GE-8 ETHICS

NOW and
BEYOND
UNIT 1: THE ETHICAL DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN EXISTENCE

Introduction
Ethics is envisioned by every individual as vital part of their daily activities.
In line with its ethical frameworks, frequently, a person is influenced and
governed by their behavior; according to their beliefs, values, principles and
standards as to which it is considered as right or wrong.

Learning Objectives:

1. Identified the ethical aspects of human life and the scope of ethical
thinking and philosophy
2. Created a philosophy of life relevant to ethical values
3. Developed the ethical values with special significance to human life
experiences.
4. Enhanced environmental experience through clean and green activity.

Words to Remember
Focus Questions

1. What is ethical thinking and philosophy?

2. How is your philosophy of life relevant to your
ethical values?

3. Consider the different ethical issues in life:

a. What makes this a matter of ethics?
b. What is your own ethical judgment on the chosen case?
c. What are your reasons for your judgment in a particular issue in your life

Motivation: Let’s Engage! (Be Active!!!)

Are you on line? Kindly download the YouTube presentation of

Teddy Stallard Story: Make A Difference Movie.com at

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xkQHh0HUxU and watch. If you have connectivity
issues don’t worry, we can have our conversation. Or

Watch a Movie either in

CD/DVD or download it in your
flash drive/USB the movie
entitled “The Philosophers” at
https://www.youtube.com/results?
search_query=the+philosophers

YOU ARE FREE TO MAKE A CHOICE!

Topic/Content

• In August 2007, newspapers reported what seemed to be yet another sad

incident of fraternity violence. Cris Anthony Mendez, a 20-year-old student of
the University of the Philippines (UP), was rushed to the hospital in the early
morning hours, unconscious, with large bruises on his chest, back, and legs.
He passed away that morning, and the subsequent autopsy report strongly
suggested that his physical injuries

were most probably the result of “hazing”.

Let me Explain!

• Ethics, generally speaking, is about matters such as the good thing that we
should pursue and the bad thing that we should avoid; the

right ways in which we could or should act and the

wrong ways of acting.

• Ethics as a subject for us to study is about determining the grounds for the
values with particular and special significance to human life.

The importance of Rules to Social Beings

1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior.

2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom.

3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings.

4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system

Kinds of Valuation

• Aesthetics – from the Greek word “aisthesis” which means “sense” or

“feeling” and refers to the judgments of personal approval or disapproval that
we make about what we see, hear, smell, or taste

• Etiquette – concerned with right or wrong actions, but those which might be
considered not quite grave enough to belong to a discussion on ethics

• Technical – from the Greek word “techne” and refers to a proper way—(or
right way) of doing things.

Ethics and Morals

“Morals” may be used to refer to specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or
to describe acts that people perform. We also have terms such as “moral judgment”
or “moral reasoning,” which suggest a more rational aspect.

“Ethics” can be spoken of as the discipline of studying and understanding ideal

human behavior and ideal ways of thinking. Thus, ethics is acknowledged as an
intellectual discipline belonging to philosophy.

Ethics – is the branch of philosophy that studies morality or the rightness or

wrongness of human conduct. Morality, speaks of code or system of behavior in
regards to standard of right and wrong behavior.

Descriptive and Normative

• A descriptive study of ethics reports how people, particularly groups, make

their moral valuations without making any judgment either for or against
these valuations.

• A normative study of ethics, as is often done in philosophy or moral

theology, engages the question: What could or should be considered as the
right way of acting? In other words, a normative discussion prescribes what
we ought to maintain as our standards or bases for moral valuation.

Issue, Decision, Judgment, and Dilemma

 A situation that calls for moral valuation can be called a moral issue.
  When one is placed in a situation and confronted by the choice of what act to
perform, s/he is called to make a moral decision
 When a person is an observer making an assessment on the actions or
behavior of someone, s/he is making a moral judgment.
 When one is torn between choosing one of two goods or choosing between
the lesser of two evils, this is referred to as a moral dilemma.

Characteristics of Moral Standards

A. Moral standards involved serious wrongs or significant benefits.

B. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.

C. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.

D. Moral standards have the trait of universality.

E. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.

F. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Dilemma

• It refers to a situation in which a tough choice has to be made between two

or more options, especially more or less equally undesirable ones.

• What is common to,oral dilemmas is conflict. In each ethical dilemma, an

agent regards himself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions, bur
doing both seems to be ethically not possible.

3 levels of Moral Dilemma

A. Personal Dilemma

B. Organizational Dilemma

C. Structural Dilemma

Reflection:
 1. Give your own example of a moral dilemma that occurs in any of the three
levels discussed above?

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2. List down the possible choices for this dilemma and how the choices would
influence other moral levels?

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3. Insight; why do you think it is more important to choose a course of action in

a moral dilemma than to not make any choice at all? Explain and support
with an example.

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Only Human beings can be Ethical

A. Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self – conscious.

B. Only human beings can act morally or immorally.

C. Only human beings are part of the moral community.

Reasoning

• What reasons do we give to decide or to judge that a certain way of acting is

either right or wrong?

• A person’s fear of punishment or desire for reward can provide him/her a

reason for acting in a certain way.
 • The promise of rewards and the fear of punishments can certainly motivate
us to act, but are not in themselves a determinant of the rightness or
wrongness of a certain way of acting or of the good or the bad in a particular
pursuit.

• Beyond rewards and punishments, it is possible for our moral valuation—our

decisions and judgments—to be based on a principle.

SOURCES OF AUTHORITY

• Law

• It is supposed that law is one’s guide to ethical behavior. In the

Philippines, Filipinos are constrained to obey the laws of the land as
stated in the country’s criminal and civil codes. The law cannot tell us
what to pursue, only what to avoid.

• Religion

The divinity called God, Allah, or Supreme Being commands and one is
obliged to obey his/her Creator (Divine Command Theory).

• Culture

Our exposure to different societies and their cultures makes us aware

that there are ways of thinking and valuing that are different from our
own, that there is in fact a wide diversity in how different people
believe it is proper to act. Therefore, what is ethically acceptable or
unacceptable is relative to, or that is to say, dependent on one’s
culture. This position is referred to as cultural relativism.

Senses of the Self

• Subjectivism
The starting point of subjectivism is the recognition that the individual
thinking person (the subject) is at the heart of all moral valuations. She
is the one who is confronted with the situation and is burdened with
the need to make a decision or judgment.
 “No one can tell me what is right and wrong”
“No one knows my situation better than myself”
“I am entitled to my own opinion”
“It is good if I say that us good”
• Psychological Egoism
A theory that describes the underlying dynamic behind all human
actions. As a descriptive theory, it does not direct one to act in any
particular way. Instead, it points out that there is already an underlying
basis for how one acts. The ego or self has its desires and interests,
and all our actions are geared toward satisfying these interests.

Strong points:

1. Simplicity
A theory that conveniently identifies a single basis that will somehow
account for all actions.
2. Plausibility
It is plausible that the self-interest is behind a person’s actions.
• Ethical Egoism
This prescribes that we should make our own ends, our own interests, as
the single overriding concern.

Summary

In this chapter, we have established the scope and rationale for a discussion
of ethics. We have explored various domains of evaluation in order to distinguish
what makes a particularly grave type of valuation a moral or ethical one. We
clarified some of the terms that will be used in the study of ethics; some give a too
simplistic answer to the question of our grounds or foundations for moral
evaluation, while others seem to dismiss the possibility of ethics altogether.

Things to do
Name:_____________________ Date:_________________

Course:____________________ ___Sem/AY____________

I. Imagine a scenario in which an image of someone who is the object of

religious devotion (such as Jesus Christ or Mary, the Mother of Jesus) is
placed side by side with a phallic image.

1. Is this an ethical issue? Why or why not?

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2. Does the question of rightness or wrongness of this depend on which religion

you belong to? Explain your answer.
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II. Look for another example of an artistic creation- a painting, a poem or

song- that is a source of either actual or potential conflict between the
expression of the artist and a sensibility that finds this offensive. Present
the significant details and the reasons that the conflicting sides might
have on this issue.

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 III. Look for and list down other sources wherein we find a dialogue between
ethics and the various domains of aesthetic, culture and religion.

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Assessment:

Discussion Points:

1. Identify a list of (a) obligations we are expected to fulfill, (b) prohibitions we

are required to respect, and (c) ideals we are encouraged to meet. Discuss
whether these are ethical in nature or not.

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2. Are clothes a matter of pure aesthetics taste, or does it makes sense for
clothes to become a subject in a discussion of ethics? Why? How about other
forms of adornment, such as tattoos and piercings?

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 3. Come up with a list of common Filipino values. Consider the strengths and
weaknesses of each of these values.

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4. Comment on this statement: “What I believe must be true if I feel very

strongly about it.”

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5. Is looking after the benefit of your own family over all other aspects
considered as another form of egoism? Discuss.

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UNIT II: UTILITARIANISM

 “The end may justify the means as long as there is something that justifies the end.”
― Leon Trotsky

I. The Principle of Utility

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of the lesson students are expected to:

1. Discussed the basic principles of utilitarian ethics

2. Distinguished between two utilitarian models: the quantitative and qualitative
models
3. Applied the utilitarianism in understanding and evaluating local and international
scenarios in a form of a Reflective Analysis
4. Shown appreciation and importance of the value of utilitarianism in everyday life-
activities

Motivation
 Bahay by Gary Granada

Isang araw ako'y nadalaw sa bahay tambakan

Labing limang mag-anak ang duo'y nagsiksikan
Nagtitiis sa munting barung-barong na sira-sira
Habang doon sa isang mansyon halos walang nakatira
Sa init ng tabla't karton sila doo'y nakakulong
Sa lilim ng yerong kalawang at mga sirang gulong
Pinagtagpi-tagping basurang pinatungan ng bato
Hindi ko maintindihan bakit ang tawag sa ganito
Ay bahay
Sinulat ko ang nakita ng aking mga mata
Ang kanilang kalagayan ginawan ko ng kanta
Iginuhit at isinalarawan ang naramdaman
At sinangguni ko sa mga taong marami ang alam
Isang bantog na senador ang unang nilapitan ko
At dalubhasang propesor ng malaking kolehiyo
Ang pinagpala sa mundo, ang dyaryo at ang pulpito
Lahat sila'y nagkasundo na ang tawag sa ganito
Ay bahay
Maghapo't magdamag silang kakayod, kakahig
Pagdaka'y tutukang nakaupo lang sa sahig
Sa papag na gutay-gutay, pipiliting hihimlay
Di hamak na mainam pa ang pahingahan ng mga patay
Baka naman isang araw kayo doon ay maligaw
Mahipo n'yo at marinig at maamoy at matanaw
Hindi ako nangungutya, kayo na rin ang magpasya
 Sa palagay ninyo kaya, ito sa mata ng Maylikha
Ay bahay
Focus Questions

1. What is Utilitarianism?
2. What are the Utilitarian rules of Morality?
3. What is the importance of Justice and Moral rights in daily living?

Words to Remember

o Moral Right
o Utility
o Integrity
o Self-discipline
o Trustworthy
o Responsiveness
o Justice
Topics

o Utilitarianism is a theory in ethics by which an actions are judged to be right or

wrong solely according to their casual consequences
o Three principles:
 Pleasure or Happiness Is the Only Thing That Truly Has Intrinsic Value. ...
 Actions Are Right Insofar as They Promote Happiness, Wrong Insofar as
They Produce Unhappiness. ...
 Everyone's Happiness Counts Equally.
o Utility, within the context of utilitarianism, refers to people performing actions for
social utility. With social utility, he means the well-being of many people.
According to Mill, good actions result in pleasure, and that there is no higher end
than pleasure.
o Utilitarian’s have freedom to "bend the rules" and justify a bad action for a good
outcome. They may choose a wide stance on morals that may cover more
ground than stricter moral principles, and they also have options to take stricter
moral sides should they decide the scales are tipped in a sides favor
o Strength of Utilitarianism is for many people happiness is an important part of
decision making as it their main aim in life. Weakness is that it committed a
natural fallacy
o The greatest happiness principle is the ultimate standard of morality set up by
classical utilitarianism. That classical creed conceives of good as happiness and
holds that right actions are those which maximize the total happiness of the
members of the community.
o Utilitarianism brings about more happiness which is relevant in today's society.
However, utilitarianism can also be seen as not being relevant to the 21 st century
because by promoting happiness over other goods, it reduces morality to being
simple
Summary

o Utilitarianism is an ethics by which an actions are judged to be right or wrong

solely according to their casual consequences
o 3 Principles:
 Pleasure or Happiness Is the Only Thing That Truly Has Intrinsic Value. ...
 Actions Are Right Insofar as They Promote Happiness, Wrong Insofar as
They Produce Unhappiness. ...
 Everyone's Happiness Counts Equally.
o Strength of Utilitarianism is for many people happiness is an important part of
decision making as it their main aim in life. Weakness is that it committed a
natural fallacy
o Utilitarianism brings about more happiness which is relevant in today's society.
However, utilitarianism can also be seen as not being relevant to the 21 st century
because by promoting happiness over other goods, it reduces morality to being
simple

Things to do

REFLECTION

1. Do you agree that happiness is the pursuit of pleasure? And the avoidance of
pain, and that all actions are directed towards pleasure?
 2. Are all pleasures comparable, even objectionable pleasures? What if the majority
derives pleasure from being sexist?

Assessment

Draw a picture that depicts Happy Community that promotes Moral values and Justice
 UNIT III: NATURAL LAW

“All mankind... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in
his life, health, liberty or possessions”.
- John Locke

I. Thomas Aquinas Natural Law

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson students are expected to:

1 Developed insight on the rational concepts to an ethical theory based on the Christian
faith

2. Compared and contrast natural law, eternal law, human law and divine law

3. Applied the precepts of the natural law to contemporary moral concerns in everyday
life activities in a “Post-Truth Activity”.

4.Created a symbol related to personal issues;

5.Appreciated the natural law theory as instrumental to ethics which is rooted in the
Christian faith.
Motivation

The Disobedient Baby Bird

A mother and father bird and their three babies lived in a nest high up in a tree. The
parents had to go off to find food for their babies and leave them alone in the nest.
When the babies were very little they were good and sat quietly in the nest waiting for
their mother or father to come with the food. As the babies grew bigger they used to
look out over the edge of the nest. Their parents warned them about the cat. “The cat
looks very friendly but he eats little birds. Never listen to the cat and never go near the
cat,” they warned. One day when the parents were away the cat came and sat under
the tree. “I am so happy to see you,” said the cat. “Please come and play with me.” “Oh,
no!” said the baby birds. “Our parents told us about you. You eat little birds!” “Oh, no!”
said the cat. “I would never do that! You are my friends. Come and play with me.” “Oh,
no!” said the baby birds. Then the cat began to cry. “I am so lonely,” he said. “I have no-
one to play with.” The first and second baby birds said, “No never! Our parents told us
about you. We will not come and play.” But the third little bird looked over the edge of
the nest. “He is such a beautiful cat,” he said, “and he is crying because we will not go
and play with him.” “Oh, please,” said the cat. “Please come and play with me.” With
those words the third little bird jumped down from the nest to play with the cat. “Snap,
snap!” The little bird was gone, and there was a smile on the face of the cat! Just then
father and mother bird came back. “Shoo!” they shouted and chased the cat away.
“Now we know why we must listen,” said the two little birds who were still in the nest.

Focus Question
 1. What is natural law, eternal law, human law and divine law?
2. Are these laws interrelated? Why?

Words to Remember

o Natural Law
o Eternal Law
o Human Law
o Divine Law

Topics

o St. Thomas Aquinas - He was born in Roccasecca, near Aquino, Terra

di Lavorro, Kingdom of Sicily (Italy) in 1225. Thomas was placed in a
monastery of Monte Cassino near his home as an oblate in the hope of his
family that he would someday become an abbot to their advantage
(www.britannica.com). His family were against on his decision. There was
a time that they prisoned him for two years in his room and they also
tempted him with prostitute but to no avail. Eventually, his family realized
that they could not change his mind so they conceded.
o He stayed in the monastery for nine years and he returned home after the
monks were expelled by the emperor due to their too much obedience to
the pope. He was sent to the University of Naples where he encountered
scientific and philosophical works which led Aquinas to join the Friar
Preachers or Dominicans.
o He went to Paris and studied under St. Albertus Magnus. A tremendous
scholar with a wide range of intellectual interests (www.britannica.com).
He earned his master of Theology at the University of Paris where he
 spent his life on lectures, instructions, writings and quodlibets (akin to the
symposiums of the Greeks). His notable works include Summa Contra
Gentiles, Summa Theologiae, and De Veritate.
o Aquinas died on March 7, 1274. The Catholic Church honors him as a
Doctor, a title given to saints who are recognized as a giver of particularly
important insights in the understanding of Christian doctrine or faith
(Pasco et. al., 2018).
o Natural Law - Aquinas Natural Law Theory is consist of four different
types of law: Eternal Law, Natural Law, Human Law, and Divine Law
o According to Aquinas Eternal Law means God’s rational purpose and plan
for all things. He thinks that everything has a purpose and follows a plan. If
something fulfils its purpose/plan then it is following Eternal Law
(Dimmock, et. al., 2017).
o Aquinas also introduces the Human Law which gives rise to what he calls
“secondary precepts.” Secondary precepts are not generated by our
reason but rather they are imposed by governments, groups, clubs,
societies, etc. (Dimmock, et. al., 2017). Examples of secondary precepts
in the new normal are wearing of mask in public places, sanitize or wash
hands frequently, stay at home, etc.
o Finally, Aquinas introduces the Divine Law that God has seen fit to give us
which we find in the scripture, that is, the Ten Commandments (Dimmock,
et. al., 2017). Human as we are we can only get rational reflection. We
need some revealed guidance and this comes in the form of Divine Law.
For example, a married woman is having an extra marital affair. She
justifies that they are both so much in love and happy. However, if we are
going to examine this act deeply, the woman is committing adultery.
Sometimes our reason is not good at all and that we need the guidance
revealed in the Divine Law.

Summary

o Catholic Church honors St. Thomas Aquinas as a Doctor, a title given to

saints who are recognized as a giver of particularly important insights in
the understanding of Christian doctrine or faith (Pasco et. al., 2018).
o Aquinas Natural Law Theory is consist of four different types of law:
Eternal Law, Natural Law, Human Law, and Divine Law
o Eternal Law means God’s rational purpose and plan for all things
 o Human Law which gives rise to what he calls “secondary precepts.”
o Divine Law that God has seen fit to give us which we find in the scripture,
that is, the Ten Commandments (Dimmock, et. al., 2017)

Things to do

o After understanding the discussed concepts, research and react on one of

the topics listed below guided by the natural law theory of St. Thomas
Aquinas. Post your answers in our google classroom.
 Euthanasia
 Abortion
 Anti-terrorism law
 War on drugs

Assessment

o Reflect on this question

 Why is it that despite of reason, man still chooses to
transgress Law?
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II. Essence and Varieties of Law Leading to True Self

“Three things are necessary for the salvation of man: to know what he ought to
believe, to know what he ought to desire, and to know what he ought to do.” -
Thomas Aquinas

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson students are expected to:
1. Explained the natural law theory as instrumental to ethics which is rooted in the
Christian faith
2. Practiced the precepts of the natural law in everyday life

Focus Question
 1. Why Natural Law can be an instrument in ethics?
2. How can these precepts be a guide in everyday life?

Motivation

Sing or listen to the song by Casting Crown

Who am I that the lord of all the earth
Would care to know my name
Would care to know my hurt?
Who am I, that the bright and morning star
Would chose to light the way
For my ever wandering heart?

Not because of who I am

But because of what you’ve done
Not because of what I’ve done
But because of who you are

I am a flower greatly fading

Here today and gone tomorrow
A wave tossed in the ocean
A vapor in the wind
Still you hear me when I’m calling
Lord you catch me when I’m falling
And you’ve told me who I am
I am yours

Who am I, that the eyes that see my sin

Would look on me with love
And watch me rise again?
Who am I, that the voice that calmed the sea
Would call out through the rain
 And calm the storm in me?

Not because of who I am

But because of what you’ve done
But because of who you are
I am a flower quickly fading
Here today and gone tomorrow
A wave tossed in the ocean
A vapor in the wind
Still you hear me when I’m calling
Lord, you catch me when I’m falling
And you’ve told me who I am
I am yours (Repeat 2x)

I am yours
I am yours
Whom shall I fear, whom shall I fear
‘Cause I am yours
I am yours

Words to Remember

o Self-knowledge
o Self-determination
o Self-governance

Topics
 o There are three relevant questions that can help Filipino students
appreciate Natural Law Theory as cited from the writings of Alasdair
Macintyre: Who am I? Who do I want to be? How can I get there? (Pasco
et. al., 2018).
o Who Am I? Is a process of knowing one’s self or one’s identity.
According to Aquinas, ethics is basically a question of human identity.
Building up the identity of the human person starts with knowing the self. It
is through self-knowledge and reflection that a person knows his/her
history, abilities and present situation. This assessment of one’s own
strength and weaknesses is critical in being able to do good and avoid evil
(Pasco, et.al., 2018).
o Who do I want to be? Knowing oneself, leads to clarification of one’s
goal. It is at this point that another important question is raised: “Who do I
want to be?” This question reveals one’s self-determination. Having all the
knowledge of himself/herself and the ability to reflect the self can be better
directed. Ethical acts give direction through freedom to build up the self
towards a particular goal (Pasco, et. al., 2018).
o How can I get there? Having self-knowledge and self-determination, a
person can utilize reason and evaluate the best options and possibilities to
achieve one’s goal. Answering this question will lead to a particular
actions and routines in reaching one’s goal. Goal- setting through reason
and decision is complemented by the ability to freely move the self and
command the body in action (Pasco, et. al., 2018). It is in this stage that
the person exercises self-governance.

Summary

o Three relevant questions that can help Filipino students appreciate Natural
Law Theory:
 Who Am I? Is a process of knowing one’s self or one’s identity
  Who do I want to be? Knowing oneself, leads to clarification of
one’s goal
 How can I get there? Having self-knowledge and self-
determination, a person can utilize reason and evaluate the best
options and possibilities to achieve one’s goal

Things to do

Answer the three relevant questions:

1. Who am I?
2. Who do I want to be?
3. How can I get there?
4. Post your answers in our goggle classroom.

Assessment

o 10 years from now how do you visualize

 Yourself
 Your Family
 Your Country
o To make this a reality create a concrete and detailed action plan in making
this vision a reality
 UNIT IV: DEONTOLOGY

“Non nobis solum nati sumus.

(Not for ourselves alone are we born.)”
― Marcus Tullius Cicero

I. Duty and Agency

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lessons students are expected to:

1. Discussed the basic principles of deontology

2. Compared and contrast the concepts of agency and autonomy to one’s moral
experiences

3. Shown the value of duty and obligation in the family, school and community

Focus Question
 1. What does Duty mean?
2. What does Agency mean?
3. Can Duty and Agency be a means for a Moral Society?

Motivation

Short Story
When the prime minister of One’thumbria woke up that day, he found a messenger
from the king on his doorstep. He knew something would be wrong. That was
unusual—a messenger from the most powerful person in the kingdom. Usually he
would wake up at about 6 in the morning and after all his morning chores went to the
palace with a bag in his hand. Once the Minister was told what to do, the messenger
went back. A heat of anxiety rose inside the minister. He was told to do one of the
most difficult jobs he had ever faced. ‘Find out the best servant in the palace. The
award was one million gold coins.’—the message said. His wife came by right at that
time. Her name was Chakky. She asked, “What caused this gloom on your face my
lord?”

“The king wants to find out the best servants in the palace. How can I? I have no
way in front of me to find the best one.” the minister said.
“But why not my lord?” asked the woman.
“Because there are many people who does their duty well. It’s not easy to find a
single person. And doing one’s duty well doesn’t mean one is happy with what one
is doing. It could be out of the king’s fear that they are doing what they do.”
After listening to her husband intently, Chakky said, “Don’t worry, I have a way out of
this situation.” She mumbled something secretly into her husband’s ear.
The minister got up, though confused he smiled and got ready to go to palace.
He walked through the alleys and verandas in the palace. He kept his face down as
if deep in some thought, but focused on each and every person he could observe.
He held a list secretly inside his long robe, from which he could pick each servant
from his name and work. He stopped by each employee and asked two questions.
At last he reached at the end of the list. There was only one person left—the
gardener. His name was Godlove. He was a young man.
He could have become a soldier, the prime minister thought. The prime minister
was an aged person and he looked like a thin post dug on the ground. The young
man looked well-built and strong like a thick growth of teakwood.
The minister went near him and decided to ask him the same two questions he had
asked others. The young man seeing the minister coming towards him stopped his
work among the vegetables and stood up.
“Why do you work here?” the minister asked. To this question all the others had said
somewhat like ‘I didn’t get the job I liked, that is the reason,’ or ‘everyone does it,
don’t’ they?’ and the minister remembered what his wife had whispered into his ear.
“One must love his job to be able to do it better.”
Godlove looked puzzled at first at the sudden question of the minister. He smiled
quickly and politely and said;
“My father taught me the best thing in life is to serve others. It gives happiness.
When I thought about it, I found plants and vegetables give better result when
served. That is why I serve them. I am their servant.”
He looked down, afraid of being punished for not saying ‘I am the king’s servant’, as
he saw the minister’s face changing.
The minister shot his second question, “What would you do if you were expelled
from your job right now?” From others he had received answers such as; ‘I work so
well, the king will never consider sacking me ’or ‘I will die for sure of starving.’ The
minister’s wife had warned him of such answers
The young gardener had no confusion this time. He said;
“I would be happy still, because the fixed work schedules in the palace and the
interference of other weak skilled workers ruin my garden, mostly. I am sorry, but
that is the truth. I will keep serving plants better outside. I love them. I know they will
help me survive.”
After answering the question, Godlove’s face turned red and he looked down. He
said to the minister,
“I know I have spoken against the king and I will be punished. I beg you, please do
not humiliate me in front of others. I will go away at once. Do not harm me…” his
eyes welled up and hands were folded together.
The prime minister spoke up, holding Godlove’s shoulder, “The king wanted me to
find out the best worker in the palace. I didn’t know how to, so I asked my wife. And
she told me one thing,
“Those who love their job never depend on others, they will find a way to keep on
doing their work, at one place or another.”
“And dear Godlove I am proud that I found out the best employee in this palace—it’s
you.”
“But…sir…” Godlove fumbled; his eyes all watery.
“Yes, you are. For you, your love is your duty.” And Godlove had a sack full of gold
with him in a guarded chariot when he went back home that evening.
Words to Remember

o Duty
o Agency
o Ethics
o Basic Assumption

Topics

o Deontological Ethics, Duty, Agency, Basic Assumption, Deontological theories,

Agency
o Deon - means duty
o Deontology is a category of normative ethical theories that encompasses any
theories which is primarily concerned with adherence to certain rules or duties.
Consequences do not matter
o A duty-based ethics is called Deontology
o Focuses on acts not on consequences
o Expressed in 2 ways: NEGATIVE: do not lie, do not steal; and POSITIVE: telling
the truth and keeping your promises.
o Basic Assumption: a) No matter how morally good their consequences, some
choices are morally forbidden; b) What makes choices right is in conformity with
a moral norm; and c) The Right is said to have priority over the Good
o Divine Command Theory – The idea that we have the duty to obey God
o Golden Rule – The ethic of Reciprocity
 o Natural Law and Right theories – Humans have reasoning and the Laws of
Nature are discernable by Human Reason
o Agency – Focused on the duty of the moral agent (The person acting) rather than
the right of the person being acted upon (patient-centered theories)
o Agent-Relative theory – An act is relative to the individual duties (ex. Duties to
Family, Personal Morality, Personal Interest)
o Agent neutral Duties – The act is the same for every Agent (ex. Duty to obey
Law, Duty to not kill the innocent)

Summary

o Deontology is derived from the word deon meaning duty. It is a duty based
ethics which focuses on acts and not in consequences. It is expressed in 2
ways: Negative and Positive
o Basic assumptions are as follows:
o No matter how morally good their consequences, some choices are
morally forbidden;
o What makes choices right is in conformity with a moral norm; and
o The Right is said to have priority over the Good
o Deontological Theories are the following:
o Divine Command Theory
o Golden Rule
o Natural Law and Right Theory
o Agency focused on the duty of the moral agent (The person acting) rather
than the right of the person being acted upon (patient-centered theories). It
hay 2 types : a) Agent-Relative Theory; and b) Agent-Neutral Duties

Things to Do
Amy was about to give birth to a child. Billy, the husband immediately proceeds
to the nearest hospital. While in the emergency room it was found that Amy has a
heart failure and delivering the child will result to the death of either her and the
child. The doctor told Billy about the situation and worst, he has to choose who
among Amy and the child has to live.

If you are Billy what will you do applying all the different concepts of Duty and
Agency?

Assessment

A. Answer the following questions briefly and clearly.

1. What is the importance of studying Duty-Based Ethics for future

professionals?
2. As a student enrolled in this subject do you consider this topic
important? Why or Why not?
3. Explain the importance of the Basic Assumptions of Ethics in
setting standards of moral responsibility. Provide specific examples
in your explanation
4. Does human will affect human freedom and reason? How can you
make the will closer to goodness and truth?
 II. Autonomy

“The proper end of teaching is to lead our students toward Autonomy”

- Marshall Gregory

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lessons students are expected to:

1. Discussed the importance of autonomy

2. Differentiated the concepts of agency and autonomy to one’s moral experiences

3. Applied the significance of actions and universalizability in a particular life’s

situation.

Focus Question
 1. What is Autonomy?
2. What is Competence?
3. How does Autonomy relate to Responsibility?

Motivation

Story of the Man called M.J.

Michael’s drive to excel in the sport he wanted to be associated with. Rejected from the
basketball team, he was determined to make it through at the next try-outs, and practice
was his plan of action.

Michael went to school early every day, arriving before everybody else did. He spent the
morning practicing shooting hoops in the gym. He was unstoppable in his desire to be
the best in basketball, so much so that the physical education teachers had to drag him
out of the gym when the first period bell rang.

When another spot opened for the basketball varsity team, Michael again tried his luck
and was accepted as a team member. He was disappointed, however, as he was barely
allowed to play in the interschool games. He was mostly on the bench, handing out
water and towels to the tired players.

This disregard did not cause him to falter. He did not quit the team; rather, he trained
even more to perfect himself in the field. Doing so earned him a valuable place in the
junior basketball varsity team and eligibility for a college basketball scholarship.

Michael Jordan’s perseverance to achieve what he wanted is an exemplary story we all

must learn from. He was not accepted by his high school varsity team initially, but he did
not give up altogether. He was accepted but still not allowed to play the game he knew
he could play well, but he did not lose hope. Instead, he channeled these challenges
into motivation to propel himself to stardom.
In the road to greatness, practice is always essential. Michael Jordan demonstrated
how practice does make one perfect, or near perfect at least. He showed us how his
determination brought him to heights no one thought he could reach. His willpower
established that nothing is impossible.

Words to Remember

o Autonomy
o Competence
o Morality
o Happiness
o Integrity
o Wisdom
o Respect

Topics

o Autonomy from the Greek autos (self), nomos (rule of law). Broadly meaning,
self-determination, self-rule, being your own person, and self-governing
o Autonomy refers to a general capacity of an individual
o Respecting autonomy means you have to be accurate with the information,
communicate the same properly, and if necessary persuade them with a firm
conviction
o Competence refers to a specific ability, such as those involved in a performance
of a specific task
o Factors that affect competence are: a) physical; and b) psychological. In moral
problems the question of competence of the subject is always crucial
 o Principle for Respect of Autonomy and Competence are crucial in moral decision
making in ethics, and require a great deal of thought

Summary

o Autonomy is a general capacity of an individual

o Competence is a specific ability that involve a performance of a specific task
o Both Principles of Autonomy and Competence are essential in making a proper
moral choice

Things to do

Take 5 minutes to consider the following questions

1. What decisions do you make about your life?

2. What decisions do you make about other people’s lives?
 3. How do you justify the decisions you make?
4. How would you feel if I took away your ability to make decisions?

Assessment

o If you are given the chance to be the President of this country what will you do to
improve the lives of the Filipinos especially the poor? How will you apply
Autonomy and Competence in making a Moral order and choices? Provide a
detailed action plan for a period of one (1) term or equivalent to a period of six
(6) years
 UNIT V: VIRTUE ETHICS

“Ethics without virtue is an illusion. What is the highest purpose of ethics? It is to

make a person good, that is virtuous?”
- Peter Kreeft

I. Happiness and Ultimate Purpose

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lessons students are expected to:

1. Discussed the risk factors of the happiness pursuit without meaning and virtue.
2. Explained the advantages of a meaning perspective of the good life
3. Applied the need for a balanced meaningful life based on Wong’s implicit theories
Focus Question

1. Why people want to be healthy but consume junk foods?

2. Why people want to be happy but many do things that make themselves
miserable?
3. Why most things that taste good are probably bad for you?
4. Why most things that thrills you are also bad for you?

Motivation

Three trees on a wooded hill were discussing their hopes and dreams. The first tree
said, “Someday I hope to be a treasure chest. People could fill me with gold, silver and
precious gems. They could decorate me with intricate carvings and everyone would see
its beauty.”
The second tree said, “Someday I will be a mighty ship. I will take kings and queens
across the seas and sail to unknown places. Everyone will feel safe because of the
strength of my hull.”
Finally, the third tree said, “I want to grow to be the tallest and straightest tree in the
forest. People will see me on top of a hill, look up to my branches and think of the
heavens and God. They will remember me as the greatest tree of all time.”

After years of praying that their dreams would come true, a group of woodsmen came
upon the trees. One came to the first tree and said, “This looks like a strong tree. I can
sell the wood to a carpenter.” After being cut down, the tree was happy because he
knew that the carpenter would make him into a treasure chest.
At the second tree a woodsman said, “This looks like a strong tree. I can sell it to the
shipyard.” The second tree was happy because he knew he was on his way to
becoming a mighty ship.

When the woodsmen came upon the third tree, the tree was frightened because he
knew that if they cut him down, his dreams would not come true. A woodsman said, “I
don't need anything special from this tree so I'll just take it back with me.”

When the first tree arrived at the carpenters, they made it into a feed box for animals. It
was then placed in a barn and filled with hay. They cut the second tree and made a
small fishing boat. They cut the third tree into large pieces and left it alone in the dark.
The years went by, and the trees forgot their dreams. Then one day, a man and woman
came to the barn. She gave birth and they placed the baby in the feed box made from
the first tree. The tree could feel the importance of this event and knew that it had held
the greatest treasure of all time.

Years later, a group of men got in the fishing boat made from the second tree. One man
went to sleep. A great storm arose and the tree didn't think it was strong enough to keep
the men safe. The men woke the sleeping man. He stood and said “Be calm” and the
storm stopped. At this time, the tree knew that it had carried the King of Kings in its
boat.
Finally, someone came and got the third tree. It was carried through the streets as the
people mocked the man who was carrying it. Later, they nailed the man to the tree and
raised him up to die at the top of a hill. On the third day, the tree came to realize that it
was strong enough to stand at the top of the hill and be as close to God as was
possible. Jesus had been crucified on it.

The moral is: When things are not going our way, know that God has a plan for us. God
will do almost anything for us. Jesus reminded us through his teachings and his stories
how much God loves us. Place your trust in God and God will always give you what is
best for you.

Words to Remember
 o Excellence
o Morality
o Joy
o Happiness
o Integrity
o Wisdom

Topics

o People have different ideas of what constitutes the good life. Wrong pursuits may
lead to tragic consequences. Correct pursuits may lead to flourishing. Therefore,
be careful what you dream for
o Everybody wants more happiness and success. It’s good to know how to
optimize happiness and success. There are many happiness coaches and self-
help books on the market.
o There are risk factors when:
 The happiness pursuit becomes one’s ultimate purpose in life.
 The happiness pursuit is not guided by a philosophy of life informed by
general principles of meaning, spirituality and virtue (e.g., the Golden
Rule).
o Golden Rule:
 Confucius: What you do not want done to yourself, do not do unto others.
 Aristotle: We should behave to others as we wish others to behave to us.
 Buddhism: Hurt not others with that which pains thyself.
 Christianity: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
o The pursuit of the good life has ended in misery and self-destruction for many
people.
  Common Cause: They make personal happiness and success their
ultimate end of life without a moral compass and without the desire to
pursue inner goodness.
o Advantages of the meaning of pursuit:
 Avoids the pitfalls of self-centered pursuit of happiness and success.
 Sustains us between the highs of inspiration and the lows of despair.
 Happiness and flourishing will sneak in through the back door.
 Ability to transform adversities into opportunities for personal growth.
o Good life is a virtuous life:
 A meaningful, authentic good life is based on inner goodness.
 “The end of life is Eudaimonia.”—Aristotle
 Eudaimonia means well-being, virtue and human flourishing.
 To live the good life is to become what we ought to be as human beings—
moral agents who strive for moral excellence.
o For Aristotle:
 His moral theory is teleological.
 Aristotle’s virtue ethics.
 The golden mean to avoid extremes.
 Practical wisdom: the proper end to our actions and the proper means to
our end.
 Four cardinal virtues: prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance.
o For Confucius:
 Lived in a tumultuous period of war and conflict.
 Equates the good life with social harmony.
 The need to fit in an ordered society.
 Five cardinal virtues: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and
faithfulness or loyalty.
 Inner cultivation of virtues leads to world peace.
o Shift in the Narrative of Good Life:
 A shift from virtue and ethics to personal happiness and success.
 An increase in personal freedom and gross domestic product (GDP).
 Money does not always buy happiness.
o Holistic Approach:
 The whole is more than the sum of its parts.
 Good people + Good community + World peace = Good life.
o Sources of Meaning for a Good Life:
 Wong’s implicit theory research.
 Achievement, religion/spirituality, positive affect, relationships, self-
transcendence, intimacy, self-acceptance, fair treatment.
 Basic needs for mental health and flourishing.

Summary
 o Good Life is a Balanced Life:
 A single-minded pursuit is not always beneficial.
 Active engagement needs to be balanced by rest.
 Exclusive love needs to be balanced by greater love.
 Achievement needs to be balanced by acceptance.
 Self-transcendence needs to be balanced by fair treatment.

o Model of a Good Life:

Things to do
 1. List the things you think are not good that you did to others. And Good things that
you also did for others. How does it feel? Kindly write your answer.

Bad Things How do I feel? Good Things How do I feel?

2. In the aforementioned which do you think should be given more weight? Which of
them gives you Happiness and Fulfillment as a Person?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Assessment
 o With all the problems that we are now facing can there be any good out of it?
How can you achieve happiness when all you can see are the opposite of it?
How can you be positive in this uncertain times?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

II. Virtue as Excellence

“Good habits formed at youth make all the difference”

- Aristotle

Lesson Objectives

At the end of the lessons students are expected to:

1. Discussed Virtue as Excellence and the 12 virtues

 2. Compared and contrast the two kinds of Virtue Excellence and the three most
important Virtues
3. Shown the importance of the qualities of a virtuous person

Focus Question

1. What is Virtue as excellence?

2. What Are Aristotle’s 12 Virtues?
3. Why Virtues are important?

Motivation

It Doesn’t Have To Be Difficult

- Brasov, Romania

The other day, I was speaking to my Romanian host about my newfound difficulties
leaving a life I was comfortable with to travel on my own and put my fate in the
hands of strangers. He said to me: “things are only hard when you believe they were
supposed to be another way.”

Consistently, I’ve found that resisting or pushing back on the natural flow of
certain events or situations only makes things more complicated. While I am a
huge believer in taking action every day to enact positive changes in our lives, I have
also begun to understand that sometimes, acceptance may be the best course of
action.
 Life only feels difficult or unfair when you believe you should have been dealt
a different set of cards. Change that belief… and you change your reality.
You are exactly where you need to be because the life you’ve lead up until this
moment has taught you everything that you know. Don’t swim against your
circumstances–use them to your advantage.

Ironically, change begins when acceptance happens.

Words to Remember

o Virtue
o Excellence
o Intellectual
o Moral
o Prudence
o Justice
o Benevolence
Topics

o Virtue (Latin: virtus) is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is

deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and
good moral being. Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting
collective and individual greatness.
o Aristotle's 12 virtues:
 Courage – bravery.
 Temperance – moderation.
 Liberality – spending.
 Magnificence – charisma, style.
 Magnanimity – generosity.
 Ambition – pride.
 Patience – temper, calm.
 Friendliness – social IQ.
 o There are two kinds of virtue: a) intellectual and b) moral. We learn intellectual
virtues by instruction, and we learn moral virtues by habit and constant practice.
We are all born with the potential to be morally virtuous, but it is only by behaving
in the right way that we train ourselves to be virtuous.
o The Three Primary Virtues. Adam Smith, in his important book The Theory of
Moral Sentiments, wrote that excellent people have three primary virtues: a)
prudence, b) justice, and c) benevolence, in that order. Each of them is essential
to the others and to the living of a full life in society.
o They are honest, respectful, courageous, forgiving, and kind, for example. They
do the right thing, and don't bend to impulses, urges or desires, but act according
to values and principles. Some might say good qualities are innate, but we're not
perfect. Virtues need to be cultivated to become more prevalent in life.
o Virtues are important because they are the basic qualities necessary for our well-
being and happiness. By recognizing the importance of virtues, in our lives, it will
lead to better communication, understanding and acceptance between us and
our fellow man.

Summary

o A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued
as a foundation of principle and good moral being
o Aristotle’s 12 virtues: Courage, Temperance, Liberality, Magnificence,
Magnanimity, Ambition, Patience, and Friendliness
o There are two kinds of virtue: a) intellectual and b) moral.
o There are three primary virtues: a) prudence, b) justice, and c) benevolence, in
that order. Each of them is essential to the others and to the living of a full life in
society.
o Virtues need to be cultivated to become more prevalent in life
Things to do

COGITATIO (Reflection)

1. With the prevalence of social media how can you promote goodness in
contradicting falsehood and fake news?
2. As a student of ISAT-U what will you do to promote Intellectual and Moral Virtue?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Assessment

o Draw a world that pictures the 12 virtues of Aristotle

III. Moral Virtue
 “Always do what is right. It will gratify half of mankind and astound the
other.”
― Mark Twain

Lesson Objectives

At the end of the lessons students are expected to:

1. Discussed the moral virtue and mesotes

2. Discoursed the moral virtue in ethics as stated by Aristotle
3. Distinguished the moral person from a person with no morals

Focus Question

1. What is Moral Virtue?

2. What is Moral Virtue in Ethics?
3. What is Aristotle’s Moral Virtue in Ethics?
4. What do you call a person with no morals?

Motivation

Have A Nice Life

Dubrovnik, Croatia
Something strange happened to me today. After three hours of sleep and a long layover
in Croatia, I decided to get a coffee. It was a small kiosk and there was no one in line,
so I started chatting with the friendly barista.

After a bit, I left to catch my flight and bid him goodbye. To which he
responded: “You’re welcome. Have a nice life.”

In my experience, when spoken, that phrase generally has a negative connotation. It is

associated with “get lost” or an indifferent dismissal, yet this was not the case. This
man spoke those words so sincerely, kindly, and genuinely that I didn’t question
for a second that he meant it.

He wished me a nice life.

It’s funny how, in the age of social media, it’s so easy to keep in contact. Throughout my
travels, I’ve met people for minutes–minutes– and become Facebook friends with them.
It is a way not to lose the connections I’ve made, albeit short and fleeting. It helps me
feel as I haven’t really lost that person forever, even if I will never see them again. It’s
almost like hoarding relationships in a digital attic, where only a selected few will be
revisited again.

That’s why I was curiously taken aback when this man bid me goodbye. It was final. It
was kind. It was a “pleasure to meet you, and now we part ways.” It strangely
made me feel comforted and peaceful knowing that I had a pleasant interaction, and it
had run its course.

Not everyone is meant to remain tethered to you. Some connections are best made and
left behind. That doesn’t make them less meaningful– the most special will always
remain, perhaps gathering dust, but always delicately stored in your memory.

Words to Remember

o Moral Virtue
o Courage
o Temperance
o Liberality
 o Wisdom
o Prudence
o Justice
o Fortitude

Topics

o Moral Virtue for Aristotle is a virtue concerned with the practical life (as liberality
or gentleness) or with the vegetative and appetitive (as temperance or self-
control) —contrasted with intellectual virtue.
o Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-
control, and prudence are all examples of virtues. For example, a person who
has developed the virtue of generosity is often referred to as a generous person
because he or she tends to be generous in all circumstances.
o Aristotle defines moral virtue as a disposition to behave in the right manner and
as a mean between extremes of deficiency and excess, which are vices. We
learn moral virtue primarily through habit and practice rather than through
reasoning and instruction.
o Because of this reference, a group of seven attributes is sometimes listed by
adding the four cardinal virtues (prudence, temperance, fortitude, justice) and
three theological virtues (faith, hope, charity).
o Some common synonyms of virtuous are ethical, moral, noble, and righteous.
While all these words mean "conforming to a standard of what is right and
good," virtuous implies moral excellence in character.
o Morals are the principles we follow that help us know the difference between right
and wrong. Immoral is sometimes confused with amoral, which
describes someone who has no morals and doesn't know what right or wrong
means.

Summary

o Moral Virtue is concerned with practical life (Liberality or gentleness) or with

vegetative and appetitive (as temperance or self-control) – contrasted with
intellectual virtue
 o Moral Virtue in Ethics is a disposition to behave in the right manner and as a
mean between extremes of deficiency and excess, which are vices (Aristotle)
o We learn moral virtue primarily through habit and practice rather than through
reasoning and instruction.
o Moral Person can be described as a person who knows the difference between
right and wrong. Hence, a person has no morals when he doesn’t know what is
right or wrong means.

Things to do

o Determine whether the following acts are moral or not moral. Check the column
that correspond to your answer

ACTS MORAL NOT

MORAL
1. Telling the Truth
2. Plotting to murder an
enemy
3. Committing Abortion
4. Praying before and after
meals
5. Self-defense
6. Defending a Stranger
7. Refusing to pay Debt
8. Fabricating a story
9. Making False
Accusation
10. Disobeying Rightful
Order
11. Caring for the sick
12. Saving a drowning child
13. Using Illegal Drugs
14. Coveting another’s wife
15. Alcoholism
Assessment

o Paint a Picture that best describe a Moral Order in this 21st century
UNIT 6 – SYNTHESIS: Making Informed Decisions

“...The rarest of all human qualities is consistency.”

― Jeremy Bentham

I. Introduction:
This chapter contains the essence of humanity that appears to be the
never-
ending search for what it means to be fully human in the face of moral choices. It
clarifies several notions as such; the questions of what the right thing to do is and
why are questions that all human beings – regardless of race, age, socio-economic
class, gender, culture, educational attainment, religious, affiliation, or political
association- will have to ask at one point or another in their lives or neither the rules
nor laws of one’s immediate community or of wider culture or of religious affiliation;
and finally, reasoning which allows human to make the best decisions possible in a
given situation of moral choice.

II. Learning Objectives:

1. Identified the different factors that shape an individual in her moral decision-
making

2. Internalized the necessary steps toward making informed moral decisions

3. Applied the ethical theories or frameworks on moral issues involving the self,
society and the non-human environment through critical-ethical analysis

III. Focus Questions:

1. What are the factors that influence every person’s moral decision-making?
2. What is the distinction between a religious notion of sin and the philosophical
understanding of immoral or unethical acts?
Cross- Culture &
Cultural
IV. Words to Remember: Point Relativism

Emotion Enviro
s and n-
Feelings ment
Religion Self
Ethical Global
Respo Commu
nsi- -nity
bility
Informed Moral
Decision- Agent
Making
V. Motivations: (Active)
Society
Argumentation/Debate
Proposition: “Resolved, that Death Penalty be restored “
VI. Topics: (Acquire)
The Moral Agent and Contexts
“Know Thyself” – Epimeleia hē auto
Ramon Castillo Reyes – Filipino Philosopher; writing essay: “Man and
Historical Action”
 - explained that “one is” is a cross-point - one’s
identity, who one is or who I am, is a product of many
forces and events that happened outside of one’s
choosing.
- Four cross-points:
a. Physical – events in the past and material factors in
the present that one did not have a choice in.
b. Interpersonal – many events and factors outside of
one’s choosing
c. Societal – “one who is” is shaped by one’s society.
d. Historical – is simply the events that one’s people
has undergone.
Culture and Ethics
Saying: “when in Rome, do as the Romans do” by St. Ambrose
- implies that one’s culture is inescapable, that is, one
has to look into the standards of her society to resolve
all her ethical questions with finality.
James Rachels (1941-2003) – American philosopher
- provided a clear argument against the validity of
cultural
relativism in the realm of ethics.
- Defines cultural relativism as the position that claims
that there is no such thing as objective truth in the
realm of morality.
- Employs a “reduction ad absurdum” argument. It is an
argument which first assumes that the claim in the
question is correct, in order to show the absurdity that
will ensue if the claim is accepted as such.
- Three absurd consequences of accepting the claim of
cultural relativism:
a. Cultural relativism was correct, then one cannot
criticize the practices or beliefs of another culture
anymore as long as the culture thinks that what it
is doing is correct.
 b. Cultural relativism was correct, then one cannot
even criticize the practices or beliefs of one’s own
culture
c. Cultural relativism was correct, then one cannot
even accept that moral progress can happen.
Ethics – should neither be reduced to one’s own cultural standards,
nor should it simplicity dismiss one’s unique cultural beliefs and practices.
Moral development – is a prerequisite if the individual is to
encounter ethical situations with a clear mind and with her values properly
placed with respect to each other.

Religion and Ethics

“Religious” assume that it is the teachings of their own religion that
define what is truly right or wrong, good or bad.
Ramon C. Reyes – says concerning an individual’s cross-points, one can see
that the
reading or interpretation of a particular passage or text is the
product of the individual’s embodiment and historicity and on
the other hand, her existential ideal.
 One must determine what justifies the claim of a particular religious teaching
when it commands its followers on what they “ought to do” (whether in
general or in specific situations).
 Plato “ Euthyphro” – it is the pious loved by the gods because it is pious, or is
it pious because it is loved by the gods?”

Moral Deliberation
There is a big difference between a young child’s reasoning on the
right thing to do and the manner a morally mature individual arrives at an
ethical decision.

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1-987) – Moral Development

Pre-conventional – This pre-conventional level, whose
reasoning is
 centered on the consequences of one’s actions, is
divided
into two stages. The first stage of reasoning
centers
around obedience and the avoidance of
punishment: to a
young child’s mind, an action is “good” if it enables
one to
escape from punishment; “bad” if it leads to
punishment.
The second stage of reasoning and learns to act
according
to what she thinks will serve her self-interest; thus
what is
“good” at this age is what the child thinks can bring
her
pleasure.
Conventional – This is the age in which older children,
adolescents,
and young adults learn to conform to the
expectations of
society. The morally mature individual, for
Kohlberg, must
outgrow both (1) the pre-conventional level, whose
pleasure-and-pain logic locks on into self-centered
kind of
thinking, an egoism, as well as (2) the
conventional level,
which at first glance looks like sensible approach to
morality. The second level might, de facto, be the
way
that many (if not most) adults think about morality,
that it
is simply a question of the following the right rules.
 Post-conventional – The morally responsible agent recognizes that
what is
good or right is not reducible to following the rules
of one’s
group. Instead, it is a question of understanding
personally what ought to do and deciding, using
one’s free
will, to act accordingly. Moral maturity therefore is
seen in
an agent who acts on what she understood, using
her full

rationality, to be what is right, regardless of

whether the
act will bring the agent pleasure or pain and even
regardless whether the act is in accordance with
one’s
community’s laws or not.
 Social Contact - an agreements that
rational agents have arrived at whether
explicitly or implicitly in order to serve what
can be considered the common good or what
one ought to honor and follow.

Feelings in Moral Deliberation

Emotions or feelings have long been derided by purely rationalistic
perspectives as having no place in a properly executed moral decision.
Aristotle precisely points out the moral virtue goes beyond the mere act of
intellectually identifying the right thing to do. Instead, it is the condition of
one’s character by which the agent is able to manage her emotions or
feelings.

Moral Problems
 First Step – that we ought to take if there is potential ethical
issue
to determine our level of involvement in the case at
hand.
Second Step – After ascertaining our involvement in the
potential moral
situation, we then need to make sure of the facts.
The
first fact to establish is whether we are faced with a
moral
situation or not.
Third Step – is to identify all the people who may potentially
be
affected by the implications of a moral situation or
by our
concrete choice of action
There are several types of ethical problems or issues:
A. The first one is a situation in which we need to clarify whether a certain
action is morally right or morally wrong.
B. The second type involves determining whether a particular action in question
can be identified with a generally accepted ethical or unethical action. An
example would be the issue of the ethical value of the death penalty.
C. The third type points to the presence of an ethical dilemma. Dilemmas are
ethical situations in which there are competing values that seem to have
equal worth.

The value of studying ethical theories or frameworks

These ethical theories or frameworks may serve as guideposts, given that

they are the best attempts to understand morality that the history of human
thought has to offer.

The Natural Law Theory – on the other hand puts more emphasis on the
supposed objective, universal nature of what is to be considered morally
 good, basing its reasoning on the theorized existence of a “human nature”.
This theory has the advantages of both objectivity and a kind of intuitiveness.
Kantian Deontology – puts the premium or rational will, freed from all other
considerations, as the only human capacity that can determine one’s moral
duty.
- Focuses on one’s autonomy as constitutes of what one
can
consider as moral law that is free from all other ends
and inclinations- including pain and pleasure as well as
conformity with the rules of the group.

Self , Society, and Environment

Individual Self
One may to the demand for an ethically responsible “care for the self” by
making full use of the four ethical theories or frameworks.

1. John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism – seemingly a hedonistic theory given its

emphasis on maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain, elevates the human
element above the animalistic and above the merely selfish.
2. Thomas Aquinas’s Natural Law Theory - states as the first natural inclination
the innate tendency that all human beings share with all other existing
things; namely, the natural propensity to maintain oneself in one’s existence.
3. Kant’s deontology celebrates the rational faculty of the moral agent, which
sets it above meremermerely sentient
merely sentient beings. Kant’s principle of universalizability challenges the
moral agent to think beyond her own predilections and desires, and to
instead consider what everyone ought to do. His principle of humanity as end
in itself teaches one to always treat humanity, whether in her own self or in
any other individual, as the end or goal of all human actions and never
merely as the means.
4. Aristotle’s virtue ethics – teaches one to cultivate her own intellect as well as
her character to achieve eudaimonia in her lifetime.
- Virtue theory teaches that one must alwsys find and
act on the mesotes whether in treating oneself or any
 other human being. This mesotes points to the
complexity of knowing what must be done in a specific
moral situation.

Social Life: In the Philippine Context and in the Global Village

One’s membership in any society brings forth the demand of

communal life in terms of the group’s rules and regulations.

1. Mill’s utilitarianism doctrine will always push for the greatest happiness
principle as the prime determinant of what can be considered as good
action, whether in the personal sphere or in the societal realm.
2. Thomas Aquinas natural law theory has a clear conception of the
principles that should guide the individual in her actions that affect her
larger society.
3. Immanuel Kant use the principles of universalizability and of humanity as
end in itself to form a person’s autonomous notion of what she ought to
do.
4. Aristotle’s virtue ethics prescribes mesotes as the guide to all the actions
that a person has to take, even in her dealing with the larger community
of people.

The Non-Human Environment

Questions of environmental ethics, of the ethical or moral responsibilities

human beings have toward the non-human world, only appeared in the
twentieth century.

a. Kantian deontology focuses on the innate dignity of the human being as

possessing reason, it can be argued that one cannot possibly universalize
maxims that, in the end, will lead to an untenable social existence.
b. Thomas Aquinas – states that certain actions should be avoided because
they do not produce a harmonious, peaceful society.
c. Aristotle’s virtue ethics – pick up on the problem of such short-sightedness
and ask how this can possibly lead to becoming a better person

A Closing that is Really an Opening

 In the end, there is only a beginning.

VII. Summary
Making informed decisions in the realm of morality entails first
understanding who one is, in order to account for reasons that one
comes up with as the agent who must choose in a moral situation.
Reyes explains that one’s self is a cross-point of many forces and
factors that shape one’s choices but do not dictate upon them. The
mature moral agent must understand how her society, history, culture,
and even religion shape who she is. She must also realize though that
her choices in the end cannot simply be a mere product of these
outside forces, but must be made in the spirit of freedom. Kohlberg
teaches that one’s realization of her own freedom to determine her
own moral principles, free from all convention, happens in a process of
maturity. An essential element in maturity is the realization that one’s
choices, even in the realm of ethics, cannot simply be a function of
rational thought but are inevitably shaped also by feelings. Thus, there
is the additional of cultivating one’s feelings as well as one’s reason.
The moral agent must be mature enough to be able to cultivate the
necessary steps to ensure a sound, well-informed previous chapters,
the morally mature agent will be able to appreciate her responsibility
toward herself, her society, her environment.
VIII. Things to do ( Apply)

Name _________________________ Date:_________________

Course________________________ Sem./AY_______________

1. This Chapter identified and explained the steps in making informed decisions
when confronted with moral problems. This steps can be summarized as
follows:
a. Determine your involvement in the moral situation.
b. Gather all the necessary facts.
c. Identify the stakeholders.
d. Name all the alternative choices possible and their potential effects on
all stakeholders.
e. Identify the type of ethical issue at hand.
f. Make your ethical conclusion or decision.

Apply now all six steps to the questions, “ Is selling one of my kidneys to a
paying customer morally defensible? “ Write down your application below:

Step 1:

________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________

Step 2:

________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________

Step 3:
 ________________________________________________________________________
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Step 4:

________________________________________________________________________
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Step 5:

________________________________________________________________________
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Step 6:

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2. Examine your feelings or emotions regarding the issue of organ trafficking.

Did you feel sympathetic to the woman who was about to sell her kidney to
her Saudi Arabian husband? Or were you morally repulsed by what she was
planning to do? Apply Ramon C. Reyes’s idea of the five cross-points that
contribute to the formation of who you are in order to understand your
 feelings about this particular moral issue. List below the elements that make
up each of your cross-points:
a. Physical Cross-Point:
___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________
b. Interpersonal Cross-Point:
___________________________________________________________________________
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c. Social Cross-Point:
___________________________________________________________________________
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d. Historical Cross-Point:
___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________

IX. Assessment
1. How can you be a genuine Filipino if you do not follow Filipino
customs?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
 ________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
2. How realistic is Kohlberg’s ideal of the highest stage of post-
conventional morality, that of universal ethical principles, given that
feelings and emotions are inseparable from human choice?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________

3. Given that the human condition is one of the finitude, how will you
know that you are sufficiently informed when you finally make your
moral judgment?
________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________

4. If a global ethic is currently emerging, does this mean that the true
meaning of morality changes over time? Please explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
5. Is there a difference between one’s ethical responsibility toward fellow
humans and toward nonhuman nature? Please explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
References:

Articulo, A.C. & Florendo, G.G. (2003). Values and Work Ethics. Bulacan. Phil.
Trinitas Publishing Inc.

Bulaong, O. G., Calano,M. J., Lagtiva, A.M., Mariano,M.E., Principe, J.D.

(2018).Ethics Foundations of Moral Valuation1st Edition.Rex Book Store
Publishing

Dimmock, Mark & Fisher, Andrew. Ethics for A-Level. Cambridge: Open Book
Publishers (books.openedition.org), 2017.

Palean, Erland D., Nazario, Mylah Batoon D., Descartin, Ivan Khalil L., Mendoza, Bart
Andrew S., Valero, Jonnah Belle G.Ethics: Exploring Moral Philosophy.
Mandaluyong City: Books Atbp. Publishing Corp., 2019

Pasco, Marc Oliver D., Suarez V. Fullente, & Rodriguez, Agustin Martin G.Ethics.
Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc., 2018.

Pasco, Marc Oliver D., Suarez V. Fullente, & Rodriguez, Agustin Martin G.Ethics.
Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc., 2018.
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