OSI MODEL

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that

standardizes networking functions into seven distinct layers. Each layer serves a specific role
in ensuring communication between devices over a network. Below is a detailed
explanation of each layer, including at least five functions for each.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

The Physical layer is responsible for the actual transmission of raw bits (0s and 1s) over a
communication medium.

Functions:

1. Bit Transmission: Converts digital data into electrical, optical, or radio signals for
transmission.
2. Defines Media Characteristics: Specifies characteristics of transmission media (e.g.,
cables, radio frequencies).
3. Synchronization of Bits: Ensures proper timing of data transmission so the sender
and receiver stay synchronized.
4. Data Rate Control: Determines transmission speed (bit rate) based on medium and
hardware capabilities.
5. Physical Topologies: Defines network layouts (e.g., bus, star, ring, mesh) and their
connectivity.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

The Data Link layer ensures reliable node-to-node data transfer by organizing raw bits into
frames and handling error detection.

Functions:

1. Framing: Encapsulates packets into frames for transmission over the physical
medium.
2. Error Detection & Correction: Uses mechanisms like CRC (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) to detect and correct transmission errors.
 3. Flow Control: Prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver using
methods like stop-and-wait or sliding window.
4. Media Access Control (MAC): Controls how devices access and use the network
medium (e.g., CSMA/CD for Ethernet).
5. MAC Addressing: Assigns unique MAC addresses to devices for proper
identification and communication.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

The Network layer is responsible for routing, addressing, and delivering packets across
multiple networks.

Functions:

1. Logical Addressing: Assigns IP addresses to devices for unique identification across

networks.
2. Routing: Determines the best path for data packets using routing protocols (e.g.,
OSPF, BGP).
3. Packet Forwarding: Moves packets from one network to another based on routing
tables.
4. Fragmentation & Reassembly: Splits large packets into smaller fragments for
transmission and reassembles them at the destination.
5. Traffic Control & Congestion Management: Regulates data flow to avoid network
congestion.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

The Transport layer ensures end-to-end communication, reliability, and proper data
segmentation.

Functions:

1. Segmentation & Reassembly: Breaks data into smaller segments at the sender and
reassembles them at the receiver.
2. Error Control: Detects and corrects errors using checksums and acknowledgments.
 3. Flow Control: Manages data flow between sender and receiver to prevent buffer
overflow (e.g., TCP's sliding window).
4. Connection Management: Establishes, maintains, and terminates connections (e.g.,
TCP three-way handshake).
5. Multiplexing & Demultiplexing: Allows multiple applications to share a single
transport layer connection using port numbers.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

The Session layer manages sessions between applications and ensures continuous
communication.

Functions:

1. Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: Sets up, manages, and

ends sessions between applications.
2. Synchronization: Inserts checkpoints in data streams to allow resumption after
interruptions.
3. Dialog Control: Manages bidirectional communication (full-duplex or half-duplex).
4. Session Security: Implements authentication and authorization mechanisms.
5. Exception Handling: Detects and recovers from session-related failures.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

The Presentation layer translates, encrypts, and compresses data for application-layer
processing.

Functions:

1. Data Translation: Converts data between different formats (e.g., EBCDIC to

ASCII).
2. Encryption & Decryption: Ensures data confidentiality using protocols like
SSL/TLS.
3. Data Compression: Reduces file size for faster transmission (e.g., JPEG, MP3,
MPEG).
 4. Character Encoding: Converts data into a common format for interoperability (e.g.,
Unicode, UTF-8).
5. Serialization: Structures complex data for transmission and reassembly.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

The Application layer is the closest to the user and provides network services directly to
applications.

Functions:

1. Network Services: Provides services such as email (SMTP), file transfer (FTP), and
web browsing (HTTP).
2. User Interface: Facilitates communication between the user and network-based
applications.
3. Data Exchange Protocols: Defines rules for applications to communicate (e.g.,
HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, DNS).
4. Resource Sharing: Enables file sharing, remote access, and distributed computing.
5. Error Reporting: Sends error messages to users when network issues occur.

Summary Table:

Layer Key Role

Physical Transmission of raw bits
Data Link Node-to-node data transfer, MAC addressing
Network Routing and logical addressing
Transport Reliable end-to-end communication
Session Manages sessions between applications
Presentation Data translation, encryption, compression
Application Network services for user applications
 TCP/IP suite

The TCP/IP suite is a set of protocols that governs communication over the internet. It is
structured into four layers, each responsible for different aspects of data transmission. The
four layers are:

1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access Layer (Link Layer)

1. Application Layer (Highest Layer)

This layer provides network services to applications and ensures proper communication
between different devices. It includes protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS.

Key Points:

1. Interface for User Applications – Provides network access to applications such as

web browsers and email clients.
2. Protocol Support – Supports multiple protocols like HTTP (web browsing), FTP
(file transfer), SMTP (email), and DNS (domain name resolution).
3. Session Management – Maintains session states for continuous communication
between devices.
4. Security & Encryption – Implements security measures such as SSL/TLS to protect
data.
5. Error Handling – Helps in handling errors before passing data to lower layers.
6. Data Representation – Converts data into a format that can be transmitted over the
network.
7. Connection Establishment – Initiates connections between applications over
different networks.
8. User Authentication – Verifies user credentials before allowing access to network
resources.
9. Service Advertisement – Allows applications to announce available services over the
network (e.g., DHCP, DNS).
2. Transport Layer

This layer ensures reliable data transmission between devices. It includes TCP (reliable,
connection-oriented) and UDP (unreliable, connectionless) protocols.

Key Points:

1. End-to-End Communication – Establishes a logical connection between sender and

receiver.
2. Segmentation & Reassembly – Breaks data into smaller segments and reassembles
them at the destination.
3. Flow Control – Regulates data transmission speed to prevent overwhelming the
receiver.
4. Error Detection & Correction – Uses checksums to detect errors and request
retransmission if necessary.
5. Multiplexing & Demultiplexing – Enables multiple applications to send and receive
data simultaneously.
6. Reliable vs Unreliable Transport – TCP ensures reliable delivery, while UDP
prioritizes speed over reliability.
7. Data Integrity – Ensures that transmitted data reaches the destination without
corruption.
8. Port Addressing – Uses port numbers to distinguish between different services (e.g.,
HTTP uses port 80, FTP uses port 21).
9. Congestion Control – Adjusts transmission speed based on network conditions to
prevent data loss.

3. Internet Layer

This layer handles logical addressing and routing of packets across networks. It includes
protocols such as IP, ICMP, and ARP.

Key Points:

1. Logical Addressing (IP Addressing) – Assigns unique IP addresses to devices for

communication.
2. Packet Routing – Determines the best path for data to travel across multiple
networks.
3. Fragmentation & Reassembly – Splits large packets into smaller ones for
transmission and reassembles them at the destination.
4. Best-Effort Delivery – IP does not guarantee delivery; it relies on higher layers for
reliability.
5. Network-to-Network Communication – Facilitates communication between
different network segments.
6. IPv4 & IPv6 Support – Handles both IPv4 (32-bit addresses) and IPv6 (128-bit
addresses).
7. TTL (Time-to-Live) & Packet Lifespan – Limits packet lifespan to prevent
indefinite circulation.

4. Network Access Layer (Link Layer)

This layer ensures physical data transmission across the network medium, including wired
and wireless communication.

Key Points:

1. Physical Transmission – Converts data into electrical, optical, or radio signals for
transmission.
2. MAC Addressing – Uses unique MAC addresses for device identification on a local
network.
3. Data Link Control – Manages how data is framed and transmitted between devices.
4. Error Detection (CRC) – Uses Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) to detect errors in
transmitted frames.
5. Ethernet & Wireless Standards – Supports Ethernet (wired) and Wi-Fi (wireless)
communication.
6. Frame Synchronization – Ensures that the sender and receiver are synchronized for
accurate data transmission.
7. Collision Handling – Uses protocols like CSMA/CD (for wired networks) and
CSMA/CA (for wireless networks) to avoid data collisions.
8. Point-to-Point Communication – Supports direct communication between two
devices, such as in PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).
9. MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) Handling – Determines the largest data
packet that can be transmitted without fragmentation.
10. Device-to-Network Communication – Facilitates communication between network
devices like routers, switches, and modems.

Summary of TCP/IP Layers & Functions

Layer Function Key Protocols

Application Provides services to applications HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
DNS
Transport Ensures reliable or fast data TCP, UDP
transmission
Internet Handles addressing and routing IP
Network Manages physical data transmission Ethernet, Wi-Fi, MAC
Access
 Network protocols
A network protocol is a set of rules that govern how data is transmitted and formatted
between devices on a network, ensuring reliable and efficient communication

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented protocol used for reliable data
transmission over networks. It ensures that data is delivered accurately and in the correct
order.

How TCP Works

TCP follows a three-way handshake to establish a connection before data transfer:

TCP Features

 Reliable Transmission: Uses sequence numbers and acknowledgments to ensure all

data is received correctly.
 Error Checking: Uses checksums to detect errors in data packets.
 Flow Control: Uses a sliding window mechanism to adjust the rate of data
transmission.
 Congestion Control: Uses algorithms like TCP Reno and TCP Cubic to prevent
network congestion.
 Ordered Delivery: Uses sequence numbers to ensure packets arrive in the correct
order.
 Retransmission: If a packet is lost, TCP retransmits it.

TCP Use Cases

 Web browsing (HTTP/HTTPS)

 Email (SMTP, IMAP, POP3)
 File transfers (FTP)
 Remote access (SSH, Telnet)
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless, lightweight protocol used for fast, but
unreliable, data transmission. Unlike TCP, it does not establish a connection or guarantee
packet delivery.

How UDP Works

 Sends data in small units called datagrams.

 No acknowledgments or retransmissions.
 No built-in flow or congestion control.

UDP Features

 Low Latency: Suitable for real-time applications.

 Stateless: Each datagram is independent of others.
 No Retransmission: Packets may be lost or arrive out of order.
 Minimal Overhead: Faster than TCP since there is no handshaking.

UDP Use Cases

 Online gaming
 VoIP (Voice over IP) calls
 Video streaming (YouTube, Netflix)
 DNS lookups
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

3. Domain Name System (DNS)

DNS (Domain Name System) is a hierarchical naming system that translates human-readable
domain names (e.g., google.com) into IP addresses (e.g., 142.250.190.78).

How DNS Works

When someone enters a URL (e.g., https://www.example.com) in a web browser, several

processes occur before the website is displayed. Here’s a step-by-step breakdown, focusing
on the role of DNS in resolving the domain name to an IP address.
Step 1: User Enters URL in the Browser

When the user types https://www.example.com and presses Enter, the browser starts the
process of retrieving the webpage. The URL consists of three main parts:

 https:// → Protocol (HTTPS or HTTP)

 www.example.com → Domain Name
 / → Resource Path (optional)

Step 2: Browser Checks Cache for DNS Resolution

Before making a DNS query, the browser looks for the IP address of www.example.com in
cache (stored records). The cache is checked in the following order:

1. Browser Cache: The browser stores recently visited domain-IP mappings.

2. Operating System (OS) Cache: The OS also maintains a DNS cache.
3. Local Hosts File: The OS checks if the domain is mapped in a file like /etc/hosts
(Linux/macOS) or C:\Windows\System32\drivers\etc\hosts (Windows).

If the IP address is found in cache, the browser skips the DNS lookup and proceeds to Step
5. If not, a DNS resolution request is made.

Step 3: DNS Query (Domain Name to IP Address Resolution)

Since the IP address is not cached, the browser asks the DNS resolver to translate
www.example.com into an IP address. The DNS lookup follows a hierarchical process:

Query to Recursive DNS Resolver

The browser sends a DNS request to the Recursive Resolver (usually provided by the ISP or
a public DNS like Google DNS 8.8.8.8 or Cloudflare 1.1.1.1). If the resolver has the IP in
its cache, it returns the result immediately. Otherwise, it queries the Root DNS Server.

The Recursive Resolver caches the IP for future requests and sends it back to the browser.

Step 4: Browser Initiates a TCP Connection

Now that the browser has the IP it initiates a TCP handshake with the web server:
Step 5: Browser Sends an HTTP Request

Once the connection is established, the browser sends an HTTP request (or HTTPS request
for secure sites) to fetch the web page.

 Example of an HTTP request:

 GET / HTTP/1.1
 Host: www.example.com

Step 6: Web Server Processes Request

The web server receives the request and processes it:

 If the request is for a static page, the server retrieves the HTML file and sends it back.
 If it’s a dynamic request, the server processes it (e.g., fetching data from a database).

The server then sends an HTTP response with the requested resource.

Step 7: Browser Renders the Web Page

1. The browser receives the HTML file.

2. It processes additional requests for CSS, JavaScript, and images.
3. The browser renders the page on the screen using the DOM (Document Object Model).

Step 8: Web Page is displayed to the User

The final web page appears in the browser.

4. Internet Protocol (IP)

IP (Internet Protocol) is responsible for addressing and routing packets across networks. It
defines how data is sent from one device to another using IP addresses.

IP Versions

1. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)

o Uses 32-bit addresses (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
o Supports about 4.3 billion addresses.
 o Uses Network Address Translation (NAT) to extend address space.
2. IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)
o Uses 128-bit addresses (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334).
o Supports 340 undecillion (10³⁸) addresses.
o Built-in security and no need for NAT.

How IP Works

1. Data is divided into packets.

2. Each packet gets an IP header containing:
o Source IP Address
o Destination IP Address
o Time to Live (TTL)
3. Routers examine packet headers to forward packets toward the destination.

IP Features

 Addressing: Identifies devices using unique IP addresses.

 Packet Fragmentation: Splits large packets into smaller ones for transmission.
 Routing: Uses algorithms like RIP, OSPF, and BGP to find the best path.

IP Use Cases

 Internet communication
 Local and wide-area networking
 Cloud computing and VPNs

5. BitTorrent Protocol
BitTorrent is a peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing protocol that distributes data across multiple
users instead of relying on a central server.

How BitTorrent Works

1. Torrent File: Users download a small .torrent file containing metadata about the shared
content.
2. Tracker Communication: The tracker (a central server) helps users find peers sharing the
file.
3. Swarming: The file is divided into small pieces. Users download pieces from multiple peers
simultaneously.
4. Seeding: Once a user has downloaded the entire file, they continue sharing it with others.
5. DHT (Distributed Hash Table): Some BitTorrent clients use DHT to find peers without a