MSS 123: CALCULUS I

For all BAED-EM I & B.Sc.Edu

(MICT) I Students

1
 Topic 2

Limits and
Continuity of a
function

2
Outline:
• Definitions of Limits, Epsilon-delta definition of
limits and evaluation of limits
• Intermediate value theorem, extreme value
theorem
• Elementary functions and their limits; one-side
limits, asymptotic limits; curve sketching.
• Continuity of function and inverse functions.
3
 Limit
We say that the limit of a function, f (x) as x approaches a is
L and this can be written as:
x→a
lim f (x) = L

if the values of f (x) approach L as x approaches a.

Graphically: y = f (x)
L

4
 Evaluation of Limits
𝑥−1
1. a) Use table of values to guess the value of lim 2
𝑥→1 𝑥 −1

𝑥−1
b) Draw the graph f (x) = 2 and confirm your guess in (a)
𝑥 −1

2. Find the following limits

 sin x 
a) lim   by considering the values
x→0
 x 
x = 1,0.5,0.1,0.05,0.001. Thus, the limit is 1.
sin x
Confirm this by ploting the graph of f (x) =
x
5
 ( x ) by considering the values
b) lim sin 
x→0

(i) x = 1,  1 , 1 , 1
10 100 1000

(ii) x = 1,  2 3 ,  2103,  21003

This shows the limit does not exist.

( )
Confirm this by ploting the graph of f (x) = sin  x

6
 ( x)
b) lim sin 
x→0

(i) x = 1,  1 , 1 , 1
10 100 1000

(ii) x = 1,  2 3 ,  2103,  21003

This shows the limit does not exist.

( )
Confrim this by ploting the graph of f (x) = sin  x

7
 Limit Rules
If c is any number, lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M , then
x→a x→a

a) lim ( f (x) + g(x) ) = L + M b) lim ( f (x) − g(x) ) = L − M

x→a x→a

c) lim ( f (x)  g(x) ) = L  M

x→a
d)
x→a
(
lim f (x)
g(x) )= L , ( M  0)
M

e) lim (c  f (x) ) = c  L f) lim ( f (x) )n = Ln

x→a
x→a

g) lim c = c h) lim x = a
x→ a x→a

i) lim x n = a n j) lim f (x) = L, (L  0)

x→a x→a

9
Examples Using Limit Rule
Ex. lim (x 2 +1) = lim
x→3
x 2 + lim1
x→3
x→3

( ) + lim1
2
= lim x
x→3 x→3

= 32 +1 = 10

2x −1 lim (2x −1) 2 lim x − lim1

Ex. lim = x→1 = x→1 x→1
x→1 3x + 5 lim (3x + 5 ) 3lim x + lim5
x→1 x→1 x→1

2 −1 1
= =
3+5 8

10
 More Examples
1. Suppose lim f (x) = 4 and lim g(x) = −2. Find
x→3 x→3

a) lim ( f (x) + g(x) ) = lim

x→3
f (x) + lim g(x)
x→3
x→3
= 4 + (−2) = 2

b) lim( f (x) − g(x)) = lim f (x) − lim g(x)

x→3
x→3 x→3

= 4 − (−2) = 6
 2 f (x) − g(x)  lim 2 f (x) − lim g(x) 24−(−2) −5
c) lim   = x→3 x→3
= =
x→3
 f (x)g(x)  lim f (x)  lim g(x) 4(−2) 4
x→3 x→3 41
 One-Sided Limit
The right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a,
equals L is denoted as:
lim f (x) = L
x→a +
if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close
to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to the
right of a.
y = f (x)
L

a
12
The left-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a,
equals M is denoted as:
lim f (x) = M
x→a −

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close

to M by taking x to be sufficiently close to the
left of a.

y = f (x)

M
a
13
 Examples of One-Sided Limit

𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 3
1. Given 𝑓(𝑥) = ቊ
2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 3

Find lim+ f (x)

x→3

lim f (x) = lim 2x = 6

x→3+ x→3+

Find lim− f (x)

x→3

lim f (x) = lim x 2 = 9

x→3− x→3−

14
 One-Sided Limit
Theorem:
lim f (x) = L if and only if lim+ f (x) = L and lim− f (x) = L.
x→a x→a x→a

This theorem is used to show whether a limit

exist or not.
 x +1, if x  0
Example: For f (x) = 
 x −1, if x  0.
lim f (x) does not exist because lim+ f (x) = 1 and lim− f (x) = −1.
x→0 x→0 x→0

But
lim f (x) = 2 because lim+ f (x) = 2 and lim− f (x) = 2.
x→1 x→1 x→1
16
 Indeterminate Forms

Indeterminate forms occur when substitution in the limit

results in 0/0. In such cases either factor or rationalize the
expressions.
Notice
0 form
x+5
Ex. lim
x→−5 x 2 − 25 0
x+5
= lim Factor and cancel
x→−5 (x − 5 )(x + 5 )
common factors
1 1
= lim =
x→−5 ( x − 5 ) −10

17
 More Examples

Example:
𝑥−3 𝑥−3 𝑥+3 𝑥−9 1
lim = lim ∗ = lim =
𝑥→9 𝑥−9 𝑥→9 𝑥−9 𝑥+3 𝑥→9 (𝑥−9)( 𝑥+3) 6

4−𝑥 2
Exercise: Evaluate lim 2 3
𝑥→−2 2𝑥 +𝑥
 Limits at Infinity
1 1
For all n > 0, lim = lim =0
x→ xn x→− xn
1
provided that x n is defined.
3x + 5x +1
2 3+ 5x + 1
lim = lim x2 Divide
Ex. x→
2 − 4x 2 x→ 2 −4 by x2
x2

=
lim 3 + lim 5 ( x )+ lim (1 x ) 2 3+ 0+ 0
=−
3
x→ x→ x→
=
lim 2
x→
( x )− lim 4
2
x→
0−4 4

20
 More Examples
 2x 3 3x 2 2 
 2 x3 − 3x2 + 2   3
− 3 + 3 
1. l i m  3  = lim x x x 
x→
 x − x − 100 x + 1 
2
x→ x 3 x 2 100x 1
 3− 3 − 3 + 3 
x x x x 

 3 2 
2− + 3 
 x x
= lim  
1
 1− − 100 1
+ 3 
x→

 x x 2
x 

2
= =2
1
21
  4x − 5x + 21 
2  x 2 + 2x − 4 
3.
x→  12x + 31 
2. lim 3  lim
x→ 7x + 5x 2 −10x +1
   
 x2 2x 4 
   x + x − x
4x 2 5x 21
 − 3+ 3 
x3 x x = lim  
= lim  x→
 12x 31 
x→ 7x 3
 x + x 
2
5x 10x 1
 3 + − + 3
 x x 3
x 3
x   
 4 − 5 + 21   x+2− 4 
 x x2 x 3   
= li m   x
x→ 5
7+ − 1 0 1
+ 3  = lim  
 x x 2
x 
x→
 12 + 31 
0  x 
=  + 2
7 =
12
=0 =
22
 4. lim
x→
( x2 +1 − x )

= lim
( x2 +1 − x ) 
x 2 +1 + x 
x→
 1 x2 +1 + x 
 

 x2 +1− x2 
= lim 
x→
 x +1 + x 
2

 1 
= lim  
 x +1 + x 
x→ 2

1 1
= = =0
+  55
 Infinite Limits 20

For all n > 0, 15

10

1 5

lim+ =
x→a (x − a )
n -8 -6 -4 -2
-5

-10
2

-15

-20
40

30
1
lim− =  if n is even 20

x→a
(x − a )n
10

-2 2 4 6

-10

-20
20
1
lim− = − if n is odd 15

x→a ( x − a )
n 10

-8 -6 -4 -2 2
-5

More Graphs -10

-15
56
 Examples
Find the limits
 3x 2 + 2x +1   3+ 2 + 1 2  3+  + 
1. lim   = lim 
x x  = =
+
x→0  2x 2
 x→0+  2  2
 
 2x +1 
2. lim +  
 2x +1 
= lim 
x→−3  2x + 6  x→−3+ 2(x + 3) 
 
= −
40

20

-8 -6 -4 -2 2

-20

57
 The Epsilon-delta (-) Definition of
Limit

• Definition: We say 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = L if and only if

𝒙→𝒂
for every ε > 0 , there exists δ > 0 such that
if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿, then 0 < 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿 < 𝜀

• This means that if we are given a small interval

(L −  , L +  ) centered at L, then we can find a
(small) interval (a −  , a +  ) such that for all x  a
in (a − , a +  ), f (x) is in (L −  , L +  ).
 The Epsilon-delta (-) Definition of
Limit
Figure below shows possible values of δ for various choices
of ε > 0 for a given function f(x), a number a, and a limit L
at a. Notice that as we choose smaller values of ε (the
distance between the function and the limit), we can always
find a δ small enough so that if we have chosen an x value
within δ of a, then the value of f(x) is within ε of the limit L.
 Examples

Example 1 (a): Show that lim 2𝑥 − 5 = 1

𝑥→3
Solution:
Let 𝜀 > 0 , We need to find a   0 such that

if | x - 3 |  , then | (2x −) −1 | .

But | (2x − ) −1 |=| 2x − 6 |= 2 | x − 3 | 

𝜀 𝜀
If | x − 3 |  So we choose 𝛿 = 28
2 2
 Example 1(a)-Solution
𝜀
This means that, given 𝜀 > 0 we choose 𝛿 = 2 so that
𝜀
𝑥−𝑎 <𝛿 ⇒| x − 3 |
2

⇒2 | x − 3 | 𝜀
⇒| 2x − 6 | 𝜀
⇒ | (2x − ) −1 | 
⇒ | f(x) −L | 

This complete the solution

 Examples
Example 1(b): Given the limit

find  such that whenever

Solution:
In this problem, you are working with a given value of
 –namely,  = 0.01.
To find an appropriate  , try to establish a connection
between the absolute values
 Example 1(b) Solution
Notice that

Because the inequality is equivalent

to

you can choose

This choice works because implies that

 Example 1(b) – Solution
As you can see in Figure 1.13, for x-values within 0.005
of 3 (x ≠ 3), the values of f (x) are within 0.01 of 1.
 Examples

Examples 2: Prove that

lim 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 4
𝑥⟶2

33
 Example 2-Solution
To prove that lim 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 4
𝑥 ⟶2
Let   0 be given. We need to find a   0 such that
if 𝑥 − 2 < 𝛿 then 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 − 4 < 𝜀
That is 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 then 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿 < 𝜀

Now

34
 Example 2-Solution

• Since we have 𝑥−2 in LHS we can let

𝜀
𝛿=
𝑥+3

• This time we have a problem because 𝛿 must be in

terms of 𝜀 only, without any extra variable(s).

• Now how can we remove 𝑥 + 3 term?

 Example 2-Solution

• Since the concept of limit only applies when 𝑥 is close to

𝑎 , we will first restrict 𝑥 so that it is at most 1 away
from 𝑎 , or, mathematically, 𝑥 − 𝑎 <1 (in our case
𝑥 − 2 <1.

• Then, this means, 1 < 𝑥 < 3 or 4 < 𝑥 + 3 < 6.

 Example 2-Solution
• Now consider the original inequality
𝜀
𝑥−2 <
𝑥+3
• Notice that the right hand side is at the minimum when 𝑥 +
3 is at its maximum. Since the maximum of 𝑥 + 3 is 6, we
know that
𝜀 𝜀
𝑥−2 < <
𝑥+3 6
• Since we now have two restrictions, 𝑥 − 2 < 1 and
𝜀
𝑥−2 <
6

37
 Example 2- Solution

𝜀
• We choose 𝛿 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1, , the smaller of these two
6

values, which guarantees that it will satisfy both

inequalities
𝜀
• Therefore, given 𝜀 > 0, let 𝛿 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1,
6
𝜀
• Case 1: Suppose 𝛿 = 1 ⇒ 1 < ⇒𝜀 > 6
6

Then
 Example 2-Solution

• We know that 4 < x + 3 < 6, using the same restriction

we worked out earlier. Therefore ε > 6.
• Putting these together, we have
39
 Example 2-Solution

This complete the proof when 𝛿 = 1

𝜀
• Case 2: Suppose 𝛿 =
6

Then

40
 Example 2-Solution

• Once again we know that 4 < 𝑥 + 3 < 6, therefore

• Finally, this completes the proof.

41
 Practice Problems
Use epsilon-delta definition of limit to prove the
following

i. lim 3𝑥 + 4 = 10 vi. lim 𝑥 2 + 3 = 4

𝑥→2 𝑥→1

ii. lim 3𝑥 − 1 = 2 vii. lim 𝑥 2 + 3 = 4

𝑥→1 𝑥→−1

2 1
iii. lim 1 − 4𝑥 = 7 viii. lim =
−3
𝑥→ Τ2 𝑥→3 𝑥+3 3

1 𝑥+4 1
iv. lim =1 ix. lim = −
𝑥→1 𝑥 𝑥→−6 2−𝑥 4

v. lim 𝑥=∞ x. lim 𝑥+2 =5

𝑥→∞ 𝑥→9 42
 Example 3

Prove that lim 𝑥=∞

𝑥⟶∞

49
 Example 3 - Explanations

• In this example we have 𝑎 = ∞ and 𝐿 = ∞

• If we try to apply the proof directly, we will end up

getting 𝑓 𝑥 − ∞ < 𝜀, which produces a meaningless
result, since, anything minus ∞ is ∞.

• Therefore, we need to modify or definition of limit

slightly for infinity problems.
 Example 3- Explanations

• Let us first consider what it means for the limit to be

equal to infinity.
• When the limit equals infinity, then that means
that 𝑓(𝑥) increases without bound.
• In other words, for any positive integer M, there is a
𝛿 such that within 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 then
𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑀 (mathematically, this is saying that as you
approach the point 𝑎 then 𝑓(𝑥) becomes larger than any
finite value.)
 Example 3- Explanations
• Now let us consider the other side 𝑥 ⟶ 𝑎 . If
we directly substitute 𝑎 = ∞ , following the
same arguments as above, we end up with the
meaningless values.
• Therefore, we will also use a similar
argument to replace 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 with
𝑥 > 𝑁, where 𝑁 is any positive integer.

52
 Example 3- Explanations

• Therefore, our modified definition of 𝜀 − 𝛿 for infinity

problem like this will be:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→∞
if for every positive integer 𝑀 there is a corresponding
positive integer 𝑁 such that 𝑥 > 𝑁 ⟹ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) > 𝑀
• Now you must be able to solve example 3
 Example 3-Solution
• Assume there is a positive integer 𝑀 such that
𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑀 now we need to find the positive integer 𝑁
such that 𝑥 > 𝑁
• From 𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑀 ⟹ 𝑥 > 𝑀 ⟹ 𝑥 > 𝑀2 since this is
in the form 𝑥 > 𝑁 then we choose N = 𝑀2 so that

• This complete the proof

54
 Continuity
A function f is continuous at the point x = a if
the following are true:
i) f (a) is defined
ii) lim f (x) exists
x→a
iii) lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a f(a)

55
Examples At which value(s) of x is the given function
discontinuous?
x −9
2

1. f (x) = x + 2 2. g(x) =
x+3
Continuous everywhere
Continuous everywhere
lim(x + 2) = a + 2
x→a
except at x = −3

andso lim f (x) = f (a) g(−3) is undefined

x→a
4

6 2

4 -6 -4 -2 2 4

-2

2
-4

-6
-4 -2 2 4

-2 -8

-10

56
  x + 2, if x  1 −1, if x  0
3. h(x) =  4. F(x) = 
1, if x  1 1, if x  0

lim− h(x) =1 and lim h(x) = 3

lim+ F (x)
x→0
= 1 and x→0
lim F (x) = −1
−

x→1 x→1+
Thus F is not cont. at x = 0.
Thus h is not cont. at x=1.
F is continuous everywhere else
h is continuous everywhere else
5

3
4

3 2

2
1

-10 -5 5 10

-2 2 4
-1
-1

-2
-2

-3 -3

57
 Continuous Functions
If f and g are continuous at x = a, then

f  g, fg, and f g (g(a)  0 ) are continuous

at x = a

A polynomial function y = P(x) is continuous at

every point x.

A rational function R(x) = p(x) q(x) is continuous

at every point x in its domain except when
𝑞(𝑥) = 0.
58
 Intermediate Value Theorem
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b]
and L is any number between f (a) and f (b), then there
is at least one number c in [a, b] such that f(c) = L.

y = f (x)
f (b)
f (c) = L
f (a)

a c b

59
Example
Given f (x) = 3x 2 − 2x − 5,
Show that f (x) = 0 has a solution on 1, 2.

f (1) = −4  0
f (2) = 3  0

f (x) is continuous (polynomial) and since f (1) < 0

and f (2) > 0, by the Intermediate Value Theorem
there exists a point c on [1, 2] such that f (c) = 0.
60
 Limit and Trig Functions
From the graph of trigs functions
f (x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x
1
1

0.5 0.5

-10 -5 5 10 -10 -5 5 10

-0.5 -0.5

-1
-1

we conclude that they are continuous everywhere

lim sin x = sin c and lim cos x = cos c
x→c x→c 58
 Tangent and Secant
Tangent and secant are continuous everywhere in their
domain of definition, which is found in the set of all real
numbers x    2 ,  3 2 ,  5 2 ,  7  2 , y = sec x
15
30

y=tanx 20
10

5
10

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-5
-10
-10
-20

-15
-30

62
 Examples
a) lim + sec x = − b) x→lim sec x =
( 2) ( 2)
−
x→  

c) lim
(
x→ −3 2) +
tan x = − d) lim
(
x→ −3 2) −
tan x = 
e) lim− cot x = − f) lim tan x = 1
x→ 4
x→

cos x 0
g) lim cot x = x→lim = =0
x→(−3 )
2
( −3 ) sin x
2 1
63
 Limit and Exponential Functions
y = ax, a  1
10
10
y = ax, 0  a  1
8
8
6
6

4
4

2
2

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2 -2

The above graph confirm that exponential

functions are continuous everywhere.
lim a x = ac
x→c
64
 ASYMPTOTES
i) Vertical asymptotes
ii) Horizontal asymptotes
 Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes

• Definition: The vertical line x = a is a vertical asymptote

for the graph of y = f (x) if f (x) →  or f (x) → - as
x → a+ or x → a–.
• That is, f (x) either increases or decreases without bound
as x approaches a from the right or from the left.
• Note: If any one of the four possibilities is satisfied, this
makes x = a a vertical asymptote.
• Most of the time, the limit will be infinite (+ or -) on both
sides, but it does not exist.
 Vertical Asymptotes of Polynomials

• How do we locate vertical asymptotes? If a function f is

continuous at x = a, then
lim f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) = lim− f ( x) = f (a )
x→a x→a x→a

• Since all of the above limits exist and are finite, f cannot
have a vertical asymptote at x = a.
• In order for f to have a vertical asymptote at x = a, at least
one of the limits above must be an infinite limit, and f
must be discontinuous at x = a. We know that polynomial
functions are continuous for all real numbers, so a
polynomial has no vertical asymptotes.
 Vertical Asymptotes of Rational Functions

• Since a rational function is discontinuous only at the

zeros of its denominator, a vertical asymptote of a
rational function can occur only at a zero of its
denominator.
• The following is a simple procedure for locating the
vertical asymptotes of a rational function:
• If f (x) = p(x)/q(x) is a rational function, q(c) = 0 and
p(c)  0, then the line x = c is a vertical asymptote of
the graph of f.
Example

x2 + x − 2
f (x ) =
Let
x2 −1

Describe the behavior of f at each point of

discontinuity. Use  and - when appropriate. Identify
all vertical asymptotes.
 Example cont…

x2 + x − 2
f (x ) =
Solution:
x2 −1

• Let p(x) = x2 + x - 2 and q(x) = x2 - 1.

• Factoring the denominator, we see that q(x) = x2 - 1 =
(x+1)(x-1) has two zeros, x = -1 and x = 1. These are the
points of discontinuity of f.
• Since q(-1) = 0 and p(-1) = -2  0, the theorem tells us that
the line x = -1 is a vertical asymptote.
Example cont…

• Now we consider the other zero of p(x), x = 1. This

time p(1) = 0 and the theorem does not apply.
• We use algebraic simplification to investigate the
behavior of the function at x = 1:

x2 + x − 2 Since the limit exists as x

lim f ( x) = lim
x →1 x →1 x2 −1 approaches 1, f does not
( x − 1)( x + 2) 3 have a vertical asymptote
= lim =
x →1 ( x − 1)( x + 1) 2 at x = 1. The graph of f
is shown on the next slide.
Example cont…

x2 + x − 2
Vertical Asymptote f ( x) =
x2 −1
Point of
discontinuity
 Limits at Infinity and Horizontal
Asymptotes
• A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of y
= f (x) if f (x) approaches b as either x increases without
bound or decreases without bound.
lim f ( x) = b or lim f ( x) = b
x → − x →

• Symbolically, y = b is a horizontal asymptote if

lim f ( x) = b or lim f ( x) = b
x → − x →
 Cont…
In the first case, the graph of f will be close to the
horizontal line y = b for large (in absolute value) negative
x.
In the second case, the graph will be close to the horizontal
line y = b for large positive x.
Note: It is enough if one of these conditions is satisfied, but
frequently they both are.
Example
This figure shows the graph of a function with
two horizontal asymptotes, y = 1 and y = -1.
 Horizontal Asymptotes of Rational Functions

If
am x m + am−1 x m−1 +  + a1 x + a0
f ( x) = n −1
, am  0, bn  0
bn x + bn−1 x +  + b1 x + b0
n

then am x m
lim f ( x) = lim
x → x → b x n
n

There are three possible cases for these limits.

1. If m < n, then xlim f ( x) = 0
→ 

The line y = 0 (x axis) is a horizontal asymptote for f (x).

76
 Cont…
2. If m = n, then the line y = am/bn is a horizontal asymptote for
f (x), i.e., am
lim f ( x) =
x →  bm

3. If m > n, f (x) does not have a horizontal asymptote.

Note that in cases 1 and 2 on the previous slide that the limit is
the same if x approaches  or -. Thus a rational function can
have at most one horizontal asymptote.
 Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes

Definition 1: (x→ ∞+ ) is illustrated in Figures below. Notice that there

are many ways for the graph of f to approach the line y = L (which is
called a horizontal asymptote) as we look to the far right of each graph.
 −
Definition 2: (x→ ∞
Limits at Infinity; ) is illustrated in Figure
Horizontal 3. Notice that the graph
Asymptotes
approaches the line y = L as we look to the far left of each graph.

Examples illustrating

Figure 3
Example 1:
Find

Solution:
Observe that when x is large, 1/x is small. For instance,

In fact, by taking x large enough, we can make 1/x as close

to 0 as we please.
 Example 1 continued
Therefore, according to Definition 1, we
have
=0

Similar reasoning by Definition 2 shows that

when x is large negative,1/x is small
negative, so we also have

=0
Example 1 continued

It follows that the line y = 0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal

asymptote of the curve y = 1/x. (This is an equilateral
hyperbola; see Figure 6.)

Figure 6
Example 2 continued
Evaluate
The limit as x→ ∞ and as x→ −∞
3
is , so the function has the horizontal
5 3
asymptote at y=
5

Figure 7 illustrates the results

of these calculations by showing
how the graph of the given
rational function approaches
3
the horizontal asymptote y =
5

Figure 7
THE END OF TOPIC 2

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