Chapter 7 - Computer Hardware Study Guide

Quiz

1. What is the key characteristic that distinguishes a computer from other fixed-
purpose electronic devices? Briefly explain why this characteristic is important
for innovation and improvement.

2. Describe the difference between volatile and nonvolatile memory. Provide an

example of each type of memory discussed in the chapter and briefly explain its
role in a computer system.

3. What is the primary function of the Central Processing Unit (CPU)? Explain its
relationship with main memory in executing program instructions.

4. Explain the concept of a memory address and why it is crucial for the CPU to
interact with main memory. What does it mean for memory to be byte-
addressable?

5. What is an Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)? Name the two prevalent ISAs
discussed in the chapter and identify the primary types of computing devices
where each is commonly found.

6. Briefly describe the roles of the three fundamental internal components of a

CPU: the processor registers, the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and the control
unit.

7. Explain the purpose of a CPU clock. Is it accurate to say that a CPU executes
exactly one instruction per clock cycle? Briefly explain why or why not.

8. Why did the processor industry shift its focus from solely increasing clock rates
to developing multicore CPUs? How does a multicore CPU improve
performance?

9. What is CPU cache, and why is it important for system performance? Briefly
describe the different levels of cache (L1, L2, L3) and their general
characteristics.

10. Explain the purpose of secondary storage in a computer system. How does it
differ from main memory in terms of volatility, cost, and speed?

Quiz Answer Key

1. The key characteristic that distinguishes a computer is programmability, the

ability to perform new tasks without changing the hardware. This is important for
innovation and improvement because it allows for the rapid development and
deployment of new features and functionalities through software updates rather
than physical redesigns.
2. Volatile memory only retains data while powered, such as Random Access
Memory (RAM), which stores actively used program instructions and data.
Nonvolatile memory retains data even when power is off, such as secondary
storage (like SSDs or HDDs), which permanently stores the operating system,
applications, and user files.

3. The primary function of the CPU is to carry out the instructions specified in
software programs. The CPU directly accesses main memory to fetch program
instructions and the data they operate on, executing these instructions in a
sequential order to run the program.

4. A memory address is a unique numeric value that identifies a specific location

(typically a byte) in main memory. It is crucial for the CPU because it allows the
CPU to read and write specific instructions and data stored in memory. Byte-
addressable means that each individual byte of memory is assigned a unique
address.

5. An Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) is a model of how a CPU works, defining the
set of instructions that a processor can execute. The two prevalent ISAs are x86,
commonly found in desktop computers, laptops, and servers, and ARM, which
dominates the mobile device market like smartphones and tablets.

6. Processor registers are small, fast storage locations within the CPU used to hold
data that the CPU is currently processing. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
performs logical and mathematical operations on data. The control unit directs
the operations of the CPU, fetching and decoding instructions and coordinating
the activities of other CPU components.

7. A CPU clock provides an oscillating signal that acts as a timing mechanism to

synchronize the operations of the CPU and move it from one processing step to
the next. It is an oversimplification to say one instruction per cycle because
some instructions take multiple clock cycles, and modern CPUs use pipelining
to execute parts of multiple instructions in parallel.

8. The processor industry shifted to multicore CPUs because physical limitations

made significant increases in clock rates impractical due to excessive heat
generation and potential errors. A multicore CPU improves performance by
having multiple independent processing units (cores) that can execute different
sets of instructions in parallel, allowing for the simultaneous execution of
multiple tasks or parts of a single, multithreaded application.

9. CPU cache is a small amount of fast memory within the CPU that holds copies of
frequently accessed data from main memory. It is important for system
performance because accessing data from the cache is much faster than
 accessing it from main memory, reducing the time the CPU spends waiting for
data. L1 cache is the smallest and fastest, followed by L2 (larger and slower than
L1), and then L3 (largest and slowest of the cache levels, but still faster than
main memory).

10. Secondary storage provides long-term, nonvolatile storage for data, including the
operating system, applications, and user files, even when the computer is
powered off. It differs from main memory (RAM) in that it is nonvolatile,
significantly cheaper per byte, and considerably slower to access; therefore, it is
not directly accessed by the CPU for active processing.

Essay Format Questions

1. Discuss the evolution of computer hardware, focusing on the key innovations

that have led to the capabilities of modern computing devices. Consider the
roles of memory, processors, and input/output advancements in this evolution.

2. Compare and contrast the x86 and ARM instruction set architectures. Analyze
the reasons for their prevalence in different segments of the computing market
(e.g., personal computers vs. mobile devices) and discuss potential future
trends in their adoption.

3. Explain the fetch-decode-execute cycle of a CPU's control unit in detail. Discuss

how factors like clock speed, pipelining, and caching influence the efficiency
and performance of this cycle.

4. Analyze the relationship between hardware and software in a computer system.

Discuss how the capabilities and limitations of computer hardware influence
software design and performance, and vice versa.

5. Evaluate the importance of input/output (I/O) devices in making computers

useful and interactive. Discuss the different ways CPUs communicate with I/O
devices (memory-mapped I/O and port-mapped I/O) and the significance of bus
communication in this process.

Glossary of Key Terms

• Central Processing Unit (CPU) or Processor: The electronic circuitry within a

computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing
the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified
by the instructions.

• Main Memory (RAM or Random Access Memory): Volatile computer memory

that stores data and program instructions that the CPU needs to access quickly.
It allows random access, meaning any memory location can be accessed in the
same amount of time.
• Input/Output (I/O): The communication between an information processing
system, such as a computer, and the outside world, possibly a human or another
information processing system. I/O devices allow for this interaction.

• Programmability: The ability of a computer to perform new tasks without

requiring changes to its hardware, achieved by accepting and executing a set of
instructions (a program).

• Volatile Memory: Computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored
information; if power is removed, the data is lost (e.g., RAM).

• Nonvolatile Memory: Computer memory that can retain the stored information
even when not powered (e.g., secondary storage like SSDs and HDDs).

• Memory Address: A numeric value that identifies a specific location in

computer memory, typically referring to a single byte of data in byte-addressable
memory.

• Byte-Addressable: A characteristic of memory organization where each

individual byte (8 bits) in memory is assigned a unique address.

• Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): An abstract model of a computer that

defines the types of instructions a CPU can execute. Different families of CPUs
use different ISAs (e.g., x86, ARM).

• x86: A family of instruction set architectures that originated with the Intel 8086
microprocessor and is commonly used in personal computers and servers.

• ARM: A family of instruction set architectures known for its reduced power
consumption, widely used in mobile devices and embedded systems.

• Processor Registers: Small, high-speed storage locations within the CPU used
to hold data that is being actively processed.

• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): A digital circuit within the CPU that performs
arithmetic and bitwise logical operations on integer binary numbers.

• Control Unit: A component of the CPU that directs its operation. It fetches
instructions, decodes them, and coordinates their execution by other
components.

• Program Counter (PC) or Instruction Pointer: A processor register that holds

the memory address of the next instruction to be executed.

• Clock Signal: A regular electronic signal used to synchronize the operations of a

digital circuit, such as a CPU, by providing a timing reference.
• Multicore CPU: A CPU with multiple independent processing units (cores) on a
single integrated circuit, allowing for the parallel execution of multiple threads or
processes.

• CPU Cache: A small amount of fast memory located within the CPU or close to
it, used to store copies of frequently accessed data from main memory to reduce
access latency.

• Secondary Storage: Nonvolatile storage devices (e.g., hard disk drives, solid-
state drives) used for the long-term storage of data, including the operating
system, applications, and user files.

• Memory-Mapped I/O (MMIO): A method of communication between the CPU

and I/O devices where the device's registers are mapped to memory addresses.
The CPU communicates with the device by reading and writing to these memory
locations.

• Port-Mapped I/O (PMIO): A method of communication where I/O devices are

assigned unique port numbers, creating a separate address space for I/O
operations. The CPU uses special instructions to read from and write to these
ports.

• Bus: A hardware communication system that transfers data between

components inside a computer or between computers. Common types include
the address bus, data bus, and control bus.

• Address Bus: A set of wires used by the CPU to specify the memory address or
I/O port it wants to access.

• Data Bus: A set of wires used to transfer the actual data being read from or
written to memory or an I/O device.

• Control Bus: A set of wires used by the CPU to send control signals to other
components, such as indicating whether a read or write operation is being
performed.