an
antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The
unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can
be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when
 unicast (one-to-one) communication is needed between the sender and
the receiver. They are used in cellular phones, satellites and wireless
LANs.

Infrared: Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot
penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference
between one system and another; a short-range communication system
in one room cannot be affected by another system in the next room.
When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the
use of the remote by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic
makes infrared signals useless for long-range communication. In
addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the
sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication. The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent
potential for data transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can be used to
transmit digital data with a very high data rate. The Infrared Data
Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared
waves, has established standards for using these signals for
communication between devices such as keyboards, mice, PCs, and
printers. For example, some manufacturers provide a special port called
the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard to communicate with a PC.
The standard originally defined a data rate of 75 kbps for a distance up
to 8 m. The recent standard defines a data rate of 4 Mbps.

Wireless Communications with LANs

a) Infrared Transmission
You use an infrared communication system every time you control your
television with a remote control. The remote control transmits pulses of
 infrared light that carry coded instructions to a receiver on the TV. This
technology also is used for network communication.
Four varieties of infrared communications are as follows:
. Broadband optical telepoint This method uses broadband technology. Data
transfer rates in this high-end option are competitive with those for a
cable-based network.
. Line-of-sight infrared Transmissions must occur over a clear line-of-sight
path between transmitter and receiver.
. Reflective infrared Wireless PCs transmit toward a common, central unit,
which then directs communication to each of the nodes.
. Scatter infrared. Transmissions reflect off floors, walls, and ceilings until
(theoretically) they finally reach the receiver. Because of the imprecise
trajectory, data transfer rates are slow. The maximum reliable distance is
around 100 feet.
Infrared transmissions are typically limited to within 100 feet. Within this
range, however, infrared is relatively fast.
b) Laser Transmission
High-powered laser transmitters can transmit data for several thousand
yards when line-of-sight communication is possible. Lasers can be used
in many of the same situations as microwave links. On a LAN scale, laser
light technology is similar to infrared technology. Laser light technology
is employed in both LAN and WAN transmissions, though it is more
commonly used in WAN transmissions.
c)Narrow-Band Radio Transmission
In narrow-band radio communications (also called single-frequency radio),
transmissions occur at a single radio frequency. The range of narrow-
band radio is greater than that of infrared, effectively enabling mobile
computing over a limited area. Neither the receiver nor the transmitter
must be placed along a direct line of sight; the signal can bounce off
walls, buildings, and even the atmosphere, but heavy walls, such as steel
or concrete enclosures, can block the signal.
d) Spread-Spectrum Radio Transmission
Spread-spectrum radio transmission is a technique originally developed by
the military to solve several communication problems. Spread-spectrum
improves reliability, reduces sensitivity to interference and jamming,
and is less vulnerable to eavesdropping than single-frequency radio.
Spread-spectrum radio transmissions are commonly used for WAN
transmissions that connect multiple LANs or network segments together.
e) Microwave
Microwave technology has applications in all three of the wireless
networking scenarios: LAN, extended LAN, and mobile networking.
Microwave communication can take two forms: terrestrial (ground) links
and satellite links. The frequencies and technologies employed by these
two forms are similar, but distinct differences exist between them.
Mobile computing is a growing technology that provides almost unlimited
range for traveling computers by using satellite and cellular phone
networks to relay the signal to a home network. Mobile computing
typically is used with portable PCs or personal digital assistant (PDA)
devices.
Three forms of mobile computing are as follows:
. Packet-radio networking The mobile device sends and receives network-
style packets via satellite. Packets contain a source and destination
address, and only the destination device can receive and read the packet.
. Cellular networking The mobile device sends and receives cellular digital
packet data (CDPD) using cellular phone technology and the cellular
phone network. Cellular networking provides very fast communications
. Satellite station networking Satellite mobile networking stations use
satellite microwave technology.

Introduction to data communications

1.3 DATA COMMUNICATION
Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or informationover a
transmission medium.
This process involves a communication system which is made up of
hardware and software. The hardware part involves the sender and
receiver devices and the intermediate devices through which the data
passes. The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to
be communicated, how it is to be communicated and when. It is also
called as a Protocol. The following sections describes the fundamental
characteristics that are important for the effective working of data
communication process and is followed by the components that make up
a data communications system.

1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the

following four fundamental characteristics:
3

1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correctdestination and correct user.

2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the dataaccurately, without introducing any
errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered
data.

3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in atimely manner without any delay; such
a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.

4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jittermay affect the timeliness of data
being transmitted.

Components of Data Communication

 A Data Communication system has five components as shown in the diagram below:
1. Message-Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.
2. Sender-The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message). It’s the
origin/source of the message.
3. Receiver-The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data (message). It’s
the recipient/destination for the information.
4. Transmission Medium-It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver. It can
be wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
5. Protocol-It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to communicate data.A
protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
Elements of a Protocol
There are three key elements of a protocol:
A. Syntax
It means the structure or format of the data.
It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.
B. Semantics
It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation of each section.
It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.
C. Timing
It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive the data
It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to avoid overwhelming the
receiver.

TRANSMISSION MODES
 Data is transmitted between two digital devices on the network in the form of bits.
 Transmission mode refers to the manner in which the bits are passed from the source to
destination.
 The transmission medium may be capable of sending only a single bit in unit time or multiple bits
in unit time.
Types of Transmission Modes:

Types of Transmission Modes

Parallel Transmission
 It involves simultaneous transmission of N bits over N different channels
 Parallel Transmission increases transmission speed by a factor of N over serial transmission
 Disadvantage of parallel transmission is the cost involved, N channels have to be used, hence, it
can be used for short distance communication only

Parallel Transmission of Data over N = 8 channels

Example of Parallel Transmission is the communication between CPU and the Projector.
Serial Transmission

 In Serial Transmission, as the name suggests data is transmitted serially, i.e. bit by bit, one bit at a
time.
 Since only one bit has to be sent in unit time only a single channel is required.

Serial Transmission of Data over N = 8 channels

Types of Serial Transmission:
 Depending upon the timing of transmission of data there are two types of serial transmission
ASynchronous Transmission
 In asynchronous serial transmission the sender and receiver are not synchronized.

 The data is sent in group of 8 bits i.e. in bytes.

 The sender can start data transmission at any time instant without informing the receiver.

 To avoid confusing the receiver while receiving the data,

‘0’―start‖ and ‘1’ ―stop‖ bits are inserted group of 8 bits as shown below

0 1 BYTE 1

Fig: Start and Bit before and after every data byte

 The start bit is indicated by ―0‖ and ―1‖.

 The sender and receiver may not be synchronized as seen above but at the bit level they have to
be synchronized i.e. the duration of one bit needs to be same for both sender and receiver for
accurate data transmission.

 There may be gaps in between the data transmission indication that there is no data being
transmitted from sender. Ex. Assume a user typing at uneven speeds, at times there is no data
being transmitted from Keyboard to the CPU.

 Following is the Diagram for Asynchronous Serial Transmission.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission
Advantages
1. Cheap and Effective implementation
2. Can be used for low speed communication

Disadvantages

Insertion of start bits, stop bits and gaps make asynchronous transmission slow.

Application
Keyboard

9.2.2.2 Synchronous Transmission

 In Synchronous Serial Transmission, the sender and receiver are highly synchronized.

 No start, stop bits are used.

 Instead a common master clock is used for reference.

 The sender simply send stream of data bits in group of 8 bits to the receiver without any start or
stop bit.

 It is the responsibility of the receiver to regroup the bits into units of 8 bits once they are
received.

 When no data is being transmitted a sequence of 0‘ indicating IDLE is put on the transmission
medium by the

 sender.
Advantage

1. There are no start bits, stop bits or gaps between data units

2. Since the above are absent data transmission is faster.

3. Due to synchronization there are no timing errors.

Transmission Impairments & Types
 Data is transmitted through transmission medium which are not perfect.
 The imperfection causes signal impairment.
 Due to the imperfection error is introduced in the transmitted data i.e.
the original signal at the beginning of the transmission is not the same as
the signal at the Receiver.
 There are three causes of impairment: attenuation, distortion, and noise
as shown below:

Transmission Impairment Types

Attenuation
• Attenuation results in loss of energy. When a signal travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the
medium.

• The electrical energy in the signal may converted to heat.

• To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
Figure below shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.
Attenuation

Distortion
 Distortion changes the shape of the signal as shownbelow

Distortion

Noise

 Noise is any unwanted signal that is mixed or combined with the original
signal during transmission.
 Due to noise the original signal is altered and signal received is not same
 as the one sent.

1.5 DATA FLOW

 Two devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving
data.
 The data can flow between the two devices in the following ways.

1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex
Simplex
 In Simplex, communication is unidirectional
 Only one of the devices sends the data and the other one only receives
the data.
 Simplex transmission are not often used because it is not possible to
send back error or control signals to the transmit end.
 Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a monitor only
receives data.
Half Duplex
 In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at
the same time.
 When one device is sending other can only receive and vice-versa.
 In addition, it is possible to perform error detection and request the
sender to retransmit information that arrived corrupted.
 Example: A walkie-talkie.

Full Duplex
 In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same
time.
 Example: mobile phones
 Modulation

 The Process of converting digital data to analog signal is called

Modulation.
 Modulation is used to send an information bearing signal over long
distances.
 Modulation is the process of varying some characteristic of a periodic
wave with an external signal called carrier signal.
 These carrier signals are high frequency signals and can be transmitted
over the air easily and are capable of traveling long distances.
 The characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier signal
are varied in accordance with the information bearing signal(analog
data).
 The information bearing signal is also known as the modulating signal.
 The modulating signal is a slowly varying –as opposed to the rapidly
varying carrier frequency.

8.4.2 Types of Modulation:

Signal modulation can be divided into two broad categories:
I. Analog modulation
II. Digital modulation.

Analog or digital refers to how the data is modulated onto a sine wave.
Analog Modulation can be accomplished in three ways:
1. Amplitude modulation (AM)
2. Frequency modulation (FM)
3. Phase modulation (PM).
1 Amplitude modulation (AM)
 Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude of
the carrier signal is varied in accordance with modulating signal.
 The envelope, or boundary, of the amplitude modulated signal embeds
modulating signal.
 Amplitude Modulation is abbreviated AM.
2 Frequency modulation (FM)

 Frequency modulation is a type of modulation where the

frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
modulating signal.
 The amplitude and the phase of the carrier remains constant.
 The information-bearing signal (the modulating signal)
changes the instantaneous frequency of the carrier.
 Since the amplitude is kept constant, FM modulation is a low-
 noise process and provides a high quality modulation
technique which is used for music and speech in hi-fidelity
broadcasts.
 Frequency Modulationis abbreviated FM.
Frequency modulation (FM)

3 Phase modulation (PM).

 In phase modulation, the instantaneous phase of a carrier
wave is varied from its reference value by an amount
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.

 Phase Modulationis abbreviated PM.

Phase modulation (PM).
Figure : Comparison of AM, FM & PM
 95

2 Digital Modulation Types(Digital to Analog signal conversion)

Digital modulation is used to convert digital data to analog signal.
It can be accomplished in the following ways:
1. ASK
2. FSK
3. PSK
4. QAM
1.Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to
create signal elements.
 Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude
changes.
Binary ASK (BASK)
 ASK is normally implemented using only two levels and is hence called
binary amplitude shift keying.
 Bit 1 is transmitted by a carrier of one particular amplitude. To
transmit Bit 0 we change the amplitude keeping the frequency is kept
constant

2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

 In Frequency shift keying, we change the frequency of the carrier
 wave.
 Bit 0 is represented by a specific frequency, and bit 1 is
represented by a different frequency.
 In the figure below frequency used for bit 1 is higher than
frequency used for bit 0

3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

 Phase shift keying (PSK) is a method of transmitting and receiving
digital signals in which the phase of a transmitted signal is varied
to convey information.
 Both amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase
changes.
 The simplest from of PSK has only two phases, 0 and 1.
 If the phase of the wave does not change, then the signal state
stays the same (low or high).
 If the phase of the wave changes by 180 degrees, that is, if the
phase reverses, then the signal state changes (from low to high or
from high to low)
 4 QAM
The concept of Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) involves use of
two carriers, one for phase and the other for quadrature, with different
amplitude levels for each carrier.
It is a combination of ASK & PSK.

3 Analog to Digital Conversion using modulation

The definition of the term modulation is described in the next section.
Here we discuss 3 modulation techniques:
1. PAM
2. PCM
3. PWM

8.4.2.3.1 PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation)

Pulse Amplitude Modulation refers to a method of carrying information on a

train of pulses, the information being encoded in the amplitude of the
pulses.

8.4.2.3.2 PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

PCM is a general scheme for transmitting analog data in a digital and
binary way, independent of the complexity of the analog waveform. With
PCM all forms of analog data like video, voice, music and telemetry can
be transferred.

To obtain PCM from an analog waveform at the source (transmitter), the

analog signal amplitude is
98

sampled at regular time intervals. The sampling rate (number of samples

per second), is several times the maximum frequency of the analog
waveform. The amplitude of the analog signal at each sample is rounded
off to the nearest binary level (quantization).

The number of levels is always a power of 2 (4, 8, 16, 32, 64, ...). These
numbers can be represented by two, three, four, five, six or more binary
digits (bits) respectively.

At the destination (receiver), a pulse code demodulator converts the binary

numbers back into pulses having the same quantum levels as those in the
modulator. These pulses are further processed to restore the original
analog waveform.

8.4.2.3.3 PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

Pulse Width Modulation refers to a method of carrying information on a

train of pulses, the information being encoded in the width of the pulses.
In applications to motion control, it is not exactly information we are
encoding, but a method of controlling power in motors without
(significant) loss.

There are several schemes to accomplish this technique. One is to switch

voltage on and off, and let the current recirculate through diodes when
the transistors have switched off. Another technique is to switch voltage
polarity back and forth with a full-bridge switch arrangement, with 4
transistors.

This technique may have better linearity, since it can go right down to an
cycles, and may jitter between minimum duty cycles of positive and
 negative polarity.

In battery systems PWM is the most effective way to achieve a constant

voltage for battery charging by switching the system controller's power
devices on and off.

The generation of exact working PWM circuitry is complicated, but it is

extremely conceptually important since there is good reason to believe
that neurons transmit information using PWM spike trains
LINE CODING REVIEW
 Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.
 Data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in
computer memory as sequences of bits.
 Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data are
encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding
the digital signal.
 We can divide line coding schemes into five broad categories:

1. Unipolar Scheme:
 In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above or
below. NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero):
 Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme in
which the positive voltage defines bit I and the zero voltage defines bit O.
 It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit.
 2. Polar Schemes:
 In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. For example, the
voltage level for 1 can be positive and the voltage level for 0can be negative.
A. NRZ-L
B. NRZ-I

C. RZ.
D. Biphase:
 Manchester and Differential Manchester:
 In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two halves.
The voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other
level in the second half. The transition at the middle of the bit provides
synchronization.
 Differential Manchester, on the other hand, combines the ideas of RZ and
NRZ-I. There is always a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values
are determined at the beginning of the bit.
 3. Bipolar Schemes:
 In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three voltage
levels: positive, negative, and zero.
 The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level for the other
element alternates between positive and negative.

4. Multilevel Schemes:
 The desire to increase the data speed or decrease the required bandwidth has
resulted in the creation of many schemes.
 The goal is to increase the number of bits per baud by encoding a pattern of m data
elements into a pattern of n signal elements.
 We only have two types of data elements (Os and 1s), which means that a group of
m data elements can produce a combination of 2m data patterns
 Summary of Line Coding Schemes have been shown in Table 1.1

Table 1.1 below shows the summary of Line Coding Schemes:

PROTOCOLS & STANDARDS
 In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An
entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information.
 However, two entities cannot simply send bit streams to each other and expect to be
understood. Thus, for communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
 Therefore, a protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines:
what is communicated, how it is communicated, & when it is communicated.
 There are three elements of a protocol:
i. Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented.
ii. Semantics: The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is
a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation?
iii. Timing: The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and
how fast they can be sent.
 Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other
service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace
and in international communication.
 Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees,
forums, and government regulatory agencies.
 The various standard creation committees are:
i. International Organization for Standardization (ISO): The ISO is active indeveloping
cooperation in the realms ofscientific,technological,andeconomic activity.
ii. International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector
(ITU-T): By the early 1970s, a number of countries were defining
iii. American National Standards Institute (ANSI):
iv. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE):
v. Electronic Industries Association (EIA): Aligned with ANSI, the ElectronicIndustries
Association is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of electronics
manufacturing concerns. Its activities include public awareness education and lobbying
 efforts in addition to standards development.

OSI MODEL
 We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two friends
who communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available from the post office. Figure 1.3 below shows
tasks involved in sending a letter:

 Thus from above figure it is clearly understood that layer architecture simplifies the
network design. It is easy to debug network applications in a layered architecture
network. There are two layered Models namely OSI Model and TCP/IP Model.
OSI MODEL: OPEN SYSTEM FOR INTERCONNECTION
 International Standard Organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to develop
architecture for computer communication. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model is the result of this effort.
 In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an
international standard for communications architecture.
 Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform to the
reference model and associated standards.
 The purpose of OSI Model is to facilitate communication between different systems
without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
 The OSI model is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-computer
communications.
 The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application
programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to
another application programme located on another network.
 The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between
computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable
problems.
 This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.

 The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces
complexity.
 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification. Each
layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other computers.
 The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1)
 are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network.
 The upper four layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session—Layers
7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications.
 Data is encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the
layers before network transit.
 A message begins at the top application layer and moves down the OSI layers to the
bottom physical layer. As the message descends, each successive OSI model layer adds
a header to it. A header is layer-specific information that basically explains what
functions the layer carried out. Conversely, at the receiving end, headers are striped
from the message as it travels up the corresponding layers.
A) PHYSICAL LAYER
i. Provides physical interface for transmission of information.
ii. Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another on a physical
communication medium.
iii. Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural - aspects for physical
communication.
iv. Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum
transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by
physical layer specifications.
v. Concerned with line configuration, physical topology and transmission mode.
B) DATA LINK LAYER
i. Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over the physical layer interface.
ii. Breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassemble the received frames.
iii. Create and detect frame boundaries.
iv. Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and retransmission scheme.
v. Implement flow control.
vi. Responsible for Error Control.
vii. Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast communication.
viii. Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication.
C) NETWORK LAYER
i. Implements routing of frames (packets) through the network.
 ii. Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the source to the destination.
iii. Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
iv. Handles congestion in the network.
v. The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.
C) TRANSPORT LAYER
i. Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the exchange of data between
two processes in different computers.
ii. Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.
iii. Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
iv. Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
v. Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.
vi. Provides for the connection management.
vii. Multiplex multiple a connection over a single channel.
D) SESSION LAYER
i. Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the two end
systems.
ii. It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions) between
applications.
iii. This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on an end-user’s request.
iv. Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by this layer.
v. Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection.
vi. This layer provides services like dialogue discipline which can be full duplex or half
duplex.
vii. Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such that if a failure of some
sort occurs between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted from the last checkpoint.
E) PRESENTATION LAYER
i. Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be exchanged between the
two communicating entities.
ii. Also handles data compression and data encryption (cryptography).
F) APPLICATION LAYER
 Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level of OSI
model.
 Application layer contains management functions to support distributed applications.
 Examples of application layer are applications such as file transfer, electronic mail,
remote login etc.
TCP/IP MODEL: (TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL/ INTERNET
PROTOCOL)
 The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the
OSI model.
 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host
-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
 However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.
 This model is currently being used on our systems. TCP/IP model is a
collection of protocols often called a protocol suite. It offers a rich variety
of protocols from which we can choose from.
  It is also called as the TCP/IP protocol suite. It is a collection of protocols.
 IT is a hierarchical model, ie. There are multiple layers and higher layer protocols are
supported by lower layer protocols.
 It existed even before the OSI model was developed. Originally had four layers (bottom to
top):
1. Host to Network Layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer
 A. Host to Network Layer
 This layer is a combination of protocols at the physical and data link layers.
 It supports all standard protocols used at these layers.

B. Network Layer or IP
 Also called as the InternetworkingProtocol Layer (IP). It holds the IP protocol which is a
network layer protocol and is responsible for source to destination transmission of data.
 The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is aconnection-less&unreliable protocol.
 It is a best effort delivery service. i.e. there is no error checking in IP, it simply sends the
data and relies on its underlying layers to get the data transmitted to the destination.
 IP transports data by dividing it into packets ordatagrams of same size. Each packet is
independent ofthe other and can be transported across different routes and can arrive out
of order at the receiver.
 In other words, since there is no connection set up between the sender and the receiver the
packets find the best possible path and reach the destination. Hence, the word connection-
less.
 The packets may get dropped during transmission along various routes. Since IP does not
make any guarantee about the delivery of the data its call an unreliable protocol.
 Even if it is unreliable IP cannot be considered weak and useless; since it provides only the
functionality that is required for transmitting data thereby giving maximum efficiency. Since
there is no mechanism of error detection or correction in IP, there will be no delay
introduced on a medium where there is no error at all.
 IP is a combination of four protocols:
1. ARP
2. RARP
3. ICMP
4. IGMP

1. ARP –Address Resolution Protocol

 It is used to resolve the physical address of a device on a network, where its logical
address is known.
  Physical address is the 48 bit address that is imprinted on the NIC or LAN card, Logical
address is the Internet Address or commonly known as IP address that is used to
uniquely & universally identify a device.
2. RARP–Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
 It is used by a device on the network to find its Internet address when it knows its
physical address.
3. ICMP- Internet Control Message Protocol
 It is a signaling mechanism used to inform the sender about datagram problems that
occur during transit.
 It is used by intermediate devices.
 In case and intermediate device like a gateway encounters any problem like a corrupt
datagram it may use ICMP to send a message to the sender of the datagram.
4. IGMP- Internet Group Message Protocol
 It is a mechanism that allows to send the same message to a group of recipients.

C. Transport Layer
 Transport layer protocols are responsible for transmission of data running on a process of
one machine to the correct process running on another machine.
 The transport layer contains three protocols:
1. TCP
2. UDP
3. SCTP
TCP(transmission control protocol)
 The transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the most important protocols of
Internet Protocols suitefor data transmission in communication network such as internet.
 TCP is reliable protocol. That is, the receiver always sends either positive or negative
acknowledgement about the data packet to the sender, so that the sender always has bright
clue about whether the data packet is reached the destination or it needs to resend it.
 TCP ensures that the data reaches intended destination in the same order it was sent.
 TCP is connection oriented. TCP requires that connection between two remote points be
 established before sending actual data.
 TCP provides error-checking and recovery mechanism.
 TCP provides end-to-end communication.
 TCP provides flow control and quality of service.
 TCP operates in Client/Server point-to-point mode.
 TCP provides full duplex server, i.e. it can perform roles of both receiver and sender.
TCP Header/ format
 The length of TCP header is minimum 20 bytes and maximum 60 bytes.

 Source Port (16-bits): It identifies source port of the application process onthe
sending device.
 Destination Port (16-bits): It identifies destination port of the applicationprocess on
the receiving device.
 Sequence Number (32-bits): Sequence number of data bytes of a segmentin a session.
 Acknowledgement Number (32-bits): When ACK flag is set, this numbercontains the
next sequence number of the data byte expected and works as acknowledgement of the
previous data received.
 Data Offset (4-bits): This field implies both, the size of TCP header (32-bitwords) and
the offset of data in current packet in the whole TCP segment.
 Reserved (3-bits): Reserved for future use and all are set zero by default.
 Flags (1-bit each):
 Windows Size: This field is used for flow control between two stations andindicates
the amount of buffer (in bytes) the receiver has allocated for a segment, i.e. how much
data is the receiver expecting.
  Checksum: This field contains the checksum of Header, Data, and PseudoHeaders.
 Urgent Pointer: It points to the urgent data byte if URG flag is set to 1.
 Options: It facilitates additional options which are not covered by the regularheader.
Option field is always described in 32-bit words. If this field contains data less than 32-
bit, padding is used to cover the remaining bits to reach 32-bit boundary.

User datagram protocol

 The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is simplest Transport Layer communication protocol
available of the TCP/IP protocol suite.
 It involves minimum amount of communication mechanism.
 UDP is said to be an unreliable transport protocol but it uses IP services which provides
best effort delivery mechanism.
 In UDP, the receiver does not generate an acknowledgement of packet received and in
turn, the sender does not wait for any acknowledgement of packet sent. This shortcoming
makes this protocol unreliable as well as easier on processing.
Requirement of UDP
A question may arise, why do we need an unreliable protocol to transport the data? We deploy
UDP where the acknowledgement packets share significant amount of bandwidth along with
the actual data. For example, in case of video streaming, thousands of packets are forwarded
towards its users. Acknowledging all the packets is troublesome and may contain huge
amount of bandwidth wastage. The best delivery mechanism of underlying IP protocol
ensures best efforts to deliver its packets, but even if some packets in video streaming get lost,
the impact is not calamitous and can be ignored easily. Loss of few packets in video and voice
traffic sometimes goes unnoticed.

Features of UDP
 UDP is used when acknowledgement of data does not hold any significance.
 UDP is good protocol for data flowing in one direction.
 UDP is simple and suitable for query-based communications.
 UDP is not connection oriented.
  UDP does not provide congestion control mechanism.
 UDP does not guarantee ordered delivery of data.
 UDP is stateless.
 UDP is suitable protocol for streaming applications such as VoIP, multimedia streaming.

UDP Header/Format

UDP header contains four main parameters:

1. Source Port: This 16 bits information is used to identify the source port of thepacket.
2. Destination Port: This 16 bits information is used identify application levelservice on
destination machine.
3. Length: Length field specifies the entire length of UDP packet (includingheader). It is 16-bits
field and minimum value is 8-byte, i.e. the size of UDP header itself.
4. Checksum: This field stores the checksum value generated by the senderbefore sending. IPv4
has this field as optional so when checksum field does not contain any value, it is made 0 and
all its bits are set to zero.

SCTP –Stream Control Transmission Protocol

 SCTP is a relatively new protocol added to the transport layer of TCP/IP protocol suite.
 It combines the features of TCP and UDP.
 It is used in applications like voice over Internet and has a much broader range of
applications
D. Application Layer
 The Application Layer is a combination of Session, Presentation & Application Layers of
OSI models and define high level protocols like File Transfer (FTP), Electronic Mail
(SMTP), Virtual Terminal (TELNET), Domain Name Service (DNS),
  FTP – File Transfer Protocol: For file transfer
 Telnet – Remote terminal protocol: For remote login on any other computer on the
network
 SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol: For mail transfer
 HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol: For Web browsing

ADDRESSING IN TCP/IP
The TCP/IP protocol suited involves 4 different types of addressing:
1. Physical Address
2. Logical Address
3. Port Address
4. Specific Address
1. Physical Address
 Physical Address is the lowest level of addressing, also known as link address.
 It is local to the network to which the device is connected and unique inside it.
 The physical address is usually included in the frame and is used at the data link layer.
 MAC is a type of physical address that is 6 byte (48 bit) in size and is imprinted on the
Network Interface Card (NIC) of the device.
 The size of physical address may change depending on the type of network. Ex. An
Ethernet network uses a 6 byte MAC address.
2. Logical Address
 Logical Addresses are used for universal communication.
 Most of the times the data has to pass through different networks; since physical
addresses are local to the network there is a possibility that they may be duplicated
across multiples networks also the type of physical address being used may change
with the type of network encountered. For ex: Ethernet to wireless to fiber optic. Hence
physical addresses are inadequate for source to destination delivery of data in an
internetwork environment.
 Logical Address is also called as IP Address (Internet Protocol address).
  At the network layer, device i.e. computers and routers are identified universally by
their IP Address.
 IP addresses are universally unique.
 Currently there are two versions of IP addresses being used:
a. IPv4: 32 bit address, capable of supporting 232nodes
b. IPv6: 128 bit address, capable of supporting 2128nodes
3. Port Address
 A logical address facilitates the transmission of data from source to destination device.
 But the source and the destination both may be having multiple processes
communicating with each other.
 Ex. Users A & B are chatting with each other using Google Talk, Users B & C are
exchanging emails using Hotmail. The IP address will enable transmitting data from A
to B, but still the data needs to be delivered to the correct process. The data from A
cannot be given to B on yahoo messenger since A & B are communicating using Google
Talk.
 Since the responsibility of the IP address is over here there is a need of addressing that
helps identify the source and destination processes. In other words, data needs to be
delivered not only on the correct device but also on the correct process on the correct
device.
 A Port Address is the name or label given to a process. It is a 16 bit address.
 Ex. TELNET uses port address 23, HTTP uses port address 80
4. Specific Address
 Port addresses address facilitates the transmission of data from process to process but still
there may be a problem with data delivery.
 For Ex: Consider users A, B & C chatting with each other using Google Talk. Every user has
two windows open, user A has two chat windows for B & C, user B has two chat windows
for A & C and so on for user C
 Now a port address will enable delivery of data from user A to the correct process ( in this
case Google Talk) on user B but now there are two windows of Google Talk for user A & C
available on B where the data can be delivered.
 Again the responsibility of the port address is over here and there is a need of addressing
 that helps identify the different instances of the same process.
 Such address are user friendly addresses and are called specific addresses.
 Other Examples: Multiple Tabs or windows of a web browser work under the same process
that is HTTP but are identified using Uniform Resource Locators (URL), Email addresses.

SWITCHING
 In large networks we need some means to allow one-to-one communication between any
two nodes.
 In LANs this is achieved using one of three methods:
i. Direct point-to-point connection (mesh)
ii. Via central controller (star)
iii. Connection to common bus in a multipoint configuration (bus/hup)
 None of the previous works in larger networks with large physical separation or consisting
of a large number of computers because it requires too much infrastructure and majority
of those links would be idle for most of the time.
 Better solution is a switching network. It consists of a series of interlinked nodes called
switched.
 Switches are capable to create temporary connections between two or more devices.
 Some of these nodes are connected to the end system and others are used only for routing.
 End systems can be computers or telephones.
Types of switched networks

a) CIRCUIT SWITCHING
 A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links.
 A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
 Each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link. Each link is normally
divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM.
 The link can be permanent (leased line) or temporary (telephone).

 Data transferred are not packetized, but it is a continuous flow.

 There are three transmission phases in circuit switching namely Setup phase, data transfer
phase and tear down phase.
 It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as the other two types
of networks resources are allocated during the entire duration of the connection. These
 resources are unavailable to other connections. In a telephone network, people normally
terminate the communication when they have finished their conversation. However, in
computer networks, a computer can be connected to another computer even if there is no
activity for a long time. In this case, allowing resources to be dedicated means that other
connections are deprived.
 The total delay in this circuit switching is as shown below
b) PACKET SWITCHING
 In packet Switching, flow of data is not continuous rather it flows in the form of packets.
 The size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol.
 This type of switching further classify into datagram networks and virtual circuit
networks.
1 Datagram Networks
 Data are transmitted in discrete units called packets.
 Size of the packet depends on the protocol and network.
 Packets switched networks are connectionless, hence no resource allocation.
 Connectionless means the switch does not keep information about the connection state.
 Datagram switching is done at network layer as shown in Fig 2.5

 A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table that is based on the destination
address. The destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram network remains
the same during the entire journey of the packet.
 The total delay is shown below
 Virtual Circuit Networks
 A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched
network and a datagram network.
 The virtual -circuit shares characteristics of both. Packets form a
single message travel along the same path.
 Following are the characteristics of virtual circuit networks:
 Three phases to transfer data
 Resources can be allocated during setup phase
 Data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the
header
 All packets follow the same path
 Implemented in data link layer
 The total delay in virtual circuit network is shown below
 IPv4 ADDRESSING
 An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the connection of a
device (for example, a computer or a router) to the Internet. IPv4 addresses are unique. They
are unique in the sense that each address defines one, and only one, connection to the
Internet.
 Two devices on the Internet can never have the same address at the same time. By using some
strategies, an address may be assigned to a device for a time period and then taken away and
assigned to another device. On the other hand, if a device operating at the network layer has m
connections to the Internet, it needs to have m addresses.
 The IPv4 addresses are universal in the sense that the addressing system must be accepted by
any host that wants to be connected to the Internet.

ADDRESS SPACE

 An address space is the total number of addresses used by the protocol.

 If a protocol uses N bits to define an address, the address space is 2N because each bit can have
two different values (0 or 1) and N bits can have 2N values.
 IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 232 or4,294,967,296 (more
than 4 billion). This means that, theoretically, if there were no restrictions, more than 4 billion
devices could be connected to the Internet.

Address notations
 There are two prevalent notations to show an IPv4 address: binary notation and dotted
decimal notation.
i) Binary Notation
 In binary notation, the IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits. Each octet is often referred to
as a byte. So it is common to hear an IPv4 address referred to as a 32-bit address or a 4-
byte address. The following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary notation:
 01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010
ii) Dotted-Decimal Notation
 To make the IPv4 address more compact and easier to read, Internet addresses are usually
 written in decimal form with a decimal point (dot) separating the bytes. The following is
the dotted~decimal notation of the above address:
117.149.29.2
 Fig. shows an IPv4 address in both binary and dotted-decimal notation. Note that because
each byte (octet) is 8 bits, each number in dotted-decimal notation is a value ranging from
0 to 255.

Dotted-decimal notation and binary notation for an IPv4 address

A) CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
 IPv4 addressing, at its inception, used the concept of classes. This architecture is called
classfull addressing. Although this scheme is becoming obsolete.
 In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D,and E. Each class
occupies some part of the address space.
 We can find the class of an address when given the address in binary notation or dotted-
decimal notation. If the address is given in binary notation, the first few bits can immediately
tell us the class of the address. If the address is given in decimal-dotted notation, the first byte
defines the class.
Classes and Blocks
 One problem with classful addressing is that each class is divided into a fixed number of
blocks with each block having a fixed size as shown below

Let us examine the table. Previously, when an organization requested a block of addresses, it was
granted one in class A, B, or C. Class A addresses were designed for large organizations with a
large number of attached hosts or routers. Class B addresses was designed for midsize
organizations with tens of thousands of attached hosts or routers. Class C addresses were
designed for small organizations with a small number of attached hosts or routers.

We can see the flaw in this design. A block in class A address is too large for almost any
organization. This means most of the addresses in class A were wasted and were not used. A
block in class B is also very large, probably too large for many of the organizations that
received a class B block. A block in class C is probably too small for many organizations. Class
D addresses were designed for multicasting. Each address in this class is used to define one
group
of hosts on the Internet. The Internet authorities wrongly predicted a need for 268,435,456
groups. This never happened and many addresses were wasted here too. And lastly, the class
E addresses were reserved for future use; only a few were used, resulting in another waste of
addresses.

Netid and Hostid

 In classful addressing, an IP address in class A, B, or C is divided into netid and hostid. These
parts are of varying lengths, depending on the class of the address. Fig. 4.6 shows some netid
 and hostid bytes. The netid is in color, the hostid is in white.
 Note that the concept does not apply to classes D and E. In class A, one byte defines the netid
and three bytes define the hostid. In class B, two bytes define the netid and two bytes define
the hostid. In class C, three bytes define the netid and one byte defines the hostid.

Mask

Although the length of the netid and hostid (in bits) is predetermined in classful addressing, we
can also use a mask (also called the default mask), a 32-bit number made of contiguous Is
followed by contiguous as. The masks for classes A, B, and C are shown in Table 4.2. The
concept does not apply to classes D and E
Default masks for classful addressing

The mask can help us to find the netid and the hostid. For example, the mask for a class A address
has eight 1s, which means the first 8 bits of any address in class A define the netid; the next 24
bits define the hostid. The last column of Table 4.2 shows the mask in the form In where n can
be 8, 16, or 24 in classful addressing. This notation is also called slash notation orClassless
Interdomain Routing (CIDR) notation. The notation is used in classless addressing, which we
will discuss later. We introduce it here because it can also be applied to classful addressing.
Subnetting
 During the era of classful addressing, subnetting was introduced. If an organization was
granted a large block in class A or B, it could divide the addresses into several contiguous
groups and assign each group to smaller networks (called subnets) or, in rare cases, share
part of the addresses with neighbors. Subnetting increases the number of Is in the mask,
Supernetting
 In supernetting, an organization can combine several class C blocks to create a larger range of
addresses. In other words, several networks are combined to create a supernetwork or a
supemet. The time came when most of the class A and class B addresses were depleted;
however, there was still a huge demand for midsize blocks. The size of a class C block with a
maximum number of 256 addresses did not satisfy the needs of most organizations. Even a
midsize organization needed more addresses. One solution was supernetting. An organization
can apply for a set of class C blocks instead of just one. For example, an organization that
needs 1000 addresses can be granted four contiguous class C blocks. The organization can
then use these addresses to create one supernetwork. Supernetting decreases the number of
Is in the mask. For example, if an organization is given four class C addresses, the mask
changes from /24 to /22.

Address Depletion
The flaws in classful addressing scheme combined with the fast growth of the Internet led to the
near depletion of the available addresses. Yet the number of devices on the Internet is much
less than the 232 address space. We have run out of class A and B addresses, and a class C
block is too small for most midsize organizations. One solution that has alleviated the problem
is the idea of classless addressing.
A) IPv4 datagram format
The datagram is also referred to as IP payload

Frame format of IPv4

· Version: Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4)
· IHL: Internet Header Length, Length of entire IP header
· DSCP: Differentiated Services Code Point, This is Type of Service.
· ECN: Explicit Congestion Notification, carries information about the congestion seen in the
route.
· Total Length: Length of entire IP Packet (including IP header and IP Payload)
· Identification: If IP packet is fragmented during the transmission, all the fragments contain
same identification no. to identify original IP packet they belong to.
· Flags: As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too large to handle these ‘flags’ tell
that if they can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit flag, the MSB is always set to ‘0’.
· Fragment Offset: This offset tells the exact position of the fragment in the original IP Packet.
· Time to Live: To avoid looping in the network, every packet is sent with some TTL
· value set, which tells the network how many routers (hops) this packet can cross. At each hop,
its value is decremented by one and when the value reaches zero, the packet is discarded.
· Protocol: Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which Protocol this packet
belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example protocol number of ICMP is 1, TCP is 6 and
 UDP is 17.
· Header Checksum: This field is used to keep checksum value of entire header which is then
used to check if the packet is received error-free.
· Source Address: 32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet.
· Destination Address: 32-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of the packet.
· Options: This is optional field, which is used if the value of IHL is greater than 5. These
options may contain values for options such as Security, Record Route, Time Stamp etc.

B) IPv6
 Although IPv4 is well designed, data communication has evolved since the inception of IPv4 in
the 1970s. IPv4 has some deficiencies that make it unsuitable for the fast-growing Internet.

 Despite all short-term solutions, such as subnetting, classless addressing, and NAT, address
depletion is still a long-term problem in the Internet.
 The Internet must accommodate real-time audio and video transmission. This type of
transmission requires minimum delay strategies and reservation of resources not provided in
the IPv4 design.
 The Internet must accommodate encryption and authentication of data for some applications.
No encryption or authentication is provided by IPv4.
 To overcome these deficiencies, IPv6 (Internetworking Protocol, version 6), also known as
IPng (Internetworking Protocol, next generation), was proposed and is now a standard..
 The format and the length of the IP address were changed along with the packet format.
Related protocols, such as ICMP, were also modified.
 Other protocols in the network layer, such as ARP, RARP, and IGMP, were either deleted or
included in the ICMPv6 protocol, Routing protocols, such as RIP and OSPF were also slightly
modified to accommodate these changes.
Advantages
· Larger address space. An IPv6 address is 128 bits long. Compared with the 32-bit address of
IPv4, this is a huge (296) increase in the address space.
· Better header format. IPv6 uses a new header format in which options are separated from the
base header and inserted, when needed, between the base header and the upper-layer data.
This simplifies and speeds up the routing process because most of the options do not need to
be checked by routers.
· New options. IPv6 has new options to allow for additional functionalities.
· Allowance for extension. IPv6 is designed to allow the extension of the protocol if required by
new technologies or applications.
· Support for resource allocation. In IPv6, the type-of-service field has been removed, but a
mechanism (called flow label) has been added to enable the source to request special handling
of the packet. This mechanism can be used to support traffic such as real-time audio and
video.
· Support for more security. The encryption and authentication options in IPv6 provide
confidentiality and integrity of the packet.
 Version/IP version (4-bits) The 4-bit version field contains the number 6. It indicates the
version of the IPv6 protocol.
 Packet priority/Traffic class (8 bits) The 8-bit Priority field in the IPv6 header can assume
different values to enable the source node to differentiate between the packets generated by it
by associating different delivery priorities to them. This field is subsequently used by the
originating node and the routers to identify the data packets that belong to the same traffic
class and distinguish between packets with different priorities.
 Flow Label/QoS management (20 bits) The 20-bit flow label field in the IPv6 header can be
used by a source to label a set of packets belonging to the same flow. Multiple active flows may
exist from a source to a destination as well as traffic that are not associated with any flow. The
IPv6 routers must handle the packets belonging to the same flow in a similar fashion
 Payload length in bytes(16 bits) The 16-bit payload length field contains the length of the
data field in octets/bits following the IPv6 packet header.
 Next Header (8 bits) The 8-bit Next Header field identifies the type of header immediately
following the IPv6 header and located at the beginning of the data field (payload) of the IPv6
packet. This field usually specifies the transport layer protocol used by a packet's payload. The
two most common kinds of Next Headers are TCP (6) and UDP (17).
 Time To Live (TTL)/Hop Limit (8 bits) The 8-bit Hop Limit field is decremented by one, by
each node (typically a router) that forwards a packet. If the Hop Limit field is decremented to
zero, the packet is discarded. The main function of this field is to identify and to discard
packets that are stuck in an indefinite loop due to any routing information errors.
 Source address (128 bits) The 128-bit source address field contains the IPv6 address of the
originating node of the packet.
 Destination address (128 bits) The 128-bit contains the destination address of the recipient
node of the IPv6 packet.
INTRODUCTION TO ROUTING
ROUTING
 Routing is the act of moving information across an internetwork from a source to a
destination. Along the way, at least one intermediate node typically is encountered.
 Routing involves two basic activities: determining optimal routing paths and transporting
information groups (typically called packets) through an internetwork.
 In the context of the routing process, the latter of these is referred to as packet switching.
Although packet switching is relatively straightforward, path determination can be very
complex.
Path Determination
 Routing protocols use metrics to evaluate what path will be the best for a packet to travel.
 A metric is a standard of measurement, such as path bandwidth, that is used by routing
algorithms to determine the optimal path to a destination.
 To aid the process of path determination, routing algorithms initialize and maintain
routing tables, which contain route information. Route information varies depending on
the routing algorithm used.
 Routing algorithms fill routing tables with a variety of information. Destination/next hop
associations tell a router that a particular destination can be reached optimally by sending
the packet to a particular router towards the final destination. When a router receives an
incoming packet,
 it checks the destination address and attempts to associate this address with a next hop.
 Routing tables also can contain other information, such as data about the desirability of a
path.

ROUTING METRICS
 Routing tables contain information used by switching software to select the best route.
 Routing algorithms have used many different metrics to determine the best route.
 Sophisticated routing algorithms can base route selection on multiple metrics, combining
them in a single (hybrid) metric.
  All the following metrics have been used:
•Path length
•Hop count
•Reliability
•Delay
•Bandwidth Load
•Communication cost
i. Path length is the most common routing metric. Some routing protocols allow network
administrators to assign arbitrary costs to each network link. In this case, path length is
the sum of the costs associated with each link traversed.
ii. Hop count is a metric that specifies the number of passes through internetworking
products, such as routers, that a packet must take and route from a source to a destination.
iii. Reliability, in the context of routing algorithms, refers to the dependability (usually
described in terms of the bit-error rate) of each network link. Some network links might
go down more often than others. After a network fails, certain network links might be
repaired more easily or more quickly than other links. Any reliability factors can be taken
into account in the assignment of the reliability ratings, which are arbitrary numeric
values usually assigned to network links by network administrators.
iv. Routing delay refers to the length of time required to move a packet from source to
destination through the internetwork. Delay depends on many factors, including the
bandwidth of intermediate network links, the port queues at each router along the way,
network congestion on all intermediate network links, and the physical distance to be
travelled. Because delay is a conglomeration of several important variables, it is a common
and useful metric.
v. Bandwidth refers to the available traffic capacity of a link. All other things being equal, a
10-Mbps Ethernet link would be preferable to a 64-kbps leased line. Although bandwidth
is a rating of the maximum attainable throughput on a link, routes through links with
greater bandwidth do not necessarily provide better routes than routes through slower
links. For example, if a faster link is busier, the actual time required to send a packet to the
destination could be greater.
vi. Load refers to the degree to which a network resource, such as a router, is busy. Load can
 be calculated in a variety of ways, including CPU utilization and packets processed per
second. Monitoring these parameters on a continual basis can be resource-intensive itself.
vii. Communication cost is another important metric, especially because some companies may
not care about performance as much as they care about operating expenditures. Although
line delay may be longer, they will send packets over their own lines rather than through
the public lines that cost money for usage time.

Design Goals
Routing algorithms often have one or more of the following design goals:
•Optimality
•Simplicity and low overhead
•Robustness and stability
•Rapid convergence
•Flexibility
Optimality refers to the capability of the routing algorithm to select the best route, which
depends on the metrics and metric weightings used to make the calculation.
For example, one routing algorithm may use a number of hops and delays, but it may weigh delay
more heavily in the calculation. Naturally, routing protocols must define their metric
calculation algorithms strictly.
Routing algorithms also are designed to be as simple as possible. In other words, the routing
algorithm must offer its functionality efficiently, with a minimum of software and utilization
overhead. Efficiency is particularly important when the software implementing the routing
algorithm must run on a computer with limited physical resources.
Routing algorithms must be robust, which means that they should perform correctly in the
face of unusual or unforeseen circumstances, such as hardware failures, high load conditions,
and incorrect implementations. Because routers are located at network junction points, they
can cause considerable problems when they fail. The best routing algorithms are often those
that have withstood the test of time and that have proven stable under a variety of network
conditions.
Routing algorithms must converge rapidly. Convergence is the process of agreement, by all
routers, on optimal routes. When a network event causes routes to either go down or become
 available, routers distribute routing update messages that permeate networks, stimulating
recalculation of optimal routes and eventually causing all routers to agree on these routes.
Routing algorithms that converge slowly can cause routing loops or network outages.
Routing algorithms should also be flexible, which means that they should quickly and
accurately adapt to a variety of network circumstances. Assume, for example, that a network
segment has gone down. As many routing algorithms become aware of the problem, they will
quickly select the next-best path for all routes normally using that segment. Routing
algorithms can be programmed to adapt to changes in network bandwidth, router queue size,
and network delay, among other variables.

Routing Algorithms
Routing Algorithm Types
Routing algorithms can be classified by type. Key differentiators include these:
1. Static versus dynamic
2. Single-path versus multipath
3. Flat versus hierarchical
4. Host-intelligent versus router-intelligent
5. Intradomain versus interdomain
6. Link-state versus distance vector
1. Static Versus Dynamic
 Static routing algorithms are hardly algorithms at all, but are table mappings established
by the network administrator before the beginning of routing. These mappings do not
change unless the network administrator alters them. Algorithms that use static routes are
simple to design and work well in environments where network traffic is relatively
predictable and where network design is relatively simple.
 Because static routing systems cannot react to network changes, they generally are
considered unsuitable for today constantly changing networks. Most of the dominant
routing algorithms today are Dynamic routing algorithms, which adjust to changing
network circumstances by analyzing incoming routing update messages. If the message
indicates that a network change has occurred, the routing software recalculates routes and
sends out new routing update messages. These messages permeate the network,
 stimulating routers to rerun their algorithms and change their routing tables accordingly.
Dynamic routing algorithms can be supplemented with static routes where appropriate. A
router of last resort (a router to which all unroutable packets are sent), for example, can
be designated to act as a repository for all unroutable packets, ensuring that all messages
are at least handled in some way.

2. Single-Path Versus Multipath

 Some sophisticated routing protocols support multiple paths to the same destination.
Unlike single-path algorithms, these multipath algorithms permit traffic multiplexing over
multiple lines. The advantages of multipath algorithms are obvious: They can provide
substantially better throughput and reliability. This is generally called load sharing
3. Flat Versus Hierarchical
 Some routing algorithms operate in a flat space, while others use routing hierarchies.
 In a flat routing system, the routers are peers of all others. In a hierarchical routing system,
some routers form routing backbone. Packets from non-backbone routers travel to the
backbone routers, where they are sent through the backbone until they reach the general
area of the destination. At this point, they travel from the last backbone router through one
or more non backbone routers to the final destination. Routing systems often designate
logical groups of nodes, called domains, autonomous systems, or areas.
 In hierarchical systems, some routers in a domain can communicate with routers in other
domains, while others can communicate only with routers within their domain. In very
large networks, additional hierarchical levels may exist, with routers at the highest
hierarchical level forming the routing backbone.
 The primary advantage of hierarchical routing is that it mimics the organization of most
companies and therefore supports their traffic patterns well. Most network communication
occurs within small company groups (domains). Because intradomain routers need to know
only about other routers within their domain, their routing algorithms can be simplified,
and, depending on the routing algorithm being used, routing update traffic can be reduced
accordingly.
4. Host-Intelligent Versus Router-Intelligent
 Some routing algorithms assume that the source end node will determine the entire route.
This is usually referred to as source routing. In source-routing systems, routers merely act
as store-and-forward devices, mindlessly sending the packet to the next stop. Other
algorithms assume that hosts know nothing about routes. In these algorithms, routers
determine the path through the internetwork based on their own calculations. In the first
system, the hosts have the routing intelligence. In the latter system, routers have the routing
intelligence.
5. Intradomain Versus Interdomain
 Some routing algorithms work only within domains; others work within and between
domains. The nature of these two algorithm types is different. It stands to reason, therefore,
that an optimal intradomain-routing algorithm would not necessarily be an optimal
interdomain-routing algorithm.
6. Link-State Versus Distance Vector
 Link-state algorithms (also known as shortest path first algorithms) flood routing
information to all nodes in the internetwork. Each router, however, sends only the portion
of the routing table that describes the state of its own links. In link-state algorithms, each
router builds a picture of the entire network in its routing tables.
 Distance vector algorithms (also known as Bellman-Ford algorithms) call for each router to
send all or some portion of its routing table, but only to its neighbors. In essence, link-state
algorithms send small updates everywhere, while distance vector algorithms send larger
updates only to neighboring routers. Distance vector algorithms know only about their
neighbors. Because they converge more quickly, link-state algorithms are somewhat less
prone to routing loops than distance vector algorithms. On the other hand, link-state
algorithms require more CPU power and memory than distance vector algorithms. Link-
state algorithms, therefore, can be more expensive to implement and support. Link-state
protocols are generally more scalable than distance vector protocols.
7.POLICY BASED ROUTING
 In this type of routing, certain restrictions are put on the type of packets accepted and
sent. e.g.. The IIT - K router may decide to handle traffic pertaining to its departments only,
and reject packets from other routes. This kind of routing is used for links with very low
 capacity or for security purposes.
8.SHORTEST PATH ROUTING
 Here, the central question dealt with is 'How to determine the optimal path for routing ?'
Various algorithms are used to determine the optimal routes with respect to some
predetermined criteria. A network is represented as a graph, with its terminals as nodes
and the links as edges. A 'length' is associated with each edge, which represents the cost of
using the link for transmission. Lower the cost, more suitable is the link. The cost is
determined depending upon the criteria to be optimized. Some of the important ways of
determining the cost are:
· Minimum number of hops: If each link is given a unit cost, the shortest path is the one with
minimum number of hops. Such a route is easily obtained by a breadth first search method.
This is easy to implement but ignores load, link capacity etc.
· Transmission and Propagation Delays: If the cost is fixed as a function of transmission and
propagation delays, it will reflect the link capacities and the geographical distances. However,
these costs are essentially static and do not consider the varying load conditions.
· Queuing Delays: If the cost of a link is determined through its queuing delays, it takes care of
the varying load conditions, but not of the propagation delays.
 Ideally, the cost parameter should consider all the above-mentioned factors, and it should
be updated periodically to reflect the changes in the loading conditions. However, if the
routes are changed according to the load, the load changes again. This feedback effect
between routing and load can lead to undesirable oscillations and sudden swings.
CONGESTION CONTROL ALGORITHMS
 Congestion in a network may occur if the load on the network-the number of packets sent to
the network-is greater than the capacity of the network-the number of packets a network can
handle.
 Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and techniques to control the congestion and
keep the load below the capacity i.e Congestion control refers to techniques and mechanisms
that can either prevent congestion, before it happens, or remove congestion, after it has
happened.
 Congestion happens in any system that involves waiting. For example, congestion happens on
a freeway because any abnormality in the flow, such as an accident during rush hour, creates
blockage Congestion in a network or internetwork occurs because routers and switches have
queues-buffers that hold the packets before and after processing. A router, for example, has an
input queue and an output queue for each interface. When a packet arrives at the incoming
interface, it undergoes three steps before departing, as shown below.

1. The packet is put at the end of the input queue while waiting to be checked.
2. The processing module of the router removes the packet from the input queue once it reaches
the front of the queue and uses its routing table and the destination address to find the route.
3. The packet is put in the appropriate output queue and waits its turn to be sent.
We need to be aware of two issues. First, if the rate of packet arrival is higher than the packet
processing rate, the input queues become longer and longer. Second, if the packet departure
rate is less than the packet processing rate, the output queues become longer and longer.
CONGESTION CONTROL METHODS
 Congestion control mechanisms can be divided into two broad categories: open-loop
congestion control (prevention) and closed-loop congestion control (removal) as shown

A) OPEN-LOOP CONGESTION CONTROL

 In this mechanism policies are applied to prevent congestion before it happens.
Congestion control is handled by either the source or the destination. The following
techniques are used:
i) Retransmission Policy
 Retransmission is sometimes unavoidable. If the sender feels that a sent packet is lost or
corrupted, the packet needs to be retransmitted. Retransmission in general may increase
congestion in the network.
 However, a good retransmission policy can prevent congestion. The retransmission policy and
the retransmission timers must be designed to optimize efficiency and at the same time
prevent congestion. For example, the retransmission policy used by TCP is designed to
prevent or alleviate congestion.
ii) Window Policy
 The type of window at the sender may also affect congestion. The Selective Repeat window is
better than the Go-Back-N window for congestion control. In the Go-Back-N window, when the
timer for a packet times out, several packets may be resent, although some may have arrived
safe and sound at the receiver.
 This duplication may make the congestion worse. The Selective Repeat window, on the other
hand, tries to send the specific packets that have been lost or corrupted.
iii) Acknowledgment Policy
 The acknowledgment policy imposed by the receiver may also affect congestion. If the
receiver does not acknowledge every packet it receives, it may slow down the sender and help
prevent congestion. Several approaches are used in this case.
 A receiver may send an acknowledgment only if it has a packet to be sent or a special timer
expires. A receiver may decide to acknowledge only N packets at a time. We need to know that
the acknowledgments are also part of the load in a network. Sending fewer acknowledgments
means imposing fewer loads on the network.
iv) Discarding Policy
 A good discarding policy by the routers may prevent congestion and at the same time may not
harm the integrity of the transmission. For example, in audio transmission, if the policy is to
discard less sensitive packets when congestion is likely to happen, the quality of sound is still
preserved and congestion is prevented or alleviated.
v) Admission Policy/switching technology
 An admission policy, which is a quality-of-service mechanism, can also prevent congestion in
virtual-circuit networks. Switches in a flow first check the resource requirement of a flow
before admitting it to the network.
 A router can deny establishing a virtual circuit connection if there is congestion in the
network or if there is a possibility of future congestion
B)CLOSED-LOOP CONGESTION CONTROL
Closed-loop congestion control mechanisms try to alleviate congestion after it happens.
Several mechanisms have been used by different protocols.
a) Backpressure
 The technique of backpressure refers to a congestion control mechanism in which a congested
node stops receiving data from the immediate upstream node or nodes.
 This may cause the upstream node or nodes to become congested, and they, in turn, reject
data from their upstream nodes or nodes. And so on.
 Backpressure is a node-to-node congestion control that starts with a node and propagates, in
the opposite direction of data flow, to the source.
 The backpressure technique can be applied only to virtual circuit networks, in which each
node knows the upstream node from which a flow of data is corning.
Backpressure method for alleviating congestion

Node III in the figure has more input data than it can handle. It drops some packets in its input
buffer and informs node II to slow down. Node II, in turn, may be congested because it is
slowing down the output flow of data. If node II is congested, it informs node I to slow down,
which in turn may create congestion. If so, node I inform the source of data to slow down.
This, in time, alleviates the congestion. Note that the pressure on node III is moved backward
to the source to remove the congestion. It was, however, implemented in the first virtual-
circuit network, X.25. The technique cannot be implemented in a datagram network because
in this type of network, a node (router) does not have the slightest knowledge of the upstream
router.
b) Choke Packet
 A choke packet is a packet sent by a node to the source to inform it of congestion. Note the
difference between the backpressure and choke packet methods. In backpressure, the
warning is from one node to its upstream node, although the warning may eventually reach
the source station.
 In the choke packet method, the warning is from the router, which has encountered
congestion, to the source station directly. The intermediate nodes through which the packet
has travelled are not warned, an example of this type of control in ICMP. When a router in the
Internet is over-whelmed with IP datagram’s, it may discard some of them; but it informs the
 source host, using a source quench ICMP message. The warning message goes directly to the
source station; the intermediate routers, and does not take any action. The Figurebelow
shows the idea of a choke packet.
c) Implicit Signaling
 In implicit signaling, there is no communication between the congested node or nodes and the
source.
 The source guesses that there is congestion somewhere in the network from other symptoms.
For example, when a source sends several packets and there is no acknowledgment for a
while, one assumption is that the network is congested. The delay in receiving an
acknowledgment is interpreted as congestion in the network; the source should slow down.
d) Explicit Signaling
 The node that experiences congestion can explicitly send a signal to the source or destination.
 The explicit signaling method, however, is different from the choke packet method. In the
choke packet method, a separate packet is used for this purpose; in the explicit signaling
method, the signal is included in the packets that carry data.
e) Backward Signaling
 A bit can be set in a packet moving in the direction opposite to the congestion. This bit can
warn the source that there is congestion and that it needs to slow down to avoid the
discarding of packets.
f) Forward Signaling
 A bit can be set in a packet moving in the direction of the congestion. This bit can warn the
destination that there is congestion. The receiver in this case can use policies, such as slowing
down the acknowledgments, to alleviate the congestion.
DATA LINK LAYER
 Data can be corrupted during transmission.
 Some applications require that errors be detected and corrected. Whenever bits flow from
one point to another, they are subject to unpredictable changes because of interference.
Thus, we say that error had occurred.
 There are two types of error: single-bit error and burst error.
 In a single-bit error, only 1 bit in the data unit has changed whereas, in burst error means
that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed as shown in Fig 2.1
 The central concept in detecting or correcting errors is redundancy. To be able to detect or
correct errors, we need to send some extra bits with our data.
 These redundant bits are added by the sender and removed by the receiver. Their presence
allows the receiver to detect or correct corrupted bits.
 Redundancy is achieved through various coding schemes. The sender adds redundant bits
through a process that creates a relationship between the redundant bits and the actual
data bits. The receiver checks the relationships between the two sets of bits to detect or
correct the errors.
 Coding schemes into two broad categories: block coding and convolution coding.
 Block Coding: In block coding, we divide our message into blocks, each of k bits, called
datawords. We add r redundant bits to each block to make the length n = k + r. The resulting
n-bit blocks are called codewords as shown below.

Error Detection
 An error-detecting code can detect only the types of errors for which it is designed; other
types of errors may remain undetected. Fig 2.15 shows the process of error detection in
block coding.
Fig 2.15 Process of Error Detection
2.2.2 Error Correction

Once an error has been detected, it has to be corrected. Fig 2.16 shows the process of error
correction.

Fig 2.16 Process of Error Correction

One of the central concepts in coding for error control is the idea of the Hamming Distance. The
Hamming distance between two words is the number of differences between corresponding
bits. The minimum Hamming distance is the smallest Hamming distance between all possible
pairs in a set of words.

· To guarantee the detection of up to s errors in all cases, the minimum Hamming distance in a
block code must be dmin = s + 1.

· To guarantee correction of up to t errors in all cases, the minimum Hamming distance in a

 block code must be dmin = 2t + 1.

Linear Block Codes: Almost all block codes used today belong to a subset called linear block
codes. A linear block code is a code in which the exclusive OR (addition modulo-2) of two valid
codewords creates another valid codeword. A single parity-check code is of linear block code.
A simple parity-check code is a single-bit error-detecting code in which n = k + 1 with dmin =
2.A simple parity-check code can detect an odd number of errors as shown in Fig 2.17.

Fig 2.17 Single Parity Check Code

The syndrome is 0 when the number of 1s in the received codeword is even; otherwise, it is 1. If
the syndrome is 0, there is no error in the received codeword; the data portion of the received
codeword is accepted as the dataword and if the syndrome is 1, the data portion of the
received codeword is discarded.

Cyclic Codes: Cyclic codes are special linear block codes with one extra property. In a cyclic code,
if a codeword is cyclically shifted (rotated), the result is another codeword as shown in Fig
2.18.

Fig 2.18 Cyclic Code

In cyclic code, concept of long division has been used. The divisor in a cyclic code is normally
called the generator polynomial or simply the generator as shown in Fig 2.19.

Fig 2.19 Division in Cyclic Code

 In a cyclic code, following cases exist:

If syndrome s(x) ≠ 0, one or more bits is corrupted.

If syndrome s(x) = 0, either

o No bit is corrupted

Some bits are corrupted, but the decoder failed to detect them.

2.3 DATA LINK CONTROL

The data link layer needs to pack bits into frames, so that each frame is distinguishable from
another.

2.3.1 Framing
 There are two types of framing namely fixed size framing and variable size framing.
 In fixed size framing, we send fixed size of frames so there is no need to specify the
boundaries of the frame.
 In variable size framing, size of frame is not fixed rather it is variable so we need to define
boundaries of frame i.e ending of one frame and beginning of next frame. Thus, we use two
techniques namely character oriented and bit oriented. In character oriented, we use the
concept of byte stuffing. Byte stuffing is the process of adding 1 extra byte whenever there is a
flag or escape character in the text.
  In bit oriented, we use bit stuffing.Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0
whenever five consecutive 1s follow a 0 in the data, so that the receiver does not
mistake the pattern 0111110 for a flag.

Flow
 The most important responsibilities of the data link layer are flow control and error control.
Collectively, these functions are known as data link control.
 Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data that the sender
can send before waiting for acknowledgment.
Error Control Protocol
 Error control in the data link layer is based on automatic repeat request, which is the
retransmission of data.
 The data link layer can combine framing, flow control, and error control to achieve the
delivery of data from one node to another.
 The protocols are normally implemented in software by using one of the common
programming languages. Protocols can be broadly classified into two categories as Noiseless
channel and Noisy Channel.
  There is a difference between the protocols in real networks.
 All the protocols we discuss are unidirectional in the sense that the data frames.travel
from one node, called the sender, to another node, called the receiver. Although special
frames, called acknowledgment (ACK) and negative acknowledgment (NAK) can flow in
the opposite direction for flow and error control purposes, data flow in only one direction.
 In a real-life network, the data link protocols are implemented as bidirectional; data flow
in both directions.
 In these protocols the flow and error control information such as ACKs and NAKs is
included in the data frames in a technique called piggybacking.
NOISELESS CHANNEL PROTOCOL
 Noiseless protocols take channel as an ideal one in which no frames are lost, duplicated, or
corrupted.
 There are two types of protocols used for noiseless channels namely simplest and stop &wait
protocol.
Simplest protocol:
 it has no flow or error control. In simplest protocol, data frames are sent continuously, there is
no concept of acknowledgement.
 The data link layer at the sender site gets data from its network layer, makes a frame out of
the data, and sends it.
 The data link layer at the receiver site receives a frame from its physical layer, extracts data
from the frame, and delivers the data to its network layer.
 The sender sends a sequence of frames without even thinking about the receiver. To
send three frames, three events occur at the sender site and three events at the receiver
site.
Stop & Wait Protocol:
 In this protocol, one frame is sent at a time and the sender waits for acknowledgement of that
frame. Once it receives acknowledgement, it sends another frame
 If data frames arrive at the receiver site faster than they can be processed, the frames must be
stored until their use. Normally, the receiver does not have enough storage space, especially if
it is receiving data from many sources. This may result in either the discarding of frames or
denial of service.
 To prevent the receiver from becoming overwhelmed with frames, we somehow need to tell
the sender to slow down. There must be feedback from the receiver to the sender.

 The sender sends one frame and waits for feedback from the receiver. When the
ACK arrives, the sender sends the next frame. Note that sending two frames in the
protocol involves the sender in four events and the receiver in two events.
Noisy Channel Protocol
 Although the Stop-and-Wait Protocol gives us an idea of how to add flow control to its
predecessor, noiseless channels are nonexistent.
 There are three protocols used in case of noisy channels namely: stop & wait automatic
repeat request, go-back- n automatic repeat request and selective automatic repeat request.
Stop & Wait Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):
 It adds a simple error control mechanism to the Stop-and-Wait Protocol. To detect and correct
corrupted frames, we need to add redundancy bits to our data frame.
 When the frame arrives at the receiver site, it is checked and if it is corrupted, it is silently
discarded. The detection of errors in this protocol is manifested by the silence of the receiver.
 Lost frames are more difficult to handle than corrupted ones. In our previous protocols, there
was no way to identify a frame. The received frame could be the correct one, or a duplicate, or
a frame out of order. The solution is to number the frames. When the receiver receives a data
frame that is out of order, this means that frames were either lost or duplicated.
 The corrupted and lost frames need to be resent in this protocol. If the receiver does not
respond when there is an error, how can the sender know which frame to resend? To remedy
this problem, the sender keeps a copy of the sent frame. At the same time, it starts a timer. If
the timer expires and there is no ACK for the sent frame, the frame is resent, the copy is held,
and the timer is restarted.
 Since the protocol uses the stop-and-wait mechanism, there is only one specific frame that
needs an ACK even though several copies of the same frame can be in the network.
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request:
 To improve the efficiency of transmission (filling the pipe), multiple frames must be in
transition while waiting for acknowledgment. In other words, we need to let more than one
frame be outstanding to keep the channel busy while the sender is waiting for
acknowledgment.
 In this protocol we can send several frames before receiving acknowledgments; we keep a
copy of these frames until the acknowledgments arrive.

This protocol makes use of sliding window at sender and at receiver site. The send window is an
abstract concept defining an imaginary box of size 2m− 1 with three variables: Sf, Sn, and Ssize.
The send window can slide one or more slots when a valid acknowledgment arrives as shown
in Fig.2.29.
The receive window is an abstract concept defining an imaginary box of size 1 with one single
variable Rn. The window slides when a correct frame has arrived; sliding occurs one slot at a
time as shown in Fig. 2.30.

Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request:

 Go-back-n ARQ simplifies the process at the receiver site. The receiver keeps track of only one
variable, and there is no need to buffer out-of-order frames; they are simply discarded.
However, this protocol is very inefficient for a noisy link. In a noisy link a frame has a higher
probability of damage, which means the resending of multiple frames. This resending uses up
the bandwidth and slows down the transmission.
 For noisy links, there is another mechanism that does not resend N frames when just one
frame is damaged; only the damaged frame is resent. This mechanism is called Selective
Repeat ARQ. It is more efficient for noisy links, but the processing at the receiver is more
complex.
Fig 2.31 Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request
INTRODUCTION TO ERROR CONTROL

 There are two ways to manage Error Control:

o Forward Error Control - enough additional or redundant information is passed to the
receiver, so it can not only detect, but also correct errors. This requires more information to
be sent and has tradeoffs.
o Backward Error Control - enough information is sent to allow the receiver to detect errors,
but not correct them. Upon error detection, retransmission may be requested.

SOURCES OF & TYPES OF ERRORS

1. Thermal noise (gaussian noise)(the familiar background hiss or static on radios and
telephones), also called white noise, is present in electrical circuits, for example, in the front
end of the receiving equipment. Thermal noise is caused by thermal agitation of electrons in a
conductor. Usually this type of noise is not a problem. Such noise cannot be eliminated and
can often be heard as background noise in radios and telephones.
2. Cross-talkcan be experienced during telephone conversations. You can probably hear another
conversation during your own. Cross-talk can occur by electrical coupling between a nearby
twisted pair or coax cable lines carrying multiple signals. Cross-talk between lines increases
with increased communication distance, increased proximity of the two wires, increased signal
strength, and higher frequency signals. Wet or damp weather can also increase cross-talk.

3. Inter modulation noiseproduces signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of the
two original frequencies, or multiples of these frequencies. Inter modulation noise is
produced when some non-linearity in the transmitter, receiver, or intervening transmission
 system is present. The signals from two circuits combine to form a new signal that falls into a
frequency band reserved for another signal. This type of noise is similar to harmonics in music.
On a multiplexed line, many different signals are amplified together, and slight variations in the
adjustment of the equipment can cause intermodulation noise. A maladjusted modem may
transmit a strong frequency tone when not transmitting data, thus producing this type of noise.
4. Impulsive noise(sometimes called spikes) occurs as short impulses or noise spikes of short
duration and intersperses with short burst of errors. Impulsive noise consists of randomly
occurring unwanted signals. The source of this kind of noise can be switching gear or
thunderstorms, for example. Impulsive noise is not a big problem for analog data, e.g., while
using a telephone, it is possible to understand the telephone conversation with small breaks
caused by noise. Unlike in analog data, this type of noise is the primary cause of errors in data
communication. Impulse noise is heard as a click or a crackling noise and can last as long as
1/100 of a second. It occurs between pairs of wires that are carrying separate signals, in
multiplexed links carrying many discrete signals, or in microwave links in which one antenna
picks up a minute reflection from another antenna. Impulse noise is sharp quick spikes on the
signal caused from electromagnetic interference, lightning, sudden power switching,
electromechanical switching, etc.. These appear on the telephone line as clicks and pops which
are not a problem for voice communication but can appear as a loss of data or even as wrong
data bits during data transfers. Impulse noise has a duration of less than 1 mSec and their
effect is dissipated within 4 mSec.

5. Another error source in transmission is attenuation. Attenuation is a reduction of strength in

a signal, beam or wave during transmission. This is a typical problem for analog transmission.
Digital transmission does not have this problem. Attenuation is the loss of power a signal
suffers as it travels from the transmitting computer to the receiving computer. Some power is
 absorbed by the medium or is lost before it reaches the receiver. As the medium absorbs power,
the signal becomes weaker, and the receiving equipment has less and less chance of correctly
interpreting the data. This power loss is a function of the transmission method and circuit
medium. High frequencies lose power more rapidly than low frequencies during transmission, so
the received signal can thus be distorted by unequal loss of its component frequencies.
Attenuation increases as frequency increases or as the diameter of the wire decreases.
6. Line outagesare a catastrophic cause of errors and incomplete transmission. Occasionally, a
communication circuit fails for a brief period. This type of failure may be caused by faulty
telephone end office equipment, storms, loss of the carrier signal, and any other failure that
causes a short circuit.
7. Echoes or Signal Return can cause errors. Echoes are caused by poor connections that cause the
signal to reflect back to the transmitting equipment. If the strength of the echo is strong enough
to be detected, it causes errors. Echoes, like cross-talk and white noise, have such a low signal
strength that they normally are not bothersome. Echoes can also occur in fibre optic cables
when connections between cables are not properly aligned. All media have a preferred
termination condition for perfect transfer of signal power. The signal arriving at the end of a
transmission line should be fully absorbed otherwise it will be reflected back down the line to
the sender and appear as an Echo. Echo Suppressors are often fitted to transmission lines to
reduce this effect.

8. Jitter may affect the accuracy of the data being transmitted because minute variations in
amplitude, phase, and frequency always occur. The generation of a pure carrier signal in an
analog circuit is impossible.. The signal may be impaired by continuous and rapid gain and/or
phase changes. This jitter may be random or periodic. Phase jitter during a telephone call causes
the voice to fluctuate in volume. There are 2 types of Jitter:
 Amplitude Jitter
 Phase Jitter

Amplitude Jitter is the small constantly changing swings in the amplitude of a signal. It is
principally caused by power supply noise (60 Hz) and ringing tone (20 Hz) on the signal.

Phase Jitter is the small constantly changing swings in the phase of a signal. It may result in the
pulses moving into time slots allocated other data pulses when used with Time Domain
Multiplexing. Telephone company standards call for no more than 10 degrees between 20 and
300 Hz and no more than 15 degrees between 4 and 20 Hz.
9. Harmonic distortion usually is caused by an amplifier on a circuit that does not correctly
represent its output with what was delivered to it on the input side. Phase hits are short-term
shifts "out of phase," with the possibility of a shift back into phase.
10. Propagation DelaySignals transmitted down a phone line will take a finite time to reach the
end of the line. The delay from the time the signal was transmitted to the time it was received
is called Propagation Delay. If the propagation delay was the exact same across the frequency
range, there would be no problem. This would imply that all frequencies from 300 to 3000 Hz
have the same amount of delay in reaching their destination over the phone line. They would
arrive at the destination at the same time but delayed by a small amount called the
propagation delay. This is heard as the delay when talking on long distance telephones. We
have to wait a little longer before we speak to ensure that the other person hasn't already
started to talk. All phone lines have propagation delay.
If the Propagation Delay is long enough, the modem or communications package may time-out
and close the connection. It may think that the receive end has shut off!
11. Envelope Delay DistortionIf the Propagation Delay changes with frequency than we would
have the condition where the lower frequencies such as 300 Hz may arrive earlier or later
than the higher frequencies such as 3000 Hz. For voice communication, this would probably
not be noticeable but for data communication using modems, this could affect the phase of the
carrier or the modulation technique used to encode the data. When the Propagation Delay
varies across the frequency range, we call this Envelope Delay Distortion. We measure
propagation delay in microseconds (us) and the reference is from the worst case to the best
case.

12. Gain Hits: Gain Hits are sudden increase in amplitude that last more than 4 mSec. Telephone
company standards allow for no more than 8 gain hits in any 15 minute interval. A gain hit
would be heard on a voice conversation as if the volume were turned up for just an instance.
Amplitude modulated carriers are particularly sensitive to Gain Hits.
TYPES OF ERRORS

 Random single bit errors: if we occasionally just have a dropped bit as in certain types of
memory storage then a parity check or row/column parity/ECC check will be effective
(although redundancy will be high)

 Multiple Errors (burst noise): Parity checks have poor performance at identifying multiple
sequential errors but a CRC is effective for detecting them. As noted previously a CRC will
detect any stream of errors shorter than the CRC. Other multi-bit ECC algorithms can detect
and correct burst errors shorter than a given length.
 Burst bit error model: Bit errors take place in a correlated manner.
– Periods of low error-rate transmission are interspersed by periods of high error rate
– Low error-rate: similar to random bit error model
– High error-rate: similar to random error vector model
 In normal practice bit errors occur in bursts.

Error Prevention

There are many techniques to prevent errors (or at least reduce them) depending upon the
situation.
I. Shielding (protecting wires by covering them with an insulating coating) is one of the best
ways to prevent impulse noise, cross-talk and intermodulation noise. Many different types of
wires and cables are available with different amounts of shielding. In general, the greater the
shielding, the more expensive the cable, and the more difficult it is to install.
II. Moving cables away from sources of noise (especially power sources) can also reduce
impulse noise cross-talk and intermodulation noise. For impulse noise, this means avoiding
lights and heavy machinery. Locating communication cables away from power cables is
always a good idea. For cross-talk, this means physically separating the cables from other
communication cables.
III. Cross-talk and intermodulation noise is often caused by improper multiplexing. Changing
multiplexing techniques (e.g., from FDM to TDM), or changing the frequencies or size of the
guard bands in frequency division multiplexing can help.
IV. Many types of noise (e.g., echoes, white noise, jitter, harmonic distortion) can be caused by
poorly maintained equipment or poor connections and splices among cables. This is
particularly true for echo in fiber optic cables, which is almost always caused by poor
connections. The solution here is obvious: tune the transmission equipment and redo the
connections.
V. To avoid attenuation, telephone circuits have repeaters or amplifiers spaced throughout their
length. The distance between them depends on the amount of power lost per unit length of
the transmission line. An amplifier takes the incoming signal, increases its strength, and
retransmits it on the next section of the circuit. They are typically used on analog circuits
such as the telephone company’s voice circuits. The distance between the amplifiers depends
on the amount of attenuation, although one- to ten-mile intervals are common. On analog
circuits, it is important to recognize that the noise and distortion are also amplified, along
with the signal. This means some noise from a previous circuit is regenerated and amplified
each time the signal is amplified
VI. If the circuit is provided by a common carrier such as the telephone company, you can
lease a more expensive conditioned circuit. A conditioned circuit is one that has been
certified by the carrier to experience fewer errors. There are several levels of conditioning
that provide increasingly fewer errors at increasingly higher cost. Conditioned circuits
employ a variety of the techniques described previously (e.g., shielding) to provide less
noise.
EROR DETECTION TECHNIQUE

 We use Codes to detect errors.

 We map messages onto some code then send, if received message does not accept code rule,
then we know there is an error. E.g. Code that duplicates each bit into a pair… if received
message is not in bit pairs, then there is an error… i.e. 11010101… coded to
1111001100110011

DETECTION METHODS

VRC LRC CRC Check Sum

The Concept of the Parity Bit

 Can be EVEN or ODD

 Parity Checking is one of the oldest and simplest error detection methods.
 With this technique, one additional bit is added to each byte in the message. The value of this
additional parity bit is based on the number of 1's in each byte transmitted.
 This parity bit is set to make the total number of ones in the byte (including the parity bit)
either an even number or an odd number.
 For example, for the 4 bit item 1001, there are two one bits. For even parity, a zero is added to
the stream, maintaining an even number of one bits. For odd parity, a one is added to make
the number of ones odd.
 Any single error (a switch from a 0 to 1, or from 1 to 0) will be detected by a parity check, but
nothing can tell about which bit was in error.
 Moreover, if two bits are switched, the parity check will not detect any error. It is easy to see
that parity can detect errors only when an odd number of bits have been switched, any even
number of errors cancel each other out.
 Therefore, the probability of detecting an error, given that one has occurred, is only about 50
percent. Today, this technique is not used widely, because of its low error detection rate.
One Dimensional Parity Checks (VRC and LRC)

This form of parity has severe limitations

 If a single bit changes in the word, then the parity will indicate that there is an error
 If two bits change in the word, then Parity checking might fail
» If ’01’ becomes ’10’ then this would be an error even though the parity would not change
» If ’00’ becomes ’11’ then this would be an error even though the parity would not change
» 50% chance of detecting the error across 2 bits
» 25% chance of detecting the error across 3 bits

 Can’t detect errors in exactly the same positions in data units

 A block is considered as a set of words aligned to form a sequence and Each word is given a
vertical parity bit
 An additional word is added at the end of the block calculating the parity of each aligned bit
 Longitudinal parity checking allows for errors across each single word as well as across the
whole block
 There is a much greater probability of detecting “Burst” Errors where a collection of bits in a
single word may be disrupted
 It does not however guarantee 100% detection – by a long way!

Two Dimensional Parity Check

 Could correct single-bit errors by interpolating row/column.

 Since this bit is in error, we just need to invert it to restore that bit.
 What if several bits get corrupted (eg along the same row)? Could still detect, but not correct.
 Efficiency of this scheme not good, as it has 8/16 or 50% overhead.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

The basic concepts behind the CRC

1. Define a generator (or generator polynomial) of N bits.
2. Treat the data frame to be transmitted as a number, and divide this number by the generator.
3. Transmit the frame followed by the remainder.
4. At the receiver, perform the same calculation and check the remainder.

 Based on binary division

 Detects all burst errors that affect an odd number of bits
 Detects all burst errors of length less than or equal to the degree of the polynomial
 Detects with a very high probability burst errors of length greater than or equal to the degree
of the polynomial e.g. detects with 99.97% of the time burst errors with a length of 12 or more
in CRC-12
 Cyclic Redundancy Check is extensively used for error detection in communication links.
 Provides extremely good error detection capabilities and quite simple to compute using
digital hardware
 Detects all single-bit errors
 Detects all double-bit errors as long as P(x) has 3 terms.
 Detects any odd number of error as long as P(x) has (x + 1) as a factor.
Modulo 2 Arithmetic Modulo 2 arithmetic uses binary addition with no carries,which is just the
exclusive-OR (XOR) operation. Binary subtraction with no carries is also interpreted as the
XOR operation: For example,

Modulo 2 Arithmetic Modulo 2 arithmetic uses binary addition with no carries,which is just the
exclusive-OR (XOR) operation. Binary subtraction with no carries is also interpreted as the
XOR operation: For example,

(1) Divide the received message by the generator P

(2) If the remainder R is non-zero, then an error is detected
CHECKSUM

 Checksums more suitable for software implementation (use only addition and shift).
 Used in TCP header and is easy for routers to re-calculate (update) checksum as datagrams
are forwarded.
 Can’t detect errors if one or more bits of a segment are damaged and the corresponding bit or
bits of opposite value in a second segment are also damaged.
 Detect all errors involving odd number of bits, as well as most errors involving even number
of bits
 Anytime a bit inversion is balanced by an opposite bit inversion in the corresponding digit of
another data segment, the error is invisible
 Detects all single-bit errors.
 Detects all double-bit errors.
 Detects 99.999981% of all bursts not exceeding 16 bits.
 Detects 99.9985% of all longer bursts.
MULTIPLE ACCESS
 We can consider the data link layer as two sublayers. The upper sublayer is responsible for
data link control, and the lower sublayer is responsible for resolving access to the shared
media. If the channel is dedicated, we do not need the lower sublayer.

Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers

 The upper sublayer that is responsible for flow and error control is called the logical (Data)
link control (LLC) layer;
 the lower sublayer that is mostly responsible for multiple access resolution is called the media
access control (MAC) layer. When nodes or stations are connected and use a common link,
called a multipoint or broadcast link, we need a multiple-access protocol to coordinate access
to the link.
1. RANDOM ACCESS
 No station is superior to another station and none is assigned the control over another i.e no
station permits, or does not permit, another station to send.
 At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a procedure defined by the protocol to
make a decision on whether or not to send.
 This decision depends on the state of the medium (idle or busy). In other words, each station
can transmit when it desires on the condition that it follows the predefined procedure,
including the testing of the state of the medium.
 Two features give this method its name. First, there is no scheduled time for a station to
transmit. Transmission is random among the stations. That is why these methods are called
random access. Second, no rules specify which station should send next. Stations compete with
one another to access the medium. That is why these methods are also called contention
methods.
 However, if more than one station tries to send, there is an access conflict-collision-and the
frames will be either destroyed or modified.
 To avoid access conflict or to resolve it when it happens, each station follows a procedure that
answers the following questions:
When can the station access the medium?
What can the station do if the medium is busy?
How can the station determine the success or failure of the transmission?
What can the station do if there is an access conflict?
A) ALOHA
 ALOHA, the earliest random access method, was developed at the University of Hawaii in early
1970. It was designed for a radio (wireless) LAN, but it can be used on any shared medium.
 It is obvious that there are potential collisions in this arrangement. The medium is shared
between the stations. When a station sends data, another station may attempt to do so at the
same time. The data from the two stations collide and become garbled.
 The original ALOHA protocol is called pure ALOHA. This is a simple, but elegant protocol. The
idea is that each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame to send.
 Incase collision occurs there is retransmission.
 The pure ALOHA protocol relies on acknowledgments from the receiver. When a station sends
a frame, it expects the receiver to send an acknowledgment.
 If the acknowledgment does not arrive after a time-out period, the station assumes that the
frame (or the acknowledgment) has been destroyed and resends the frame.

Frames in a pure ALOHA network

A collision involves two or more stations. If all these stations try to resend their frames after the
time-out, the frames will collide again. Pure ALOHA dictates that when the time-out period
passes, each station waits a random amount of time before resending its frame. The
randomness will help avoid more collisions.
B) Slotted ALOHA
 Pure ALOHA has a vulnerable time of 2 x Tfr. This is so because there is no rule that defines
when the station can send. A station may send soon after another station has started or soon
before another station has finished.
 Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA. In slotted ALOHA we
divide the time into slots of Tfr s and force the station to send only at the beginning of the time
slot.
 Because a station is allowed to send only at the beginning of the synchronized time slot, if a
station misses this moment, it must wait until the beginning of the next time slot. This means
that the station which started at the beginning of this slot has already finished sending its
frame.
 Of course, there is still the possibility of collision if two stations try to send at the beginning of
the same time slot. However, the vulnerable time is now reduced to one-half; equal to Tfr
b) Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) augments the algorithm to
handle the collision
 In this method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the transmission
was successful. If so, the station is finished.
 If, however, there is a collision, the frame is sent again. To better understand CSMA/CD, let us
look at the first bits transmitted by the two stations involved in the collision. Although each
station continues to send bits in the frame until it detects the collision, we show what happens
as the first bits collide. In the Fig., stations A and C are involved in the collision

collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD

At time t1 , station A has executed its persistence procedure and starts sending the bits of its
frame. At time t2, station C has not yet sensed the first bit sent by A. Station C executes its
persistence procedure and starts sending the bits in its frame, which propagate both to the left
and to the right. The collision occurs sometime after time t2' Station C detects a collision at
time t3 when it receives the first bit of A's frame. Station C immediately (or after a short time,
but weassume immediately) aborts transmission. Station A detects collision at time t4 when it
receives the first bit of C's frame; it also immediately aborts transmission. Looking at the
figure, we see that A transmits for the duration t4 - tl; C transmits for the duration t3 - t2' Later
we show that, for the protocol to work, the length of any frame divided by the bit rate in this
protocol must be more than either of these durations. At time t4, the transmission of A: s
frame, though incomplete, is aborted; at time t3, the transmission of B's frame, though
incomplete, is aborted. Now that we know the time durations for the two transmissions, we
can show a more complete graph in Fig. 3.7.
 Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD
Differences between Aloha and CSMA/CD
i. The first difference is the addition of the persistence process. We need to sense the channel
before we start sending the frame by using one of the persistence processes.
ii. The second difference is the frame transmission. In ALOHA, we first transmit the entire frame
and then wait for an acknowledgment. In CSMA/CD, transmission and collision detection is a
continuous process. We do not send the entire frame and then look for a collision. The station
transmits and receives continuously and simultaneously (using two different ports).
iii. The third difference is the sending of a short jamming signal that enforces the collision in case
other stations have not yet sensed the collision. The throughput of CSMAlCD is greater than
that of pure or slotted ALOHA. The maximum throughput occurs at adifferent value of G and is
based on the persistence method and the value of p in the p-persistent approach.

E) Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

 The basic idea behind CSMA/CD is that a station needs to be able to receive while transmitting
to detect a collision. When there is no collision, the station receives one signal: its own signal.
 When there is a collision, the station receives two signals: its own signal and the signal
transmitted by a second station. To distinguish between these two cases, the received signals
in these two cases must be significantly different.
 We need to avoid collisions on wireless networks because they cannot be detected. Carrier
sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMAlCA) was invented for this network.
 Collisions are avoided through the use of CSMA/CA's three strategies: the interframe space,
the contention window, and acknowledgments.

Interframe Space (IFS)

 collisions are avoided by deferring transmission even if the channel is found idle. When an
idle channel is found, the station does not send immediately.
 It waits for a period of time called the interframe space (IFS). Even though the channel may
appear idle when it is sensed, a distant station may have already started transmitting. The
distant station's signal has not yet reached this station.
 The IFS time allows the front of the transmitted signal by the distant station to reach this
station. to the contention time.
 The IFS variable can also be used to prioritize stations or frame types. For example, a station
that is assigned a shorter IFS has a higher priority.
 In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame.
 In CSMAlCA, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the timer of the
contention window; it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel becomes idle.

With all these precautions, there still may be a collision resulting in destroyed data. In addition,
the data may be corrupted during the transmission. The positive acknowledgment and the
time-out timer can help guarantee that the receiver has received the frame.

Procedure
Fig. 3.10 shows the procedure. Note that the channel needs to be sensed before and after the IFS.
The channel also needs to be sensed during the contention time. For each time slot of the
contention window, the channel is sensed. If it is found idle, the timer continues; if the channel
is found busy, the timer is stopped and continues after the timer becomes idle again
2 CONTROLLED ACCESS
 In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which station has the right to
send.
 A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations.
 The following are the popular controlled-access methods.

A) RESERVATION
 A station needs to make a reservation before sending data.
 Time is divided into intervals. In each interval, a reservation frame precedes the data frames
sent in that interval.
 If there are N stations in the system, there are exactly N reservation mini slots in the
reservation frame. Each mini slot belongs to a station.
 When a station needs to send a data frame, it makes a reservation in its own mini slot. The
stations that have made reservations can send their data frames after the reservation frame.
B) POLLING
 Polling works with topologies in which one device is designated as a primary station and the
other devices are secondary stations.
 All data exchanges must be made through the primary device even when the ultimate
destination is a secondary device. The primary device controls the link; the secondary devices
follow its instructions.
 It is up to the primary device to determine which device is allowed to use the channel at a
given time. The primary device, therefore, is always the initiator of a session.
 If the primary wants to receive data, it asks the secondary’s if they have anything to send; this
is called poll function.
 If the primary wants to send data, it tells the secondary to get ready to receive; this is called
select function.
Select
 The select function is used whenever the primary device has something to send.
Remember that the primary controls the link.
 If the primary is neither sending nor receiving data, it knows the link is available. If it has
something to send, the primary device sends it. What it does not know, however, is
whether the target device is prepared to receive.
 So the primary must alert the secondary to the upcoming transmission and wait for an
acknowledgment of the secondary's ready status. Before sending data, the primary creates
and transmits a select (SEL) frame, one field of which includes the address of the intended
secondary.
Poll
 The poll function is used by the primary device to solicit transmissions from the secondary
devices.
 When the primary is ready to receive data, it must ask (poll) each device in turn if it has
anything to send.
 When the first secondary is approached, it responds either with a NAK frame if it has
nothing to send or with data (in the form of a data frame) if it does. If the response is
negative (a NAK frame), then the primary polls the next secondary in the same manner
until it finds one with data to send.
 When the response is positive (a data frame), the primary reads the frame and returns an
acknowledgment (ACK frame), verifying its receipt.

C) TOKEN PASSING
 In the token-passing method, the stations in a network are organized in a logical ring. In other
words, for each station, there is a predecessor and a successor. The right to this access has been
passed from the predecessor to the current station. The right will be passed to the successor
when the current station has no more data to send.
  But how is the right to access the channel passed from one station to another? In this method,
a special packet called a token circulates through the ring. The possession of the token gives
the station the right to access the channel and send its data.
 When a station has some data to send, it waits until it receives the token from its predecessor.
It then holds the token and sends its data. When the station has no more data to send, it
releases the token, passing it to the next logical station in the ring.
 The station cannot send data until it receives the token again in the next round. In this
process, when a station receives the token and has no data to send, it just passes the data to
the next station.
 Token management is needed for this access method. Token management ensures:
i. Stations must be limited in the time they can have possession of the token.
ii. The token must be monitored to ensure it has not been lost or destroyed. For example, if a
station that is holding the token fails, the token will disappear from the network.
iii. Another function of token management is to assign priorities to the stations and to the types
of data being transmitted. And finally, token management is needed to make low-priority
stations release the token to high priority stations.

Logical Ring
 In the physical ring topology, when a station sends the token to its successor, the token cannot
be seen by other stations; the successor is the next one in line. This means that the token does
not have to have the address of the next successor.
 The problem with this topology is that if one of the links-the medium between two adjacent
stations fails, the whole system fails.
 The dual ring topology uses a second (auxiliary) ring which operates in the reverse direction
compared with the main ring. The second ring is for emergencies only. If one of the links in the
main ring fails, the system automatically combines the two rings to form a temporary ring.
 After the failed link is restored, the auxiliary ring becomes idle again. Note that for this
topology to work, each station needs to have two transmitter ports and two receiver ports.
The high-speed Token Ring networks called FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) and CDDI
(Copper Distributed Data Interface) use this topology.
 In the bus ring topology, also called a token bus, the stations are connected to a single cable
called a bus. They, however, make a logical ring, because each station knows the address of its
successor (and also predecessor for token management purposes).
 When a station has finished sending its data, it releases the token and inserts the address of its
successor in the token. Only the station with the address matching the destination address of
the token gets the token to access the shared media and removing stations from the ring is
easier.

3. CHANNELIZATION
 Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is
shared in time, frequency, or through code, between different stations.
 In this section, we discuss three channelization protocols: FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA.

A) Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available bandwidth is divided into
frequency bands.
 Each station is allocated a band to send its data i.e, each band is reserved for a specific station,
and it belongs to the station all the time.
 Each station also uses a bandpass filter to confine the transmitter frequencies. To prevent
station interferences, the allocated bands are separated from one another by small guard
bands.
 FDMA specifies a predetermined frequency band for the entire period of communication. This
means that stream data (a continuous flow of data that may not be packetized) can easily be
used with FDMA.

We need to emphasize that although FDMA and FDM conceptually seem similar, there are
differences between them. FDM, is a physical layer technique that combines the loads from
low-bandwidth channels and transmits them by using a high-bandwidth channel. The
channels that are combined are low -pass. The multiplexer modulates the signals, combines
them, and creates a bandpass signal. The bandwidth of each channel is shifted by the
 multiplexer. FDMA, on the other hand, is an access method in the data link layer. The data link
layer in each station tells its physical layer to make a bandpass signal from the data passed to
it. The signal must be created in the allocated band. There is no physical multiplexer at the
physical layer. The signals created at each station are automatically bandpass-filtered. They
are mixed when they are sent to the common channel.

B) Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

 In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in
time.
 Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data. Each station transmits its
data in is assigned time slot.
 The main problem with TDMA lies in achieving synchronization between the different
stations. Each station needs to know the beginning of its slot and the location of its slot.
 This may be difficult because of propagation delays introduced in the system if the stations
are spread over a large area. To compensate for the delays, we can insert guard times.
 Synchronization is normally accomplished by having some synchronization bits (normally
referred to as preamble bits) at the beginning of each slot.
We also need to emphasize that although TDMA and TDM conceptually seem the same, there are
differences between them. TDM, is a physical layer technique that combines the data from
slower channels and transmits them by using a faster channel. The process uses a physical
multiplexer that interleaves data units from each channel.
TDMA, on the other hand, is an access method in the data link layer. The data link layer in each
station tells its physical layer to use the allocated time slot. There is no physical multiplexer at
the physical layer.
C) Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 CDMA differs from FDMA because only one channel occupies the entire bandwidth of the link.
It differs from TDMA because all stations can send data simultaneously; there is no
timesharing.
 CDMA simply means communication with different codes. CDMA is based on coding theory.
Each station is assigned a code, which is a sequence of numbers called chips.
C) CDMA
 Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by various radio
communication technologies, in which several transmitters can send information
simultaneously over a single communication channel.
 CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each
transmitter is assigned a code).
 A spread spectrum technique spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same
transmitted power.
 Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing the codes
used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems.
 The best performance will occur when there is good separation between the signal of a
desired user and the signals of other users. The separation of the signals is made by
correlating the received signal with the locally generated code of the desired user.
 If the signal matches the desired user's code then the correlation function will be high and the
system can extract that signal. If the desired user's code has nothing in common with the
signal the correlation should be as close to zero as possible (thus eliminating the signal); this
is referred to as cross-correlation.
 If the code is correlated with the signal at any time offset other than zero, the correlation
should be as close to zero as possible. This is referred to as auto-correlation and is used to
reject multi-path interference.
 WAN PROTOCOLS
a) HDLC
 High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol for communication over point-
to-point and multipoint links. It implements the ARQ mechanisms.
 HDLC provides two common transfer modes that can be used in different configurations:
normal response mode (NRM) and asynchronous balanced mode (ABM). HDLC frame format
is as follows.

 In normal response mode (NRM), the station configuration is unbalanced.

 We have one primary station and multiple secondary stations. A primary station can send
commands; a secondary station can only respond.
 The NRM is used for both point-to-point and multiple-point links.
 In asynchronous balanced mode (ABM), the configuration is balanced.
 The link is point-to-point, and each station can function as a primary and a secondary.

b) POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL
 It is one the commonly used protocols for point to point connection links, millions of Internet
users who need to connect their home computers to the server of an Internet service provider
use PPP.
 PPP frame format’
 It provides several services:
 PPP defines the format of the frame to be exchanged between devices.
 PPP defines how two devices can negotiate the establishment of the link and the exchange of
data.
 PPP defines how network layer data are encapsulated in the data link frame.
 PPP defines how two devices can authenticate each other.
 PPP provides multiple network layer services supporting a variety of network layer protocols.
 PPP provides connections over multiple links.
 PPP provides network address configuration. This is particularly useful when a home user
needs a temporary network address to connect to the Internet.
 To keep PPP simple, several services are missing i.e it lacks the following features:
PPP does not provide flow control. A sender can send several frames one after another with
no concern about overwhelming the receiver.
PPP has a very simple mechanism for error control. A CRC field is used to detect errors. If the
frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded; the upper-layer protocol needs to takecare of the
problem. Lack of error control and sequence numbering may cause a packet to be received out
of order.
PPP does not provide a sophisticated addressing mechanism to handle frames in a multipoint
configuration.

c)X.25
• X.25 is a standard used by many older public networks specially outside the U.S.
• This was developed in 1970s by CCITT for providing an interface between public packet-
switched network and their customers.
• X.25 was developed for computer connections, used for terminal/timesharing connection.
• This protocol is based on the protocols used in early packet switching networks such as
ARPANET, DATAPAC, and TRANSPAC etc.
• X.25 Packet Switched networks allows remote devices to communicate with each other across
high speed digital links without the expense of individual leased lines.
• X.25 is a connection oriented service. It supports switched virtual circuits as well as the
permanent circuits.
• Packet Switching is a technique whereby the network routes individual packets of HDLC data
between different destinations based on addressing within each packet.
• A switched virtual circuit is established between a computer and network when the computer
sends a packet to the network requesting to make a call to other computer.
• Packets can then be sent over this connection from sender to receiver.
• X.25 provides the flow control, to avoid a fast sender overriding a slow or busy receiver.
• A permanent virtual circuit is analogous to-a leased line. It is set up in advance with a mutual
agreement between the users.

d) Frame Relay
 Frame relay has evolved from X.25 packet switching and objective is to reduce network
delays, protocol overheads and equipment cost.
 Error correction is done on an end-to-end basis rather than a link -to-link basis as in X.25
switching.
 Frame relay can support multiple users over the same line and can establish a permanent
virtual circuit or a switched virtual circuit.
 Frame relay is considered to be a protocol, which must be carried over a physical link. While
useful for connection of LANs, the combination of low throughput, delay variation and frame
discard when the link is congested will limit its usefulness to multimedia.
 Frame relay was developed for taking the advantage of the high data rates and low error rates
in the modem communication system.

Frame relay frame:

 The frame relay frame formatis very similar to the HDLC frame except for the missing control
field here.
 The control field is not needed because flow and error control are not needed.
Advantages of frame relay:

Some of the advantages of frame relay are:

1. Streamlined communication process.

2. The number of functions of a protocol at the user-network interface is reduced.

3. Lower delay.

4. Higher throughput.

5. Frame relay can be used at access speeds upto 2 Mbps.

6. Frame Relay is cost- effective, partly due to the fact that the network buffering requirements
are carefully optimized.

7. Compared to X.25, with its store and forward mechanism and full error correction, network
buffering is minimal.

8. Frame Relay is also much faster than X.25: the frames are switched to their destination with
only a few byte times delay, as opposed to several hundred milliseconds delay on X.25.
Disadvantages of frame relay:

1. Frames are delivered unreliably.

2. Packets may not be delivered in the same sequence as that at the sending end.

3. Packets having errors are simply discarded.

4. Frame relay does not provide flow control.

5. It does not provide the acknowledgement of received packets.

6. Frame discarded in case of network congestion. If congestion occurs in the network, frame
(data) is discarded within the network without retransmission of this frame. The sender must
perform retransmission control at his own responsibility.

e) ISDN

 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a system of digital phone connections that has
been designed for sending voice, video, and data simultaneously over digital or ordinary
phone lines, with a much faster speed and higher quality than an analog system can provide.
 ISDN uses two channels for communication which are the Bearer Channel or the B channel
and the Delta Channel of the D Channel.
 The B channel is used for the data transmission and the D channel is used for signaling and
control, though data can be transmitted through the D channels as well.
 ISDN has two access options, the Basic Rate Interface, also known as the BRI or the Basic Rate
Access or BRA and Primary Rate Interface or Primary Rate Access.
 Basic Rate Interface is made up of two B channels with a bandwidth of 64 Kbit/s and a D
channel with a bandwidth with 16 Kbit/s.
 The Basic Rate Interface is also known as 2B+D.
 Primary Rate Interface has a greater number of B channels, which varies from nation to nation
across the globe, and a D channel with a bandwidth of 64 Kbit/s. For example, in North
 America and Japan a PRI is represented as 23B+D (a total bit rate of 1.544 Mbit/s) while it is
30B+D in Australia and Europe (equivalent to a bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s).
 ISDN is relatively old technology. ISDN is the technology that is often used behind the recent
technology. 0
IEEE STANDARDS
 In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called Project 802, to set
standards to enable intercommunication among equipment from a variety of manufacturers.
 Project 802 does not seek to replace any part of the OSI or the Internet model. Instead, it is a
way of specifying functions of the physical layer and the data link layer of major LAN
protocols.
 The standard was adopted by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). In 1987, the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) also approved it as an international
standard under the designation ISO 8802.
 The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers: logical link control (LLC) and
media access control (MAC). IEEE has also created several physical layer standards for
different LAN protocols.
A) DATA LINK LAYER
 As we mentioned before, the data link layer in the IEEE standard is divided into two
sublayers: LLC and MAC.
Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Data link control handles framing, flow control, and error control.
 In IEEE Project 802, flow control, error control, and part of the framing duties are collected
into one sublayer called the logical link control.
 Framing is handled in both the LLC sublayer and the MAC sublayer. The LLC provides one
single data link control protocol for all IEEE LANs.
 In this way, the LLC is different from the media access control sublayer, which provides
different protocols for different LANs. A single LLC protocol can provide interconnectivity
between different LANs because it makes the MAC sublayer transparent.
 Framing LLC defines a protocol data unit (PDU) that is somewhat similar to that of HDLC.
The header contains a control field like the one in HDLC; this field is used for flow and
error control. The two other header fields define the upper-layer protocol at the source
and destination that uses LLC.
 These fields are called the destination service access point (DSAP) and the source service
access point (SSAP). The other fields defined in a typical data link control protocol such as
HDLC are moved to the MAC sublayer.
 In other words, a frame defined in HDLC is divided into a PDU at the LLC sublayer and a
frame at the MAC sublayer.
 The purpose of the LLC is to provide flow and error control for the upper-layer protocols
that actually demand these services. For example, if a LAN or several LANs are used in an
isolated system, LLC may be needed to provide flow and error control for the application
layer protocols. However, most upper-layer protocols such as IP, do not use the services of
LLC
Media Access Control (MAC)
 We have already discussed multiple access methods including random access, controlled
access, and channelization. IEEE Project 802 has created a sublayer called media access
control that defines the specific access method for each LAN.
 For example, it defines CSMA/CD as the media access method for Ethernet LANs and the
token passing method for Token Ring and Token Bus LANs.
 As we discussed in the previous section, part of the framing function is also handled by the
MAC layer. In contrast to the LLC sublayer, the MAC sublayer contains a number of distinct
modules; each defines the access method and the framing format specific to the
corresponding LAN protocol.

STANDARD ETHERNET

 The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC).
 Since then, it has gone through four generations: Standard Ethernet (lot Mbps), Fast Ethernet
(100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (l Gbps), and Ten-Gigabit Ethernet (l0 Gbps)
 Frame Format
 Ethernet does not provide any mechanism for acknowledging received frames, making it what
is known as an unreliable medium.
 Acknowledgments must be implemented at the higher layers. The format of the MAC frame is.

· Preamble. The first field of the 802.3 frame contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of alternating Os and Is
that alerts the receiving system to the coming frame and enables it to synchronize its input
timing. The pattern provides only an alert and a timing pulse. The 56-bit pattern allows the
stations to miss some bits at the beginning of the frame. The preamble is actually added at the
physical layer and is not (formally) part of the frame.
· Start frame delimiter (SFD). The second field (l byte: 10101011) signals the beginning of the
frame. The SFD warns the station or stations that this is the last chance for synchronization.
The last 2 bits is 11 and alerts the receiver that the next field is the destination address.
· Destination address (DA). The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the
destination station or stations to receive the packet.
· Source address (SA). The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the
sender of the packet.
· Length or type. This field is defined as a type field or length field. The original Ethernet used
this field as the type field to define the upper-layer protocol using the MAC frame. The IEEE
standard used it as the length field to define the number of bytes in the data field. Both uses
are common today.
· Data. This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols. It is a minimum of
46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes.
· CRC. The last field contains error detection information, in this case a CRC-32
a) Standard Ethernet.
 The Standard Ethernet defines several physical layer implementations; four of the most
common, are.

Encoding and Decoding

 All standard implementations use digital signaling (baseband) at 10 Mbps.
 At the sender, data are converted to a digital signal using the Manchester scheme; at the
receiver, the received signal is interpreted as Manchester and decoded into data. Table below
shows a summary of Standard Ethernet implementations.
b) FAST ETHERNET
 Fast Ethernet was designed to compete with LAN protocols such as FDDI.
 IEEE created Fast Ethernet under the name 802.3u. Fast Ethernet is backward-compatible
with Standard Ethernet, but it can transmit data 10 times faster at a rate of 100 Mbps. The
goals of Fast Ethernet can be summarized as follows:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps.
2. Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet.
3. Keep the same 48-bit address.
4. Keep the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
 A new feature added to Fast Ethernet is called auto negotiation. It allows a station or a hub a
range of capabilities. Auto negotiation allows two devices to negotiate the mode or data rate
of operation. It was designed particularly for the following purposes:
· To allow incompatible devices to connect to one another. For example, a device with a
maximum capacity of 10 Mbps can communicate with a device with a 100 Mbps capacity (but
can work at a lower rate).
· To allow one device to have multiple capabilities.
· To allow a station to check a hub's capabilities.
Fast Ethernet implementation at the physical layer can be categorized as either two-wire or four-
wire. The two-wire implementation can be either category 5 UTP (lOOBase-TX) or fiber-optic
cable (lOOBase-FX). The four-wire implementation is designed only for category 3 UTP
(l00Base-T4). See Fig. 3.21.

Fast Ethernet implementations

Summary of Fast Ethernet implementations

c) GIGABIT ETHERNET
 The need for an even higher data rate resulted in the design of the Gigabit Ethernet protocol
(1000 Mbps).
 The IEEE committee calls the Standard 802.3z. The goals of the Gigabit Ethernet design can be
summarized as follows:

1. Upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps.

2. Make it compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet.
3. Use the same 48-bit address.
4. Use the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
6. To support autonegotiation as defined in Fast Ethernet.
WIRELESS LAN
 Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies. The demand for
connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing everywhere.
 Wireless LANs can be found on college campuses, in office buildings, and in many public areas.
In this we concentrate on two promising wireless technologies for LANs: IEEE 802.11 wireless
LANs, sometimes called wireless Ethernet, and Bluetooth, a technology for small wireless
LANs. Although both protocols need several layers to operate, we concentrate mostly on the
physical and data link layers.

IEEE 802.11
IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11, which covers the
physical and data link layers.
A) ARCHITECTURE
The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and the extended service
set (ESS).
Basic Service Set
IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building block of a wireless LAN. A basic
service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central base
station, known as the access point (AP). Fig. 3.23 shows two sets in this standard. The BSS
without anAP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs. It is called an ad
hocarchitecture. In this architecture, stations can form a network without the need of an AP;
theycan locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS. A BSS with an AP is sometimes
referred to as an infrastructure network.
Extended Service Set
An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs. In this case, the BSSs are
connected through a distribution system, which is usually a wired LAN. The distribution
system connects the APs in the BSSs. IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it
can be any IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet. Note that the extended service set uses two types of
stations: mobile and stationary. The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS. The
stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN. Fig. 3.24 shows an ESS

Extended service sets (ESSs )

When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one another can communicate without the
use of an AP. However, communication between two stations in two different BSSs usually
occurs via two APs. The idea is similar to communication in a cellular network if we consider
each BSS to be a cell and each AP to be a base station. Note that a mobile station can belong to
more than one BSS at the same time. 802.11 and 802.11x refers to a family of specifications
developed by the IEEE for wirelessLAN (WLAN) technology. 802.11 specify an over-the-air
interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients. The
IEEE accepted the specification in 1997. There are several specifications in the 802.11 family:
· 802.11 — applies to wireless LANs and provides 1 or 2 Mbps transmission in the 2.4GHz
band using either frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS).
· 802.11a — an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANs and provides up to 54-Mbps
in the 5GHz band. 802.11a uses an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing encoding
scheme rather than FHSS or DSSS.
· 802.11b (also referred to as 802.11 High Rate or Wi-Fi) — an extension to 802.11 thatapplies
to wireless LANS and provides 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5, 2 and 1-Mbps) in
the 2.4 GHz band. 802.11b uses only DSSS. 802.11b was a1999 ratification to the original
802.11 standard, allowing wireless functionality comparable to Ethernet.
· 802.11e — a wireless draft standard that defines theQualityofService(QoS) support forLANs,
and is an enhancement to the 802.11a and 802.11b wireless LAN (WLAN) specifications.
802.11e adds QoS features and multimedia support to the existing IEEE 802.11b and IEEE
802.11a wireless standards, while maintaining full backward compatibility with these
standards.
· 802.11g — applies to wireless LANs and is used for transmission over short distances at
up to 54-Mbps in the 2.4 GHz bands.
802.11n — 802.11n builds upon previous 802.11 standards by addingmultiple-input
multiple-output(MIMO). The additional transmitter and receiver antennas allow forincreased
data throughput through spatial multiplexing and increased range by exploiting the spatial
diversity through coding schemes like Alamouti coding. The real speed would be 100 Mbit/s
(even 250 Mbit/s in PHY level), and so up to 4-5 times faster than 802.11g.
· 802.11ac — 802.11ac builds upon previous 802.11 standards, particularly the
802.11nstandard, to deliver data rates of 433Mbps per spatial stream, or 1.3Gbps in a three-
antenna (three stream) design. The 802.11ac specification operates only in the 5 GHz
frequency range and features support for wider channels (80MHz and 160MHz) and beam
forming capabilities by default to help achieve its higher wireless speeds.
· 802.11ac Wave 2 — 802.11ac Wave 2 is an update for the original 802.11ac spec thatuses
MU-MIMO technology and other advancements to help increase theoretical maximum
wireless speeds for the spec to 6.93 Gbps.
· 802.11ad — 802.11ad is a wireless specification under development that will operate inthe
 60GHz frequency band and offer much higher transfer rates than previous 802.11 specs, with
a theoretical maximum transfer rate of up to 7Gbps (Gigabits per second).
· 802.11r - 802.11r, also calledFastBasicServiceSet(BSS) Transition, supports VoWi-
Fi handoff between access points to enable VoIP roaming on a Wi-Fi network with 802.1X
authentication.
· 802.1X — Not to be confused with 802.11x (which is the term used to describe thefamily of
802.11 standards) 802.1X is an IEEE standard for port-based Network Access Control that
allows network administrators to restricted use of IEEE 802 LAN service access points to
secure communication between authenticated and authorized devices.
Bluetooth IEEE 802.16
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such as
telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop), cameras, printers, coffee makers, and
so on. A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed
spontaneously; the devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a network
called a piconet. A Bluetooth LAN can even be connected to the Internet if one of the gadgets
has this capability. A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large. If there are many gadgets that
try to connect, there is chaos. Bluetooth technology has several applications. Peripheral
devices such as a wireless mouse or keyboard can communicate with the computer through
this technology. Monitoring devices can communicate with sensor devices in a small health
care center. Home security devices can use this technology to connect different sensors to the
main security controller. Conference attendees can synchronize their laptop computers at a
conference. Bluetooth was originally started as a project by the Ericsson Company. It is named
for Harald Blaatand, the king of Denmark (940-981) who united Denmark and Norway.
Blaatand translates to Bluetooth in English. Today, Bluetooth technology is the
implementation of a protocol defined by the IEEE 802.15 standard. The standard defines a
wireless personal-area network (PAN) operable in an area the size of a room or a hall.
A) ARCHITECTURE
Bluetooth defines two types of networks: piconet and scatternet.
Piconets
A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net. A piconet can have up to eight stations,
one of which is called the primary the rest are called secondary. All the secondary stations
synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the primary. Note that a piconet can
haveonly one primary station. The communication between the primary and the secondary
can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Fig. 3.25 shows a piconet.

Piconet
Although a piconet can have a maximum of seven secondaries, an additional eight secondaries
can be in the parked state. A secondary in a parked state is synchronized with the primary, but
cannot take part in communication until it is moved from the parked state. Because only eight
stations can be active in a piconet, activating a station from the parked state means that an
active station must go to the parked state.
Scatternet
Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet. A secondary station in one piconet
can be the primary in another piconet. This station can receive messages from the primary in
the first piconet (as a secondary) and, acting as a primary, deliver them to secondaries in the
second piconet. A station can be a member of two piconets. Fig. 3.26 illustrates a scatternet.
 Scatternet
B) BLUETOOTH LAYERS
Bluetooth uses several layers that do not exactly match those of the Internet model Fig. 3.27
shows these layers.

Bluetooth layers
Radio Layer
The radio layer is roughly equivalent to the physical layer of the Internet model. Bluetooth
devices are low-power and have a range of 10 m. Bluetooth uses a 2.4 -GHz ISM band divided
into 79 channels of 1 MHz each. Bluetooth uses the frequency-hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS) method in the physical layer to avoid interference from other devices or other
networks. Bluetooth hops 1600 times per second, which means that each device changes its
modulation frequency 1600 times per second. To transform bits to a signal, Bluetooth uses a
sophisticated version of FSK, called GFSK.
Baseband Layer
The baseband layer is roughly equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. The access method is
TDMA. The primary and secondary communicate with each other using time slots. The length
of a time slot is exactly the same as the dwell time, 625µs. This means that during the time
that one frequency is used, a sender sends a frame to a secondary, or a secondary sends a
frame to the primary. Note that the communication is only between the primary and a
secondary; secondaries cannot communicate directly with one another.
L2CAP
The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol, or L2CAP (L2 here means LL), is roughly
equivalent to the LLC sublayer in LANs. It is used for data exchange on an ACL link; SCQ
channels do not use L2CAP. Figure 14.25 shows the format of the data packet at this level. The
I6-bit length field defines the size of the data, in bytes, coming from the upper layers. Data can
be up to 65,535 bytes. The channel ID (CID) defines a unique identifier for the virtual channel
created at this level (see below). The L2CAP has specific duties: multiplexing, segmentation
and reassembly, quality of service (QoS), and group management.
Network Troubleshooting

 Network troubleshooting is the collective measures and processes used to identify, diagnose
and resolve problems and issues within a computer network.
 It is a systematic process that aims to resolve problems and restore normal network
operations within the network.
 Network troubleshooting is primarily done by network engineers or administrators to repair
or optimize a network. It is generally done to recover and establish network or Internet
connections on end nodes/devices.
 Some of the processes within network troubleshooting include but are not limited to:

 Finding and resolving problems and establishing Internet/network connection of a

computer/device/node
 Configuring a router, switch or any network management device
 Installing cables or Wi-Fi devices
 Updating firmware devices on router switch
 Removing viruses
 Adding, configuring and reinstalling a network printer

 Network troubleshooting can be a manual or automated task. When using automated tools,
network management can be done using network diagnostic software.

Network Troubleshooting Commands

 Troubleshooting computer network is one of the most important job description for network
administrators, system administrators, network technicians and IT consultants.
 A computer network may have different types of problems as being infected with viruses and
spyware, hacker attacks, can access by unauthorized users and may Connectivity problems
due to failure of the faulty network devices or configurations face.
 The following is a list of basic network troubleshooting commands that are built into the
Windows-based operating systems and UNIX etc.
 I. PING (Packet Internet/Inter-Network Groper)
 Ping is the most important troubleshooting command and checks the connectivity with other
computers.
 For example, your system’s IP address is 10.10.10.10 and your network server’s IP address is
10.10.10.1 and you can check the connection to the server by using the ping command in the
following format.
 At DOS command prompt, type ping 10.10.10.1 and press Enter, When you receive the
response from the server then the connectivity is ok and if you get the error message like this
means to get “Request time out” so that there is a problem in connecting to the server.
II. IPCONFIG
 It shows the IP address of the computer and it shows the DNS, Gateway addresses the
network and subnet mask.
 At DOS prompt type ipconfig and press Enter to see the IP address of your computer.
ipconfig In DOS prompt / all and press Enter to display the detailed information.
III. NSLOOKUP
 NSLOOKUP is a TCP / IP-based command and checks domain name aliases, DNS records,
information on the operating system by query the Internet domain name server.
 You can correct the error with the DNS server on your network
IV. HOST NAME
 Hostname command shows you the name of the computer.
 At DOS prompt hostname and press Enter
V. NETSTAT
 NETSTAT utility shows a statistical protocols and the current established TCP / IP
connections to the computer.
VI. NBTSTAT
 NBTSTAT helps to resolve the NetBIOS name resolution problems.
VII. ARP
 ARP displays and modifies IP Physical address translation table that is used by the ARP
protocols.
VIII. FINGER
 Finger command is used to retrieve information about a user on a network.
IX. TRACERT
 Tracert command is used to determine the path of the remote system.
 This tool also provides the number of hops and the IP address of each hop. For example, if you
see how many hops (routers) are involved to achieve, www.yahoo.com, and what the IP
address of each hop is then to use the following command.
 At the command prompt, type tracert www.yahoo.com you a list of all the hops and their IP
addresses to see. It is used in windows operating system
X. TRACE ROUTE
 Traceroute is a very useful network debugging command and it shows the distance between
the two systems are used. It’s used in linux operating systems.
XI. ROUTE
 Route command, you can manually make entries in the routing table.
 Hopefully, the above commands will help you diagnose the troubleshooting computer
networking problems.
NB

 Reporting of a problem triggers the troubleshooting process.

 Troubleshooting starts by defining the problem.
 The second step is diagnosing the problem, during which information is gathered, the
problem definition is refined, and possible causes for the problem are proposed.
 Eventually, this process should lead to a hypothesis for the root cause of the problem. At this
time, possible solutions need to be proposed and evaluated.
 Next, the best solution is selected and implemented.
 The following illustrates the main elements of a structured troubleshooting approach and the
transition possibilities from one step to the next.
NETWORK DESIGN

 Network design refers to the planning of the implementation of a computer network

infrastructure.
 Network design is generally performed by network designers, engineers, IT administrators
and other related staff. It is done before the implementation of a network infrastructure.
 Network design involves evaluating, understanding and scoping the network to be
implemented. The whole network design is usually represented as a network diagram that
serves as the blueprint for implementing the network physically.
 Typically, network design includes the following:

 Logical map of the network to be designed

 Cabling structure
 Quantity, type and location of network devices (router, switches, servers)
 IP addressing structure
 Network security architecture and overall network security processes

 The steps required to design a good network are as follows:

Step 1. Verify the business goals and technical requirements.
Step 2. Determine the features and functions required to meet the needs identified in Step 1.
Step 3. Perform a network-readiness assessment.
Step 4. Create a solution and site acceptance test plan.
Step 5. Create a project plan.
Network Requirements
A good network should be of the following standard:
■The network should stay up all the time, even in the event of failed links, equipment failure, and
overloaded conditions.
■The network should reliably deliver applications and provide reasonable response times from
any host to any host.
■The network should be secure. It should protect the data that is transmitted over it and data
stored on the devices that connect to it.
■The network should be easy to modify to adapt to network growth and general business
changes.
■Because failures occasionally occur, troubleshooting should be easy. Finding and fixing a
problem should not be too time-consuming.
Hierarchical Network Design
 To meet the fundamental design goals, a network must be built on an architecture that allows
for both flexibility and growth.
 Hierarchical design is used to group devices into multiple networks.
 The networks areorganized in a layered approach. The hierarchical design model has three
basic layers:
■Core layer: Connects distribution layer devices. The core layer is responsible for transporting
large amounts of data quickly and reliably. The designer must ensure that the core layer is
designed with fault tolerance, especially because all users in the network can be affected by a
failure. The ability to avoid unnecessary delays in network traffic quickly becomes a top
priority for the network designer.
■Distribution layer: Interconnects the smaller local networks. The distribution layer represents
a routing boundary between the access layer and the core layer. It
also serves as a connection point between remote sites and the core layer.
■Access layer: Provides connectivity for network hosts and end devices
 Hierarchical networks have advantages over flat network designs. The benefit of dividing a
flat network into smaller, more manageable hierarchical blocks is that local traffic remains
local.
 Only traffic destined for other networks is moved to a higher layer.
 NETWORK SECURITY

 Network security is the process by which digital information assets and data are protected.
 Computer Security means to protect information. It deals with prevention and detection of
unauthorized actions by users of a computer.
 The goals of network security are as follows:

■Protect confidentiality

■Maintain integrity

■Ensure availability

 It is important that all networks be protected from threats and vulnerabilities for a business
to achieve its fullest potential.
 Typically, these threats are persistent because of vulnerabilities, which can arise from the
following:

■Misconfigured hardware or software

■Poor network design

■Inherent technology weaknesses

■End-user carelessness

■Intentional end-user acts (that is, disgruntled employees)

Vulnerability
 Vulnerability is a cyber-security term that refers to a flaw in a system that can leave it open to
attack i.e A weakness that is inherent in every network and device. This includes routers,
switches, desktops, servers, and even security devices themselves.
 A vulnerability may also refer to any type of weakness in a computer system itself, in a set of
procedures, or in anything that leaves information security exposed to a threat.
 Vulnerabilities are what information security and information assurance professionals seek to
reduce.
 Cutting down vulnerabilities provides fewer options for malicious users to gain access to
secure information.
 Computer users and network personnel can protect computer systems from vulnerabilities by
keeping software security patches up to date. These patches can remedy flaws or security
holes that were found in the initial release.
 Computer and network personnel should also stay informed about current vulnerabilities in
the software they use and seek out ways to protect against them.

Classification of vulnerabilities

hardware vulnerabilities
 susceptibility to humidity
 susceptibility to dust
 susceptibility to soiling
 susceptibility to unprotected storage
software vulnerabilities
 insufficient testing
 lack of audit trail
network vulnerabilities
 unprotected communication lines
 insecure network architecture
personnel vulnerabilities
 inadequate recruiting process
 inadequate security awareness
site vulnerabilities
 area subject to flood
 unreliable power source
organizational vulnerabilities
 lack of regular audits
 lack of continuity plans
 lack of security
Threats
 The people eager, willing, and qualified to take advantage of each securityweakness, and they
continually search for new exploits and weaknesses.
 In computer security a threat is a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability to breach
security and thus cause possible harm.
 A threat can be either "intentional" (i.e., intelligent; e.g., an individual cracker or a criminal
organization) or "accidental" (e.g., the possibility of a computer malfunctioning, or the
possibility of an "act of God" such as an earthquake, a fire, or a tornado) or otherwise a
circumstance, capability, action, or event.

Threats classification

Threats can be classified according to their type and origin:

 Type

o Physical damage

 fire

 water

 pollution

o natural events

 climatic

 seismic

 volcanic

o loss of essential services

 electrical power

 air conditioning

 telecommunication

o compromise of information
 eavesdropping,

 theft of media

 retrieval of discarded materials

o technical failures

 equipment

 software

 capacity saturation

o compromise of functions

 error in use

 abuse of rights

 denial of actions

 Origin

o Deliberate: aiming at information asset

 spying

 illegal processing of data

o accidental

 equipment failure

 software failure

o environmental

 natural event

 loss of power supply

Threats

There are four primary classes of threats to network security.

Unstructured threats—Unstructured threats consist of mostly inexperienced individuals

using easily available hacking tools such as shell scripts and password crackers. Even

unstructured threats that are only executed with the intent of testing and challenging a

hacker’s skills can still do serious damage to a company. For example, if an external company

website is hacked, the integrity of the company is damaged. Even if the external website

is separate from the internal information that sits behind a protective firewall, the public

does not know that. All the public knows is that the site is not a safe environment to

conduct business.

■Structured threats— Structured threats come from hackers who are more highly motivated

and technically competent. These people know system vulnerabilities and can understand

and develop exploit code and scripts. They understand, develop, and use sophisticated

hacking techniques to penetrate unsuspecting businesses. These groups are often involved

with the major fraud and theft cases reported to law enforcement agencies.

■External threats—External threats can arise from individuals or organizations working outside

of a company. They do not have authorized access to the computer systems or network.

They work their way into a network mainly from the Internet or dialup access servers.

■Internal threats—Internal threats occur when someone has authorized access to the network

with either an account on a server or physical access to the network. According to the

FBI, internal access and misuse account for 60 percent to 80 percent of reported incidents.
a) Network security threats:

i. hacking
ii. unauthorized access
iii. tapping
iv. eavesdropping
v. spying
vi. phishing

b) Security techniques

 Password

 Encryption techniques

 Authentication

 Authorization- where access is authorized

 Privileges - A special right, advantage, or immunity granted or available only to one person or
group of people.
INTERNET.
What is the Internet?

 It is a large no. of connected computers (or a large set of computer networks) linked together
that communicate with each other, over telephone lines.
 It is a worldwide computer network connecting thousands of computer networks, through a
mixture of private & public data using the telephone lines.
 It is a worldwide (global or an international) network of computers that provide a variety of
resources and data to the people that use it.
 Internet refers to a global inter-connection of computers and computer networks to facilitate
global information transfer. It is an interconnection of computers throughout the world,
using ordinary telecommunication lines and modems.
The other names for the Internet are:

- The Net.
- Information Superhighway.
- Cyber space.
HISTORY (DEVELOPMENT) OF THE INTERNET.
The Internet was started by the U.S Department of Defence in 1969 as a network of 4 computers
called ARPANET. Its aim was to connect a set of computers operated by several Universities
and Scientists doing military research so as to enable them share research data.

The original network grew as more computers were added to it. By 1974, 62 computers were already
attached.

In 1983, the Internet split into 2 parts; one dedicated exclusively (solely/only) to military installations
(called Milnet), and the other dedicated to university research (called the Internet), with around
1,000 host computers.

In 1985, the Canadian government developed the BITNET to link all the CanadianUniversities, and
also provided connections into the U.S Internet.

In 1986, the U.S National Service Foundation created NSFNET to connect leading U.S universities.
By the end of 1987, there were 10,000 host computers on the Internet and 1,000 on BITNET.

In 1987, the National Science Foundation leased (acquired/rent) high-speed circuits to build a new
high-speed backbone for NSFNET. In 1988, it connected 13 regional internal networks
containing 170 LAN‟s and 56,000 host computers.
The Canadian Research Council followed in 1989, replacing BITNET with a high-speed network
called CA*net that used the Internet protocols. By the end of 1989, there were almost 200,000
host computers on the combined U.S and Canadian Internet.

Similar initiatives (plans/projects) were undertaken by other countries in the world, such that by the
early 1990s, most of the individual country networks were linked together into one worldwide
network of networks.
Each of these individual country networks was different (i.e., each had its own name, access rules,
and fees structure), but all the networks used the same standard as the U.S Internet network. So,
users could easily exchange messages with each other.

By 1990s, the differences among the networks in each of the countries had disappeared, and the U.S
name; Internet began to be used to mean the entire worldwide system of networks that used the
Internet TCP/IP protocols.

A Protocol - a set of rules and standards that computers use to communicate with each other over a
Network.

Features of the Internet.

(i). The Internet is a collection of networks; it is not owned or controlled by any single
organization, and it has no formal management organization. However, there is an Internet
Society that co-ordinates and sets standards for its use.
In addition, Networks have no political boundaries on the exchange of information.

(ii). Networks are connected by Gateways that effectively remove barriers so that one type of
network can “talk” to a different type of network.
(iii). To join the Internet, an existing network will only be required to pay a small registration fee
and agree to certain standards based on TCP/IP.
The costs are low, because the Internet owns nothing, and so it has no real costs to offset. Each
organization pays for its own network & its own telephone bills, but these costs usually
exist independent of the Internet.

(iv). Networks that join the Internet must agree to move each other‟s traffic (data) at no charge
to the others, just as it is the case with mail delivered through the International Postal
system. This is why all the data appear to move at the cost of a local telephone call, making
the Net a very cheap communication media.
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERNET.
1. Communication.
Many people all over the world use the Internet to communicate with each other.
Internet communication capabilities include; E-mail, Usenet Newsgroups, Chatting and Telnet.
You can send e-mails to your friends anywhere in the world, chat with your friends, send
instant messages, etc.
2. Information retrieval.
The Internet is a library. Thousands of books, magazines, newspapers and encyclopedias can be
read on the Internet.
3. Easy-to-use offerings of information and products.
You can find information for your school assignments, buy books online, check what the weather
is like anywhere in the world, and much more.
INTERNET SERVICES.
The following are some of the services offered by Internet:

(i). Electronic mail (e-mail).

(ii). Fax services.
(iii). Conference services.
(iv). Online chatting.
(v). Downloading of programs.
(vi). Online shopping.
(vii). File transfer.
(viii). Entertainment (Games, Music and Movies).
(ix). Free information retrieval (e.g., Educational information).
(x). Formation of Discussion groups, e.g. Usenet Newsgroups.
(xi). Video Conferencing.
(xii). Access &Use of other computers.

Electronic Mail (E-mail).

An E-mail is a system that enables sending & receiving of messages electronically through
computers. It is used for communication between organizations or departments in the same
organization.

E-mail is a quick, cheap, efficient & convenient means of communication with both individuals and
groups. It is faster than ordinary mail, easy to manage, inexpensive and saves paper.
With Internet mail, it is possible to send and receive messages quickly from businesses, friends or
family in another part of the world. An E-mail message can travel around the world in minutes.

Fax services.
Fax services enable individuals & businesses to send faxes through e-mail at a lower cost compared
to the usual international Fax charges.

Conference services.
Conferencing on the Web can be defined as the dynamic exchange of all kinds of information –
text, graphics, audio, video, etc – in a situation whereby the conversations are organized by item
and allows a participant to contribute spontaneous responses to any item in the conversation.

Application of Conferencing on the Web.

The conversation can:

 Provide important information that can assist in decision-making.

 Provide any required technical support.
 Help in community-building, project management & distance learning.
 Help to organize electronic meetings, etc.
The Internet also allows you to have access to various types of information you might require to
make accurate and informed decisions, E.g., it provides information on business, education,
sports, politics, etc.

Chatting.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a chatting system on the Internet that allows a large no. of people from
various locations of the world who are on the computer to chat (i.e., simultaneously hold live and
interactive electronic conversations) among themselves.

You can join discussion groups on the Internet and meet people around the world with similar
interests. You can ask questions, discuss problems and read interesting stories.

Anyone interested in chatting can join a discussion forum on one of the listed topics. Only people
who happen to be signed on at the same time are able to talk because messages are not stored.
This discussion can be an effective business tool if people who can benefit from interactive
conversation set a specific appointment to meet and talk on a particular topic.

Disadvantage.

(i). Usually, the topic is open to all without security; so intruders can participate.

Information retrieval.

The Internet is a voluntarily decentralized network with no central listing of participants or sites.
Therefore, End-users, usually working from PCs are able to search & find information of interest
located in different sites assisted by special software and data stored in readily usable formats.

The Internet gives you information on almost any subject. This is because of the Worldwide Web
(www).

The World Wide Web is a global (an international) system of connected Web pages containing
information such as, text, pictures, sound and video. The WWW is hypertext based (i.e., it is able
to access text and graphical data formatted for easy search, retrieval and display).

With the WWW, you can review Newspapers, magazines, academic papers, etc. In addition,
Governments, colleges, universities, companies and individuals offer free information on the
Internet. E.g., you can inquire (find out) about universities in Britain or America.

Note. Its major problem is finding what you need from among the many storehouses of data found in
databases and libraries all over the world.

Downloading of Programs.
There are thousands of programs available on the Internet. These programs include; Word
processors, Spreadsheets, Electronic cards, etc.

You can therefore, look for the latest software over the Internet, e.g., you can get the latest Anti-virus
software, and in addition, retrieve a free trial issue.

Entertainment.
There are hundreds of simple games available on the Internet. These include; Chess, Football, etc.
The Internet also allows you review current Movies and hear Television theme songs.
Online Shopping.
You can order goods and services on the Internet without leaving your desk. E.g., you can view a
catalogue of a certain clothes shop over the Internet and fill in an online Order form.

Commercial enterprises use the Web to provide information on demand for purposes of customer
support, marketing and sales.

File Transfer.
Data in the form of files can be transferred across the Internet from one site to another using theFile
Transfer Protocol (FTP). FTP software is needed at both ends to handle the transfer. It is
through FTP that the two pieces of software manage to „understand‟ each other.

Discussion Groups.

A Discussion group is a collection of users who have joined together to discuss some topic.

There are many discussions on different topics including Cooking, Skydiving, Politics, Education,
recreational, scientific research, etc.

Two of the commonly used discussion groups for business are;

 Usenet newsgroups.
 List Servers.

(a). Usenet newsgroups.

These are the most formally organized of the discussion groups.

Using a facility on the Internet called USENET, individuals can gain access to a very wide
variety of information topics.

Usenet Newsgroups are usually worldwide discussion groups in which people share
information and ideas on a defined topic through large electronic Bulletin Boards where
anyone can read any articles or write articles and post messages on the topic for others to
see and respond to.
 The individuals can add messages to different topics and read those contributed by others. For
instance, users such as students can ask questions about problems they face, or they could
contribute or give an advice on how to improve the teaching of the subject.

Messages can be easily linked so that it is easy to know messages that are related.

Establishing a new newsgroup requires a vote of all interested people on the Internet. If
enough people express interest, the new topic is established.

Note. To join a Newsgroup and be able to read messages on various topics, your computer
must have Newsreader software such as Outlook Express, or Internet News.
Any Internet user can access some of these newsgroups, while other newsgroups will require to
subscribe to a specific topic or set of topics.
Once you have subscribed, each time you access the newsgroups you are informed of any new
messages added to the topics. You can then read these messages and respond to them by
adding your own message.

The Usenet software receives “postings” of information and transmits new postings to users
who have registered their interest in receiving the information. Each individual posting
takes the form like that used for e-mail.

There are over 10,000 such newsgroups; however, each Usenet site is financed independently
& controlled by a Site Administrator, who carries only those groups that he/she chooses.

(b). List Server

A List Server (or list serve) group is similar to the Usenet newsgroups, but is generally less
formal.
Anyone with the right e-mail server software can establish a list server, which is simply a mail
list.
The processor of the List Server processes commands such as request to subscribe,
unsubscribe, or to provide information about the list serve. The List serve mailer directs
messages to everyone on the mailing list.
To use a List server, you need to know the addresses of both the Processor and the Mailer.
To subscribe to a List server, you send an e-mail message to the List server processor, which
adds your name to the list. Many different commands can be sent to the List server
 processor to perform a variety of functions. These commands are included as lines of text
in the e-mail messages sent to the processor.

List servers are more focused that the Usenet newsgroups and have fewer members. They are
harder to find than the Usenet newsgroups because literally anyone can create one.

Video Conferencing.

Video conferencing provides real-time transmission of video & audio signals to enable people in 2 or
more locations to have a meeting.

The fastest growing form of video conferencing is Desktop video conferencing.

Small cameras installed on top of each camera enable meetings to take place from individual offices.
Special application software (e.g., CUSeeMe) is installed on top of each client computer. It transmits
the image across a network to application software on a video-conferencing Server. The server
then sends the signals to the other client computers that are to participate in the video conference.
In some areas, the clients can communicate with each other without using the server.
Some systems have integrated other types of GroupWare with desktop video conferencing, enabling
participants to communicate verbally to attend the same “meeting” while sitting at the computer
in their offices.

Advantage of Video conferencing.

(i). Saves time & cost, as it reduces the need to travel.

Access & Use of other computers.

The Internet has a facility called TELNET that enables a user on one computer to use another
computer across the network, i.e., the user is able to run programs on the other machine as if
he/she is a local user.

Telnet is a protocol, which enables a user on one computer to log in to another computer on the
Internet.

TELNET establishes an error-free, rapid link between two computers, allowing a user to log on to
his/her home computer from a remote computer even when traveling. You can also log on to and
use third-party computers that have been made available to the public.
TELNET will use the computer address you supply to locate the computer you want to reach and
connect you to it. You will, of course, have to log in & go through any security procedures you,
your company, or the third-party computer owner have put in place to protect that computer.

Telnet requires an application image program on the Client computer and an application layer
program on the Server of the host computer. Many programs conform to the Telnet Standard
(e.g., EWAN).

Once Telnet enables the connection from the Client to the Server, you can log in by use of
commands. The exact commands to gain access to these newsgroups vary from computer to
computer.

Telnet enables you to connect to a remote computer without incurring long-distance telephone
charges.

Telnet can be useful because, it enables you to access your Server or Host computer without sitting at
its Keyboard.

Telnet can be faster or slower than a modem, depending on the amount of traffic on the Internet.

Note. Telnet is insecure, because everyone on the Internet can attempt to log in your computer and
use it as they wish. One commonly used security precaution is to prohibit remote log ins via Tel-
net unless a user specifically asks for his/her account to be authorized for it, or permit remote log
ins only from a specific set of Internet addresses., e.g., the Web server at a university can be
configured to only accept telnet log ins from computers located on the Kabete Campus network.

Electronic Commerce.
Many people are actively using the Internet for Electronic Commerce (i.e., doing business on the
Internet).
The use of the Internet in E-commerce isnot necessary for making money as such, but mainly to find
information, improve communication and provide information.
Many people automatically focus on the retail aspect of e-commerce, i.e., selling products to
individuals. However, this is just one small part of e-commerce. The fastest group and the
largest segment of e-commerce is business-to-business settings.
There are 4 ways in which the Web can be used to support E-commerce;
(i). Electronic Store.
Electronic Store is a Website that lists all the products or services a business wishes to sell,
thus enabling customers to purchase them by using the Internet itself.

E-store sites provide physical goods and services.

The cost of providing information on the Web is low (unlike a Catalog, in which each page
adds to the cost), and therefore, electronic stores can provide much information. In
addition, electronic stores can also add value by providing dynamic information.
E-mail can also serve the purpose of E-store. This is because, e-mail is essentially a collection
of e-stores. The mail usually provides all the computer information needed for e-
commerce, and advertises the mail to potential customers. In return, the stores pay the mail
a monthly fee or some percentage of sales.

(ii). Electronic Marketing.

E-marketing sites focus on the products or services of one company with aim of increasing
sales.
This type of site supports the sales process, but does not make actual sales. The goal is to
attract and keep customers.

By doing so, such sites provide a wealth of information about the firms and products complete
with technical details and photos. Customers can review these but cannot buy over the
Web. The idea is to encourage the user to visit a local dealer, who will then make a sale.

Computers also use e-marketing sites to provide newsletters with information on the latest
products and tips on how to use them. Other companies enable potential customers to sign
up for notification of new product releases.

E-marketing is cheaper in many ways than traditional marketing (radio, direct marketing, TV or
print media). This is because while it costs the same to develop these traditional media, it
costs nothing to send information to the customers. It is also easier to customize the
presentation of information to a potential customer, because the Web is interactive. In
contrast, the other media are fixed once they are developed, and they provide the same
marketing approach to all who use it.
 (iii). Information/Entertainment provider.
The Information/Entertainment provider supplies information (in form of text or graphics) or
entertainment. These providers provide information from many sources with an aim of
helping the users.
Several radio and TV stations are using the Web to provide broadcast of audio and video. The
Web also offers new forms of real entertainment e.g., enables new multiplayer interactive
games, which are not available in any other media. The information / entertainment
providers generate revenue by selling advertisement printouts.
(iv). Customers Service sales.
This provides a variety of information for customers after they have purchased a product or
service – to allow customers access most commonly needed information 24 hrs a day.
Many software companies post updates that fix problems so that customers can download for
themselves.
Customer service sites benefit both the company and the customers. They enable customers to
get a 24 hr support and easy access to needed information.

They often reduce the no. of staff needed by automating routine information requests that
previously had to be handled by an employee.

GroupWare.

GroupWare is a software that helps groups of people to work together more productively.

They are often organized using a two-by-two grid.

Same place Same time Different time

Group support systems Group support systems
Different place Video teleconferencing, Desktop video E-mail, Discussion groups, Document-
teleconferencing based GroupWare
GroupWare allows people in different places to communicate either at the same time (as on a
telephone) or at different times.
GroupWare can also be used to improve communication and decision-making among those who work
together in the same room, either at the same time or at different times.
GroupWare allows people to exchange ideas, debate issues, make decisions, and write reports,
without actually having to meet face to face. Even when groups meet in the same room at the
same time, GroupWare can improve meetings.
The major advantage of GroupWare is its ability to help groups make faster decisions, particularly in
situations where it is difficult for group members to meet in the same room at the same time.

The 3 most popular types of GroupWare are;

- Discussion groups.
- Group support systems.
- Video Conferencing.

Group Support Systems (GSS).

Both e-mail and documents-based GroupWare are designed to support individuals and groups
working in different places at different times. They are not suited to support groups working
together at the same time and in the same place. In addition, they don‟t provide advanced tools
for helping groups to make decisions.

Group Support Systems (GSS) are software tools, designed to improve group‟s decision-making.
GSS are used with special-purpose meeting rooms that provide each group member with a
network computer plus a large screen video projection system that acts as electronic blackboards.
These rooms are equipped with special-purpose GSS software that enables participants to
communicate, propose ideas, analyse options, evaluate alternatives, etc. Typically, a meeting
facilitator assists the group.

The group members can either discuss verbally or use computers to type ideas and information,
which are then shared with all other group members via the network. For large groups where
only one person can speak at a time, typing ideas is faster than talking. Everyone has the same
opportunity to contribute and ideas can be collected much faster. In addition, GSS enables users
to make anonymous comments. Without anonymity, certain participants may withhold ideas
because they fear their ideas may not be well received.
The system also provides tools to support voting and ranking of alternatives, so that more structured
decision-making process can be used.

Just like in document-based GroupWare, vendors use the Web browser as their client software. So,
almost anyone can access GroupWare Server.
Note. Discussion groups, document-based GroupWare and GSS all focus on the transmission of text
and graphical images.

Information Superhighway.

A term coined by U.S Clinton administration referring to advanced information infrastructure

accessible to individuals, groups and firms.

In general, the Information superhighway can be defined as;

 A facility that provides a global electronic data interchange between computer users at a
higher rate of message exchange, and at cheaper costs. E.g., the Internet that allows
researchers, businesses, and electronic media to exchange information.
 An Information Communication Technology (ICT) network, which delivers all kinds of
electronic services – audio, video, text, and data to households and businesses.
The communication services on the superhighway can be one-to-oneway (Telephones, e-mail, fax,
etc); one-to-many (Broadcasting, interactive TV, video conferencing, etc), many-to-many
(typified by bulletin boards and forums on the Internet).
Origin.

Information superhighway is a mass technology project aimed at creating a National Information

Infrastructure (NII) in the U.S.

The concept emerged as the brainchild (idea) of U.S vice president Al Gore. It is an alliance
between the Federal government and a no. of industries.

The Information superhighway describes networks of Optic fiber and Coaxial cable linked by
sophisticated switches that can deliver voice, data, image, text, and video signals all in the same
digital language.

In the U.S, it has been proclaimed (declared) as the foundation for a national transformation to an
information-based society, and a key element in the national efforts to sustain leadership in the
world economy.

Governments and industries are developing a new method of competition, which will enable
telecommunications, cable television, computer hardware and software companies, and
entertainment corporations to work together to create and operate information superhighways.
 These activities will finally result into a wide range of electronic services including electronic
Shopping malls, collaborate electronic Education and distance learning, electronic Libraries,
Multimedia information, messaging, and entertainment.
Web casting.
Web casting (or “Push technology”) is a special application of the Web that has the potential to
dramatically change the way we use the Web /Internet.
With Web casting, the user signs up for a type of information on a set of channels. Regularly
(minutes, hours, days), the user browser contacts the Web server providing these channels to see
if they have been updated. If so, the browser will load the information, and if required by the
user, will automatically display the information on the user screen.
Web casting changes the nature of the Web from one in which the user searches for information (a
“pull” environment) into an environment in which the user accepts whatever information is on the
Webcast Server (a “push” environment). This is called the “Push” because the user does not
request specific information, but rather permits the Web server to “push” the information when it
becomes available.
The Web has been likened to a library because users move form site to site and page to page just like
they move from shelf to shelf and book to book in a library.
Web casting is more like TV because the content and time of delivery is selected using the Web
caster, the user only chooses the channels.
Web casting can be used for news (e.g., CNN) or financial reports (e.g., Stock market quotations),
Corporate announcement, and as a replacement for broadcast e-mail. It even has the potential to
provide automatic updates to software packages.

Importance of services provided on the Internet.

The services offered by the Internet can be used as important tools in various ways:
1). As a research tool:
To learn about new developments or products, competitors, market news and customer opinions.

2). As an advertising / trading tool:

To help in selling goods or delivering information through the Web pages to customers on a 24-
hour basis.

3). As a communication tool:

 To support communication with customers, suppliers or staff through Electronic mail (e-mail).

4). As an Entertainment channel:

Most of the Games, Movies, and Television theme songs are available for free on the Internet.
In addition, you can have live, interactive conversations with people around the world including
celebrities.

Users of the Internet.

Considering the facilities & the various tools offered, the Internet has attracted among others the
following users;

 Researchers can get information.

 Writers and Scientists use the Internet to compile, compare and analyse their work.
 Individuals use the Internet for their work or to communicate with each other.
 People with the same interests can share ideas.
 Large organizations use the Internet to communicate with each other, and also to keep in
touch with subordinate (subsidiary) companies or their suppliers.
 Students can communicate and gather information.
 Businesspeople can advertise, communicate and sell their goods.
 Sales people use the Internet to keep in touch with their home offices.
 Buyers can do their shopping online.

Exercise (a).

1. (a). What do you understand by the term Internet?

(b). What are the other names of the Internet?
2. Describe the Functions of the Internet.
3. List 6 services that are offered on the Internet.
4. Identify 6 categories of people who can benefit through the use of the Internet.

Exercise (b).

1. Define the Internet.

2. Briefly describe six services offered by the Internet.
3. Discuss the growth of Internet in recent days.
4. Explain the importance of Information superhighway (Internet).
5. Write short notes on the following:
(a). E-commerce.
(b). Webcasting.
(c). Telnet.
(d). Information Superhighway.
CONNECTING (LOGGING ON) TO THE INTERNET.
Log On -To identify yourself & gain access to a computer. To log on, type a user name & a
password.
Facilities Needed.
To use the Internet, you must have access to it. In order to get connected to the Internet and access
the World wide Web, you will require the following facilities:
1). A Computer.
Device for inputting and outputting information. It also offers storage for information. Computer
should be of convenient specifications(features)
2). Web Browsers.
Web browsers are application programs that are used to retrieve Web pages from the Internet
onto your Personal Computer.
One of the most popular Web browsers is Internet Explorer from Microsoft.
Each Web page in the World Wide Web is based on an HTML (HyperText Mark Language)
file. A Web browser decodes the information in an HTML file and displays a Web page on
your computer screen according to its instructions. This process is called Downloading.

 Downloadingis the process of copying files from one computer to another by using a
Modem or a network connection. You canalso download files from the Web to your hard
disk.
 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) -The language used to create Web pages. To
view HTML documents, use Web browsing Software.

1). Use of Search Engines.

Search Engines / Search Services.

 A Search engine is software that helps in locating information in the Web.

 Search engineis a tool that searches the Web for information that you want to find.
Purpose.

√ If you want to get some information concerning an area or subject of interest over the Web
but you do not know where to find it, you can use a Search engine to locate sites that contain
the information.
√ Locate particular information in a Website, e.g., if you wish to read the Sports news you
canload a Web site likehttp://www.cnn.com/, and then use a search engine within that site to
locate information on Sports.
The following are the various search engines:

1). Yahoo –www.Yahoo.com.

2). AltaVista –www.altavista.digital.com.
3). Excite –www.excite.com.
4). Meta Crawler –www.metacrawler.com.
5). Infoseek.
6). Lycos.

3). Telephone lines.

4). Modem (Modulator/Demodulator).

On the Internet, computers exchange information through Telephone lines. Therefore, to use the
Internet, you need a Modem & a Telephone line.

A Modem is a device that enables you to connect to the Internet, and access information.

As a Transmitting modem, it translates computer information (which is in digital form) into

analogue form (the form that can transmit over telephone lines). This process is called
Modulation.
As a Receiving modem, it translates the information back into digital form (a form that your
computer can understand); a process called Demodulation.

The Modem must be fast. This helps to reduce the amount of time spent waiting for Web pages,
files, or messages from the Internet.
Modem speeds are expressed in Bits per second (bps). The typical speeds are 9,600 bps, 4.4
Kbps (Kilobits per second), 28.8 Kbps, 56 Kbps, etc.

5). Web Address (Uniform Resource Locator – URL). An Address is the location of a
file.
6). Internet Service Provider (ISP).

When connecting to the Internet using a modem, you need to sign up with an Internet Service
Provider (ISP).

 Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a commercial organization (or a company) that

provides Internet connections, along with a set of support services usually for a fee.
Itmaintains a Server that is directly connected to the Internet.
 Internet Service Provider - A company or organization that provides Internet Access,
usually for a fee. To connect to your ISP, use a modem.
 Most people and organizations connect to the Internet over a Telephone line through an ISP.
However, some larger businesses and institutions (such as universities) have their own
Internet connections.

An ISP usually has a no. of Host computers. These host computers usually provide space for
the storage of user‟s electronic mail messages, storage of user‟s Web sites and a set of related
facilities such as, advice, support software and appropriate security.

Examples of the local ISPs include;

 Africa Online, Kenya Web, ISP Kenya, Swift Kenya, and Inter-Connect.
Connecting to an ISP involves calling the provider and setting up a PPP account. When you
open an account with an ISP, you will be provided with a User name and a Password.

(i). Username – Every time you get connected, you require a name to identify yourself on
the Internet.
(ii). Password – This is needed for security purposes. It ensures that your Internet account
is secure.
Note. ISPs charge for the services rendered.
7). Website.
This is an area in the Internet where information of a particular organization is kept. The
Website must be updated on daily basis.

Content Provider - A business that uses the Internet to supply you with information such as news,
weather, business reports & entertainment.
World Wide Web.
The World Wide Web (www).
The World Wide Web is also known as the Web, WWW or W3.
 The WWW is a collection of hyperlinked Web pages published on the Internet.
 The World Wide Web is a global (an international) system of connected Web pages
containing information such as, text, pictures, sound and video. The WWW is hypertext
based (i.e., it is able to access text & graphical data formatted for easy search, retrieval and
display).
Web Site.
 A collection of Web pages belonging to an organization or individual. These organizations
or individuals maintain the Website.
 Web site - A group of related Web pages.
  A Web site is a screen or a collection of screens that provide information in text or graphical
form that can be viewed by Internet users by activating the appropriate icon or commands.
Web pages.
 Web pages are documents published by organizations and individuals who are interested in
putting themselves on the Web. Web pages can include text, pictures, sound and video.
 Web page is a location on the WWW, usually a Web site.
The Web pages can also be found on company Intranets.
Intranets and Extranets.
Intranet
 An Intranet is an internal corporate network used in organizations to enable the sharing of
documents among coworkers. It supports users inside one organization (usually on a LAN).
 Intranet - A private network within an organization. It can connect all types of computers
within an organization.
Extranet:
An Extranet works in much the same manner as an Intranet, but provides information to selected
users outside the organization. The networks can be accessed by members who are not part of the
organisation through logging on where they are authenticated and authorised.
Browsing the Web.
This is also known as Navigating or „Surfing’ the Web.

 To Browse is to navigate the Internet or the contents of your computer.

 Browsing can also be defined as moving around and between Web pages.
Using a Web browsing software you can read documents, listen to music, watch videos, make
purchases, participate in surveys, advertise products, do research, share interests and download
files on the Web.

Advantages of the Internet.

(i). One can download (copy) information from a Website.

(ii). The Internet has enabled the interlinking of people worldwide / globally.
(iii). It is convenient in the sense that you can access data 24 Hrs.
(iv). It is cheap, i.e., the operational cost that one may incur is low.
(v). It has brought in the technology of doing the following; E-learning, E-Agriculture, E-
commerce, E-governance, etc.
 (vi). Provides up-to-date information.
(vii). It doesn‟t require a lot of training to browse.
(viii). It provides entertainment facilities.
(ix). Can be used for research.
(x). Brings harmony in the world, because people can communicate and exchange ideas.
(xi). The Internet can be accessed at any part of the world.
(xii). There is always a full backup provided by the Servers, hence no data loss.
(xiii). It‟s a fast way of communicating.
(xiv). It provides an easy way to use offers in Information and products.
Internet provides information from almost all parts of the world that you need in order to make
accurate and informed decisions.
You will get information you need from business to education, from sports to politics, from
arts to eating out.
Disadvantages of Internet.
(i). It‟s a technology, which is fetched for (imposed/forced on) the Third world countries.
(ii). The cost of the Internet Service Provider is high.
(iii). It is leading to exposure of morally harmful shows such as Pornography.
(iv). It leads to spread of viruses.
(v). Has proved to be unreliable especially accessing information.
(vi). No copyright rules meant to protect the property of an organization.
_ Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
• Browsers allow a user to specify an URL address of a server computer to
facilitate the user to directly visit the server computer’s site, and to access
information stored on it.
• URL is an addressing scheme used by WWW browsers to locate sites on the
Internet.
• Documents and locations within documents are identified by an address, defined
as a Uniform Resource Locator.
• URL is a string of alphanumeric characters that represents the location or address
of a resource on the Internet and how that resource should be accessed.
• URLs define uniquely where documents (resources) can be found on the Internet.
• The syntax of URL consists of 3 basic parts:
– The protocol used.
– The host name
– The path name on the host where the resource can be found.
– The port through which the connection to the host should be made (optional).
– String query.
• <Protocol>://<host>[:<port>]/absolute_path[?arguments]
• E.g. http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/MarkUp.html
• The protocol specifies the mechanism to be used by the browser to communicate
with the resource.
• Common access methods are:
– HTTP,
– S-HTTP,
– File,
– FTP,
– mailto,
– Telnet.
– NNTP.
Static and Dynamic Web Pages
• An HTML document stored in a file is an example of static web page.
• The content of the document does not change unless the file itself is changed.
• The content of a dynamic Web page is generated each time it is accessed.
• A dynamicWeb page can have features that are not found in staticWeb pages
such as:
– It can respond to user input from the browser, e.g. returning data requested
by the completion of a form or the results of a database query.
Characteristics of dynamic Web Pages
It can be customized by and for each user. E.g. once a user has specified preferences
(e.g. area of interest or level of expertise) when accessing a particular site or
page, this information can be retained and information returned appropriate to these
preferences.
_ Personal Hotlist of favourite URLs
• Browsers allow a user to create and maintain a personal hotlist of favourite
hotlist of favourite URL addresses of server computers, which the user is
likely to frequently visit in future.
• A user’s hotlist is stored on his/her local web client computer.
• Browsers provide hotlist commands to allow the user to add, delete, update
URL addresses in the hotlist, and to select an URL address of a server computer
from the hotlist, when the user wants to visit that server computer.
_ History Feature
Many browsers have a “history” feature. These browsers maintain a history of the
server computers visited in a surfing session. That is, users save (cache) in the local
computer’s memory, the URL addresses of the server computers visited during a
surfing session, so that if the user wants to go back to an already visited server later
on (in the same surfing session), the link is still available in the local computer’s
memory.
_ Downloading Information
Browsers allow a user to download (copy from a server computer to the local computer’s
hard disk) information in various formats. The download information can
be later (not necessarily in the same surfing session) used by the user.
Example_. What do you see as the most critical and current threats effecting
Internet accessible websites?
Solution: Goal of question To gauge the applicants knowledge of current web related
threats. Topics such as Denial of Service, Brute Force, Buffer Overflows, and
Input Validation are all relevant topics. Hopefully they will mention information
provided by web security organizations such as the Web Application Security Consortium
(WASC) or the Open Web Application Security Project