Module 1
Module 1
Lecture 1: Introduction
COURSE OUTCOMES:
CO2: Recognize various types of Analog, Digital Instruments and function generators
Measurements and Measuring Systems, Error in measurement and their statistical Analysis: Significance of
measurements, Methods of Measurement- Direct and Indirect Methods, True Value, Static Error, Static Correction,
Error Calibration Curve, Accuracy and Precision, Static Sensitivity, Linearity. Hysteresis, Dead Time, Dead Zone,
Resolution or Discrimination, Types of Errors, Arithmetic Mean, Range, Deviation, Average Deviation, Standard
Deviation (S.D.), Variance
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COURSE CONTENT (SYLLABUS)
Module 2:
Analog and Digital Instruments: D.C. and A.C. Bridges (Measurement of resistance, capacitance and Inductance),
Digital Voltmeter (DVM), Digital Multimeter (DMM), Square and pulse generator, Relaxation oscillator
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COURSE CONTENT (SYLLABUS)
Module 3:
: Sensors and Transducers: Basic Principles of Operation, Different types of transducers, Resistive, Capacitive,
Linear Variable differential transducer (LVDT), piezoelectric transducer, Temperature transducers, Pressure
Transducers, Proximity Sensor
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Measurement
https://www.pikrepo.com/ https://aliexpress.ru/
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Measurement
• A measuring system exists to provide
information about the physical value of some
variable being measured.
• Measurement is the act, or the result, of a
quantitative comparison between a given
quantity and a quantity of the same kind
chosen as a standard
• A standard is defined as the physical
personification of the unit of measurement
or its submultiple or multiple values.
Measurement of Temperature
• The device or instrument used for
Figure Courtesy : comparing the unknown quantity with the
https://gigazine.net/ unit of measurement or a standard quantity
is called a Measuring Instrument.
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Methods of Measurement
The methods of measurement are broadly classified in to two
1. Direct Method of Measurement
2. Indirect Method of Measurement
Direct Method of measurement
• In direct measurement methods, the unknown quantity is measured directly by measuring it with a
standard.
• The result is expressed as a numerical value with a unit
• Commonly used for physical quantities like length, mass and time
• Suppose we want to measure the length of a long bar. What is the unit of length?
• The unit of length is meter, m
Suppose we want to measure the mass? What is the unit? Is it possible to measure mass with the same
precision?
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Methods of Measurement
Indirect Method of measurement
• In indirect measurement methods, the value of the unknown quantity is determined by measuring
the functionally related quantity and calculating the desired quantity rather than measuring it
directly.
• Can anyone tell a very basic example from your knowledge of electrical circuits or any other
field???
• The resistance of a conductor, R can be measured by measuring the voltage across the conductor,
V and the current flowing through it, I
𝐼 𝑅
𝑉
𝑅= + 𝑉 −
𝐼
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Direct Method and Indirect Method: An Example
Objective: To measure distance between two points
𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 𝐵
1𝑚
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Direct Method and Indirect Method: An Example
Case – II Using Indirect Measurement
𝐴 𝐵
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Thank You
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ECE 3015
Measuring Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 2
Elements of a Measuring Instrument
Data Storage/
Playback Element
Measured
Primary Variable Variable Data Data
Measurement Quantity
Sensing Conversion Manipulation Transmission Presentation
Medium (Measurand) Element Element Element Element Element
Presented
Data
Observer
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Elements of a Measuring Instrument
Primary Sensing Element:
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Elements of a Measuring Instrument
Variable Conversion Element:
• The output of the Primary Sensing
element is some physical variable such as
displacement or voltage
• It may be necessary to convert this
variable to another more suitable variable
while preserving the information content
of the original signal.
• Variable Conversion element does this
function
• Every measurement instrument need to
have a variable conversion element.
• Some instruments may require more than
one such element too.
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Elements of a Measuring Instrument
Variable Manipulation Element:
• This element will bring about a
change in the numerical value
according to some pre defined rule
• Preservation of the physical nature of
the variable is met
• An example?
• Electronic amplifier is an example,
which will amplify the small voltage
and produces an output which is also
a voltage, but an amplified version of
the input.
• A variable manipulation element need not necessarily follow a variable conversion element. It may precede it,
appear anywhere else in the chain, or not appear at all.
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Elements of a Measuring Instrument
Data Transmission Element:
• When the functional elements of an
instrument are separated, it becomes
necessary to transmit the data from
one element to another
• This is done using the data
transmission element
• An example?
• Data transmission from the satellite
to the ground equipment.
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Elements of a Measuring Instrument
Data Presentation Element:
• When the information about the
measured quantity is to be
communicated to a human being for
monitoring, control or analysis
purposes, it is displayed in a form
recognizable for the humans
• This is done using the data presentation
element
• An example?
• Needle of an ammeter over the
readings.
• The digital reading of a multimeter
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Elements of a Measuring Instrument
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Example: Measuring Instrument
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Generalized Performance Characteristics of a Measuring Instrument
• Why is it required?
• When we are trying to choose from different
commercially available instruments, the one which is
most suitable for our purpose.
• So as to make an intelligent decision, there must be some
quantitative bases for comparing one instrument with the
other possible alternatives
• Instrument Performance is the main thing
• Instrument performance characteristics have been
broadly broken down into subareas
• Static Characteristics Figure Courtesy
• Dynamic Characteristics https://i.pinimg.com/
• Why such a classification?
• Some applications involve measurement of quantities that are constant or vary very slowly [Static]
• Some other measurement problem may involve rapidly changing quantity. [Dynamic]
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Generalized Performance Characteristics of a Measuring Instrument
Static Characteristics
• Some applications involve measurement of quantities that are constant or vary very slowly.
• Under these conditions, it is possible to define a set of performance criteria that give a meaningful description
of the quality of measurement without being concerned with dynamic descriptions.
• These criteria are called static characteristics
• The main static characteristics are
1. Accuracy
2. Sensitivity
3. Reproducibility
4. Drift
5. Static Error
6. Dead Zone
• Qualities 1, 2, and 3 are DESIRABLE
• Qualities 4, 5, and 6 are UNDESIRABLE
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Error and True Value
Error:
• Measurements done in a lab or some other place always involve errors.
• No measurement is free from errors.
True Value:
• The true value of the quantity to be measured may be defined as the average of an infinite
number of measured values when the average deviation due to the various contributing factors
tends to zero.
• Such an ideal situation is impossible to realize in practice.
• So it is NOT possible to determine the True Value of a quantity.
• An experimenter will never know whether the value that he measured is the True Value of the
quantity or not
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Static Error
• Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value of the quantity
𝛿𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡
• Here
• 𝛿𝐴 = 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
• 𝐴𝑚 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
• 𝐴𝑡 = 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
• 𝛿𝐴 is also called the Absolute error
𝜖0 = 𝛿𝐴
• Here
• 𝜖0 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
• The absolute value of 𝛿𝐴 does not indicate precisely the accuracy of measurements. Why?
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Static Error
• The absolute value of 𝛿𝐴 does not indicate precisely the accuracy of measurements. Why?
• Example: Consider a current measuring instrument
• An error of ±2 𝐴 is negligible when the current being measured is in the order of 1000A Case 1
• This same error is not tolerated when the current being measured is in the order of 10 A Case 2
• How to conclude this???
• This where Relative Static Error comes to picture
• Relative Static Error
• Relative Static Error is the ratio of the absolute static error 𝛿𝐴 to the true value 𝐴𝑡 of the quantity under
measurement. What is the relative static error in Case 1?
• Relative static error is given by 2
𝜖𝑟 = = 0.002
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 1000
𝜖𝑟 = %𝜖𝑟 = 0.002 × 100 = 0.2%
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
What is the relative static error in Case 2?
𝛿𝐴 𝜖0
𝜖𝑟 = = 2
𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑡 𝜖𝑟 = = 0.2
10
𝜖0 %𝜖𝑟 = 0.2 × 100 = 20%
% 𝜖𝑟 = × 100
𝐴𝑡
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Thank You
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Measuring Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 3
A Quick flashback
Static Error
𝛿𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡
Also denoted as
𝛿𝐴 = 𝜖0 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡
Relative Error
𝛿𝐴
𝜖𝑟 =
𝐴𝑡
Percentage Relative Error
𝛿𝐴
%𝜖𝑟 = × 100%
𝐴𝑡
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Static Correction
Static correction is the difference between the true value and the measured value of the quantity
𝛿𝐶 = 𝐴𝑡 − 𝐴𝑚
Here
𝛿𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑡 = 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐴𝑚 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
What is the relation between static error and static correction?
𝛿𝐶 = −𝛿𝐴
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Example
Example: A voltmeter reads (Am) 109.5 V. The error taken from an error curve is -0.37 V. Determine the
true voltage and the relative error
Answer:
Given
Relative error
𝐴𝑚 = 109.5 𝑉
𝛿𝐴 = −0.37 𝑉 𝛿𝐴
𝜖𝑟 =
𝐴𝑡
We know
𝛿𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡 −0.37
𝜖𝑟 = = −0.0033676
109.87
𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝛿𝐴
𝐴𝑡 = 109.5 − −0.37
In percentage?
𝐴𝑡 = 109.87 𝑉
𝜖𝑟 = −0.0033676 × 100 = −0.33676 %
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Example
Example: Consider a temperature measuring instrument. An error of ±𝟓𝟎 𝑪 was observed when the
temperature being measured is 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑪. This same error was observed when the temperature being
measured is 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑪. Calculate the percentage relative error in each case
Answer:
Given
Case – II
𝛿𝐴 = 5
Case – I 𝛿𝐴
𝜖𝑟 =
𝐴𝑡
𝛿𝐴
𝜖𝑟 = 5
𝐴𝑡 𝜖𝑟 = = 0.25
20
5
𝜖𝑟 = = 0.0025 In percentage?
2000
𝜖𝑟 = 0.25 × 100 = 25 %
In percentage?
𝜖𝑟 = 0.0025 × 100 = 0.25 %
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Example
Example: Show that
𝑨 𝒎
𝑨𝒕 = 𝟏+𝝐
𝒓
Answer:
The static error is given as Substituting this in the equation for true value
𝛿𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝜖 𝑟 𝐴𝑡
From this we can write 𝐴𝑡 + 𝜖 𝑟 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝛿𝐴 1 + 𝜖 𝑟 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚
The relative error is given as
𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑡 =
𝛿𝐴 1 + 𝜖𝑟
𝜖𝑟 =
𝐴𝑡
𝛿𝐴 = 𝜖𝑟 𝐴𝑡
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Example
Example: A meter reads 127.50 V and the true value of the voltage is 127.43 V. Determine the
(a) Static Error (b) Static Correction (b) Relative Error (d) Percentage Relative Error
Answer:
Given
𝐴𝑚 = 127.50 𝑉 Relative Error is
𝐴𝑡 = 127.43 𝑉
𝛿𝐴
Static Error is 𝜖𝑟 =
𝐴𝑡
𝛿𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡
𝛿𝐴 = 127.50 − 127.43 0.07
𝜖𝑟 = = 0.00054932
𝛿𝐴 = 0.07 127.43
Static Correction is
Percentage Relative Error
𝛿𝐶 = −𝛿𝐴
𝜖𝑟 = 0.00054932 × 100 = 0.054932 %
𝛿𝐶 = −0.07
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Example
Example: A thermometer reads 𝟗𝟓. 𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝑪 and the static correction given in the correction curve is −𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟎 𝑪. Determine the
(a) Static Error (b) True Value (b) Relative Error (d) Percentage Relative Error
Answer:
Given
𝐴𝑚 = 95.450 𝐶
Relative Error is
𝛿𝐶 = −0.080 𝐶
Static Error is
𝛿𝐴
𝛿𝐴 = −𝛿𝐶 𝜖𝑟 =
𝐴𝑡
𝛿𝐴 = 0.080 𝐶
True Value 0.08
𝜖𝑟 = = 0.000838838
𝛿𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡 95.37
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Next class Example
Example: A voltage has a true value of 1.50 V. An analog indicating instrument with a scale range of 0 – 2 V shows a
voltage of 1.46 V. What are the values of absolute error and correction. Express the error as a fraction of the true value
MEANS calculate 𝜖𝑟 and the full scale deflection (f.s.d) (full scale deflection is nothing but true value is 2 as it is 0 to 2v)
Answer:
Percentage Relative Error is
Given
𝛿𝐴
𝐴𝑡 = 1.5 𝑉 𝜖𝑟 = × 100%
𝐴𝑡
𝐴𝑚 = 1.46 𝑉
−0.04
Absolute Error is 𝜖𝑟 = × 100% = −2.6667%
1.5
𝛿𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡 Percentage Relative Error (expressed as fsd)
𝛿𝐴 = 1.46 − 1.50 = −0.04 𝑉
𝛿𝐴
Absolute Correction is 𝜖𝑟,𝑓𝑠𝑑 = × 100%
𝑓𝑠𝑑
𝛿𝐶 = −𝛿𝐴
−0.04
𝛿𝐶 = 0.04 𝑉 𝜖𝑟,𝑓𝑠𝑑 = × 100% = −2%
2
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Tolerance
Tolerance is a term generally used by component manufacturers (How much error is allowed in the
measurement)
Suppose a voltage is measured as 10 V using an instrument which is known to have a ±0.1 𝑉 error.
The measured voltage can then be written as
10 ± 0.1 𝑉
The measured voltage can then have a value between
9.9 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10.1 𝑉
Can you tell me how you will represent the same voltage in terms of relative error?
0.1
𝜖𝑟 = × 100𝑉
10
So we can represent the voltage as
10 ± 1%
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Tolerance
Another way of representing the static error and relative error
Tolerance is a term generally used by component manufacturers
Suppose a voltage is measure as 10 V using an instrument which is known to have a ±0.1 𝑉 error.
The measured voltage can then be written as
10 ± 0.1 𝑉
The measured voltage can then have a value between
9.9 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10.1 𝑉
Can you tell me how you will represent the same voltage in terms of relative error?
1
0.1 𝑉 = × 10 𝑉
100
So we can represent the voltage as
10 ± 1%
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Parts per million(ppm)
Another way of representing error is the parts per million (ppm) relative to the total quantity
For example
The temperature coefficient of a 1 𝑀Ω resistor might be stated as 100 𝑝𝑝𝑚/0 𝐶 [100 parts per million per degree
Celsius]
If temperature is changed by 10 𝐶 what happens?
Answer:
The colors are
Green, Blue, Red, Gold
So the resistor value is
56 × 102 ± 5%
5600 ± 5%
So the static error will be We know what is 𝜖𝑟 hence calculate 𝛿𝐴
AT = 5600 Ω
5
𝛿𝐴 = × 5600 = 280 Ω
100
So the resistor can be written as
5600 ± 280 Ω
Minimum Value will be
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 5600 − 280 = 5320 Ω
Maximum Value will be
2/25/2025 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 5600 + 280 = 5880 Ω 13
Thank You
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Measurement Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 4
Example
Example: A component manufacturer constructs certain resistances to be anywhere between 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝛀 and 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 𝒌𝛀 and
classifies them to be 𝟏. 𝟐 𝒌𝛀 resistors. What tolerance should be stated? What color code should be given ?
Answer:
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Example
Example: A component manufacturer constructs certain resistances to be anywhere between 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝛀 and 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 𝒌𝛀 and
classifies them to be 𝟏. 𝟐 𝒌𝛀 resistors. What tolerance should be stated? What color code should be given ?
Answer:
1.2 𝑘Ω ± 5%
What should be the color code? Tolerance is 5%. So color should be ?
1200 ± 5% Gold
12 × 102 ± 5%
First digit is 1. So color should be ? So the color code should be
Brown 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒏, 𝑹𝒆𝒅, 𝑹𝒆𝒅, 𝑮𝒐𝒍𝒅
Second digit is 2. So color should be ?
Red
Multiplier is 2. So color should be ?
Red
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Accuracy and Precision
• In ordinary usage, the distinction between the words accuracy and precision is very vague
• In the field of measurements, there is a big difference between the two
Accuracy:
• It is defined as the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity
being measured.
• Accuracy implies conformity to truth
Precision:
• It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements
• Given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group f
measurements.
• The term precise means clearly or sharply defined.
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Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy wrt to true value and absolute error
• Consider you are measuring a voltage whose true value is 100V.
• Suppose I use an instrument to measure this voltage 5 times
• I got the readings as 104 V, 103 V, 105 V, 103 V, 105 V
• What is the maximum static error?
𝛿𝐴 = 5 𝑉
• The maximum relative error?
5
𝜖𝑟 = × 100% = 5%
100
• So we can write the value measured as
100 ± 5%
• So we see that the accuracy cannot be better than 5%
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Accuracy and Precision
• Precision wrt to mean and deviation
• I got the readings as 104 V, 103 V, 105 V, 103 V, 105 V ( In precision At will be the Mean value)
• What is the mean of the readings?
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Accuracy and Precision
Accurate and
Accurate but
Precise
Not Precise
Not Accurate,
Not Accurate, and Not Precise
but Precise
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Questions
Q1: A component manufacturer constructs certain resistances to be anywhere between
𝟒. 𝟐𝟑 𝒌𝛀 and 𝟓. 𝟏𝟕 𝒌𝛀 and classifies them to be 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌𝛀 resistors. What tolerance
should be stated? What color code should be given ?
Formula Sheet:
Static Error
𝛿𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡
Also denoted as
𝛿𝐴 = 𝜖0 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡
Relative Error
𝛿𝐴
𝜖𝑟 =
𝐴𝑡
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Thank You
2/25/2025 9
Measuring Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 5
Assignment Question Discussion
Q1: A component manufacturer constructs certain resistances to be anywhere between 44.65 𝑘Ω and 49.35 𝑘Ω and
classifies them to be 47𝑘Ω resistors. What tolerance should be stated? What color code should be given ?
Q2: An instrument is showing a measurement of 50V. The instrument is known to have a relative error of 5%.
Determine the true value of the voltage being measured.
Q3. The ratio of the true value to the measured value of an instrument is 2: 3. What is the percentage relative error?
Q4. Mr. Rinto measured the temperature and found the following values. The true temperature is 300 𝐶
350 𝐶, 340 𝐶, 330 𝐶, 360 𝐶 , 340 𝐶, 300 𝐶, 350 𝐶, 320 𝐶, 300 𝐶, 310 𝐶
Write this set of measurements as 30 ± ____%. What is the deviation from the mean value? Comment on the
accuracy and precision of his measurements.
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Q1: A component manufacturer constructs certain resistances to be anywhere between 𝟒𝟒. 𝟔𝟓 𝒌𝛀 and 𝟒𝟗. 𝟑𝟓 𝒌𝜴 and classifies
them to be 𝟒𝟕𝒌𝜴 resistors. What tolerance should be stated? What color code should be given ?
Answer:
Static error
𝛿𝐴 = 49.35 𝑘Ω − 47 𝑘𝛺 47000 ± 5 %
𝛿𝐴 = 2.35 𝑘Ω 47 × 103 ± 5 %
We can write this in static error form First digit is 4. So color will be
47 𝑘Ω ± 2.35 𝑘Ω Yellow
Answer:
𝐴𝑚 = 50 𝑉
𝜖𝑟 = 5% = 0.05
𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑡 =
1 + 𝜖𝑟
50
𝐴𝑡 = = 47.619
1 + 0.05
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Assignment Question Discussion
Q3: The ratio of the true value to the measured value of an instrument is 2: 3. What is the percentage relative
error?
Answer:
𝐴𝑡 2
=
𝐴𝑚 3
3
3 %𝜖𝑟 = − 1 × 100%
2
𝐴𝑚 = 𝐴𝑡
2
%𝜖𝑟 = 50%
𝛿𝐴
%𝜖𝑟 = × 100%
𝐴𝑡
𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴 𝑡
%𝜖𝑟 = × 100%
𝐴𝑡
𝐴𝑚
%𝜖𝑟 = − 1 × 100%
𝐴𝑡
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Assignment Question Discussion
Q4. Mr. Rinto measured the temperature and found the following values. The true temperature is 300 𝐶
350 𝐶, 340 𝐶, 330 𝐶, 360 𝐶 , 340 𝐶, 300 𝐶, 350 𝐶, 320 𝐶, 300 𝐶, 310 𝐶
Write this set of measurements as 30 ± ____%. What is the deviation from the mean value? Comment on the accuracy and precision of his
measurements
The mean of the readings
Answer:
35 + 34 + 33 + 36 + 34 + 30 + 35 + 32 + 30 + 31
What is the maximum static error? 𝜇=
10
𝛿𝐴 = 60 𝐶
𝜇 = 330 𝐶
The maximum percentage relative error?
The maximum deviation from the means of the readings?
6 𝑑 = ±30 𝐶
%𝜖𝑟 = × 100%
30
The deviation in percentage from the mean value?
%𝜖𝑟 = 20%
3
So we can write the value measured as 𝑑% = ± % = 10%
30
30 ± 20%
The measurements have satisfactory precision but low
The accuracy cannot be better than 20%
accuracy
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Scale Range and Scale Span
Scale Range:
• Values which the measuring instrument is capable of measuring
• Scale Range of an instrument is specified by lower limit and upper
limit in which it is designed to operate to measure, to indicate or to
record the measured variable.
• It is also specified as the largest reading the instrument can record.
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Scale Span:
Scale Span of an instrument is defined as the algebraic
difference between upper range value and lower
range value .
Dead Time
Time
2/25/2025 12
Thank You
2/25/2025 13
Measuring Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 6
Static Sensitivity
• Static sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the change in output to the corresponding change in input under static or
steady state conditions.
• Inverse static sensitivity or deflection factor is defined as the ratio of the change in input to the corresponding
change in output under static or steady state conditions.
Output 𝑞𝑜
Static Sensitivity will be
Δ𝑞𝑜 Δ𝑞𝑖
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
Δ𝑞𝑖
Inverse Static Sensitivity or deflection factor will be
Input, 𝑞𝑖
Δ𝑞𝑖
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
Δ𝑞𝑜
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Linearity
• A system is said to be linear if proportional changes in input measurements produce proportional changes in
output measurement
• The method used to find out linearity is fairly simple.
• Any given measurement is considered, the input variables are varied in a controlled manner and the
resultant output is recorded.
• It is essential that at least 10 measurements be taken throughout the possible range of measurement.
• These points are then charted on a graph and an attempt is made to fit a line through these points.
• The degree to which all the points lie on this line of best fit is the degree of linearity of a system.
Input, 𝑞𝑖 Input, 𝑞𝑖
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Sensitivity to Disturbance
• All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled conditions of
temperature, pressure, and so on.
• These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the instrument specification.
• As variations occur in the ambient temperature, certain static instrument characteristics change,
and the sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the magnitude of this change.
• Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways,
• Zero drift
• Sensitivity drift.
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Zero Drift
• Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative Characteristics with Zero drift
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Sensitivity Drift
• Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift) defines the
amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity of measurement
Reading
varies as ambient conditions change.
• It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that define how Characteristics with
much drift there is for a unit change in each environmental Sensitivity drift
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Sensitivity and Zero Drift
Normal Characteristics
Measured Value
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Question
A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 6 Ω in the unknown arm of the bridge to produce a change in deflection of 3
mm of the galvanometer. Determine the sensitivity and the deflection factor
Answer:
A change in the output is
Δ𝑞𝑜 = 3 𝑚𝑚
A change in the input is
Δ𝑞𝑖 = 6 Ω
Sensitivity is given as
Δ𝑞𝑜
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
Δ𝑞𝑖
3 1
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 𝑚𝑚/Ω
6 2
Deflection factor is
Δ𝑞𝑖
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 2 Ω/𝑚𝑚
Δ𝑞𝑜
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Question
Δ𝑞𝑖 = ΔT 7
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
Δ𝑞𝑖 = 228 − 200 = 280 C 28
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0.25 Ω/0 𝐶
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Question
A thermocouple has an output e.m.f. as shown in the following table 𝟎𝑪
Temperature Output e.m.f (𝒎𝑽)
when its hot (measuring) junction is at the temperatures shown.
Determine the sensitivity of measurement for the thermocouple. 250 4.37
Answer: 500 8.74
750 13.11
Sensitivity is given as 1000 17.48
Δ𝑞𝑜
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
Δ𝑞𝑖
A change in the output is
So sensitivity is
Δ𝑞𝑜 = ΔV
4.37
Δ𝑞𝑜 = 13.11 − 8.74 = 4.37 V 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
250
A change in the input is 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0.01748 𝑚𝑉/0 𝐶
Δ𝑞𝑖 = ΔT
Δ𝑞𝑖 = 750 − 250 = 2500 C
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Question
The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer 𝟎𝑪
Temperature Resistance 𝛀
were measured at a range of temperatures. Fit a line to the data. What will
be the value of the resistance at 2500 𝐶? 200 307
Answer: 228 314
256 321
One point
284 328
𝑥1 , 𝑦1 = 200, 307
Second point
𝑥2 , 𝑦2 = 228, 314 1
𝑦 − 307 = 𝑥 − 50
The equation of the line 4
𝑦 = 0.25𝑥 + 257
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑥 − 𝑥1 So the resistance can be written as
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑅 = 0.25𝑇 + 257
314 − 307
𝑦 − 307 = 𝑥 − 200
228 − 200 The resistance at 2500 𝐶
It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 300 𝐶 , and the following deflection/ load characteristic is measured:
0
Determine the sensitivity at each temperature and the zero drift and sensitivity drift per 𝐶change in ambient temperature. Also evaluate
the zero drift and sensitivity drift coefficients
Zero drift? What is the zero drift coefficient?
Answer:
Sensitivity at 200 𝐶 𝑍𝐷 = 5 𝑚𝑚 𝑍𝐷
𝑍𝐷𝐶 =
Sensitivity Drift? Δ𝑄
20 − 0
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 20 𝑚𝑚/𝑘𝑔 5
1−0 𝑆𝐷 = 2 𝑚𝑚/𝑘𝑔
𝑍𝐷𝐶 = = 0.5 𝑚𝑚/0 𝐶
Sensitivity at 300 𝐶 What causes this change? 10
What is the sensitivity drift coefficient?
27 − 5 Temperature
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 22 𝑚𝑚/𝑘𝑔 𝑆𝐷
1−0 So change in temperature is
𝑆𝐷𝐶 =
Δ𝑄
Δ𝑄 = Δ𝑇 = 30 − 20 = 10𝑜 𝐶
2
𝑆𝐷𝐶 = = 0.2 𝑚𝑚/𝑘𝑔/0 𝐶
10
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Thank You
2/25/2025 14
Measurement Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 7
Question
A 10000 Ω variable resistance has a linearity of 0.1% and the movement of contact
arm is 3200 . (a) Determine the maximum position deviation in degrees and
resistance deviation is Ω. (b) If this instrument is to be used as a potentiometer with
a linear scale of 0 to 1.6 V, determine the maximum voltage
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Given
Full Scale deviation of resistance = 10000 Ω
Full Scale deviation of displacement or position = 3200
Percent Linearity in terms of resistance deviation is
2/25/2025 3
2/25/2025 4
Question
The dead zone in a certain pyrometer is 0.125 percent of span. The calibration is
4000 𝐶 to 10000 𝐶. What temperature change might occur before it is detected?
Answer:
0.125
𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒 = × 600
100
𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑍𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 0.750 𝐶
A temperature change of 0.750 𝐶 has to occur before the temperature is detected
2/25/2025 5
Question
A moving coil voltmeter has a uniform scale with 100 divisions, the full scale
reading is 200 V and 1/10 of a scale division can be estimated with a fair degree of
certainty .Determine the resolution of the instrument in volt.
Answer:
Number of divisions is 100
Full scale reading is 200 V
So what does one division correspond to how many volts
200
1 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =2𝑉
100
What is the resolution here?
1/10 of a scale division can be estimated. This means that 1/10 of 2 V can be estimated properly.
So resolution is
1
2/25/2025 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 2 = 0.2 𝑉 6
10
Question
A digital voltmeter has a read out range from 0 to 9,999 counts. Determine the
resolution of the instrument in volt when the full scale reading is 9.999V
Answer: one division correspond to
9.999
1 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 1 × 10−3 𝑉
9999
What is the resolution here?
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1 𝑚𝑉
2/25/2025 7
Types of Error
Errors in measurement may happen from the various sources which are generally categorized into the following types.
• Systematic Errors
• Gross Errors
• Random Errors
Gross Observational
Errors Errors
Effect of
Loading
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Gross Error
• Gross error occurs because of the human mistakes, like recording and
calculating the measurement results.
• The gross error can only be avoided by taking the reading carefully.
• For example – The experimenter reads the 31.50 𝐶 reading while the
actual reading is 21.50 𝐶 . This happens because of the oversights. The
experimenter takes the wrong reading and because of which the error
occurs in the measurement.
• Two methods can remove the gross error. These methods are
• The reading should be taken very carefully.
• Two or more readings of the measurement quantity should be
taken.
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Systematic Error: Observational Errors
• Observational errors are due to the wrong observation of the reading.
• There are many sources of observational error.
• For example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the scale.
• Thus an error occurs (because of parallax) unless the line of vision of the observer
is exactly above the pointer.
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Systematic Error: Environmental
• These errors are due to the external condition of the measuring devices.
• Such types of errors mainly occur due to the effect of temperature, pressure, humidity,
dust, vibration or because of the magnetic or electrostatic field.
• The corrective measures employed to eliminate or to reduce these undesirable effects are
• The arrangement should be made to keep the conditions as constant as possible.
• Using the equipment which is free from these effects.
• By using the techniques which eliminate the effect of these disturbances.
• By applying the computed corrections.
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Systematic Error: Instrumental Errors
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Misuse of instruments
2/25/2025 13
Effect of Loading
2/25/2025 14
Random (Residual )Error
2/25/2025 15
Thank You
2/25/2025 16
Measuring Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 8
Arithmetic Mean
• Suppose N readings of the variable, x are taken. Then the arithmetic mean is given as
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + . . . . . . . . +𝑥𝑁
𝑋 =
𝑁
σ 𝑥𝑛
𝑋 =
𝑁
Here
𝑋 = 𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , . . . . . . 𝑥𝑁 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
, the Arithmetic Mean (AM) or called average is the ratio of the sum of all observations to the total
number of observations.
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Dispersion
• The property which denotes the extent to which the values are dispersed about the central value is termed as dispersion
• The other names for dispersion are spread or scatter.
• The figure shows two sets of data.
• In curve 1, the values vary from 𝑥1 to 𝑥2 , and in curve 2, the values vary from 𝑥3 to
𝑥4 . Their central value is the same.
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
• So data represented by curve 1 has lower dispersion than that of the data
represented by curve 2.
• Which set of data is more precise?
Data represented by curve 1
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 1
• If we compare the two sets of data the one set with low dispersion can be taken as
more reliable.
Range: 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 2
Range is the simplest possible measure of dispersion .
It is the difference between the greatest and least value of data
Range of curve 1 𝑥3 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥4
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 →𝑥
Range of curve 2
𝑥4 − 𝑥3
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Deviation
• Deviation is the departure of the observed readings from the arithmetic mean of the
readings
• Let us consider N readings, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , . . . . . . 𝑥𝑁 . Let the arithmetic mean be 𝑋
• Let the deviation of reading 𝑥1 from the mean be 𝑑1 , deviation of reading 𝑥2 from the
mean be 𝑑2 and so on. Then
𝑑1 = 𝑥1 − 𝑋
𝑑2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑋
.
.
𝑑𝑁 = 𝑥𝑁 − 𝑋
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Question
Show that the algebraic sum of deviations is zero.
Answer:
𝑑1 = 𝑥1 − 𝑋
𝑑2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑋
.
.
𝑑𝑁 = 𝑥𝑁 − 𝑋
Adding all this we get
𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + . . . . . . +𝑑𝑁 = 𝑥1 − 𝑋 + 𝑥2 − 𝑋 +. . . . . . . +𝑥𝑁 − 𝑋
𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + . . . . . . +𝑑𝑁 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 +. . . . . . . +𝑥𝑁 − 𝑁 𝑋
What is 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 +. . . . . . . +𝑥𝑁
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 +. . . . . . . +𝑥𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑋
So
𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + . . . . . . +𝑑𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑋 − 𝑁 𝑋
𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + . . . . . . +𝑑𝑁 = 0
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Average Deviation
The average deviation is the indication of precision of the instrument used in the measurement
Highly precise instruments yield a low average deviation between the readings
Average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute value of deviations divided by the number of readings
𝑁
1
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑛
𝑁
𝑛=1
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Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is defined as the square root of the sum of the individual
deviations squared, divided by the number of readings
σ 𝑑𝑛2
𝑆𝐷 = 𝜎 =
𝑁
The above equation is normally used when the number of samples are greater than 20
When the number of samples is less than 20 , N < 20, the standard deviation is given as
σ 𝑑𝑛2
𝑆𝐷 = 𝑠 =
𝑁−1
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Variance
2
𝑑12 + 𝑑22 + 𝑑32 + . . . . . . +𝑑𝑁
2
2
𝑉 = 𝑆𝐷 = 𝜎 =
𝑁
σ 𝑑𝑛2
2
𝑉=𝜎 =
𝑁
The above equation is normally used when the number of samples are greater than 20
When the number of samples is less than 20 , N < 20, the variance is given as
2
σ 𝑑𝑛2
𝑠 =
𝑁−1
2/25/2025 8
Question
A set of independent current measurements were taken by six observers and
recorded as 12.8 A, 12.2 A, 12.5 A, 13.1 A, 12.9 A, and 12.4 A . Calculate the (a)
arithmetic mean, (b) the deviations from the mean (c ) average deviation (d)
standard deviation (e) variance
Answer: 1
𝑋ഥ = 𝑥𝑛
𝑁
𝑋ഥ
75.9
𝑋ഥ =
6
𝑋ഥ = 12.65
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Question
Average Deviation
𝑁
1
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑛
𝑁
𝑛=1
1.7
𝐷 = = 0.2833
6
Standard Deviation
σ 𝑑𝑛2
𝑠=
𝑁−1
0.575
𝑠= = 0.33911
5
Variance
σ 𝑑𝑛2
𝑠=
𝑁−1
0.575
𝑠= = 0.115
5
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Thank You
2/25/2025 12
Measurement Instruments and Sensors
Lecture 9
Mean Standard Deviation and Variance when Frequency Table is given
Mean
1
𝑋 = 𝑓. 𝑥𝑛
𝑁
Mean deviation
1
𝐷 = |𝑓. 𝑑𝑛 |
𝑁
Standard deviation
σ 𝑓. 𝑑𝑛2
𝜎=
𝑁
2/25/2025 2
Question
Temperature
𝟎 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405
𝑪
Frequency of
1 3 12 23 37 16 4 2 2
Occurrence
Calculate the (a) arithmetic mean (b) mean deviation (c ) standard deviation
(d) variance
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Question
The mean of 10 readings was calculated as 32. But later it was realized that one reading was wrongly taken as 40
instead of the real value of 34. Calculate the correct mean.
Answer:
314
𝑋 = = 31.4
10
𝑥𝑛 = 10 × 32 = 320
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Question
1. A set of independent 10 measurements were made to determine the resistance of a certain resistor. The values
observed were
1570, 1597, 1591, 1562, 1577, 1580, 1564, 1586, 1550, 1575
Find the arithmetic mean, mean deviation, variance and standard deviation
Length 𝒎𝒎 248 249 250 252 253 251 254 255 247
Frequency of
2 6 24 74 46 8 32 4 4
Occurrence
Calculate the (a) arithmetic mean (b) mean deviation (c ) standard deviation (d) variance
2/25/2025 5
Thank You
2/25/2025 6