Chapter 3

Data and Signals

3.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Note

To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.

3.2
 3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Data can be analog or digital. The ter m analog data
refer s to infor mation that is continuous; digital data
refer s to infor mation that has discrete states. Analog data
take on continuous values. Digital data take on discrete
values.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Analog and Digital Data
 Analog and Digital Signals
 Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

3.3
 Analog and Digital Data
 Data can be analog or digital.
 Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
 Digital data have discrete states and take
discrete values.

3.4
 Analog and Digital Signals

• Signals can be analog or digital.

• Analog signals can have an infinite number
of values in a range.
• Digital signals can have only a limited
number of values.

3.5
 Figure 3.1 Compar ison of analog and digital signals

3.6
 3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
In data communications, we commonly use per iodic
analog signals and nonper iodic digital signals.
Per iodic analog signals can be classified as simple or
composite. A simple per iodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A
composite
per iodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine
waves.
Topics discussed in this section:
 Sine Wave
 Wavelength
 Time and Frequency Domain
 Composite Signals
 Bandwidth
3.7
 Figure 3.2 A sine wave

3.8
 Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes

3.9
 Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.

3.10
 Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies

3.11
 Table 3.1 Units of per iod and frequency

3.12
 Example 3.1

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.

The per iod of this sine wave can be deter mined as
follows:

3.13
 Example 3.2

The per iod of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency

in kiloher tz?

Solution
Fir st we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the per iod (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).

3.14
 Frequency
• Frequency is the rate of change with respect
to time.
• Change in a short span of time means high
frequency.
• Change over a long span of
time means low frequency.

3.15
 Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.

3.16
 Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.

3.17
 Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

3.18
 Example 3.3

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and r adians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is

3.19
 Figure 3.6 Wavelength and per iod

3.20
 Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

3.21
 Note

A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.

3.22
 Example 3.7

The frequency domain is more compact and

useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave. For example, Figure 3.8 shows three
sine waves, each with different amplitude and
frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.

3.23
 Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

3.24
 Signals and Communication
 A single-frequency sine wave is not
useful in data communications
 We need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine
waves.
 According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
3.25
 Composite Signals and
Periodicity
 If the composite signal is periodic, the
decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies.
 If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies.

3.26
 Example 3.4

Figure 3.9 shows a per iodic composite signal with

frequency f. This type of signal is not typical of those
found in data communications. We can consider it to
be three alar m systems, each with a different
frequency. The analysis of this signal can give us a
good under standing of how to decompose signals.

3.27
 Figure 3.9 A composite per iodic signal

3.28
 Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite per iodic signal in the time and
frequency domains

3.29
 Example 3.5

Figure 3.11 shows a nonper iodic composite signal. It

can be the signal created by a microphone or a
telephone set when a wor d or two is pronounced. In
this case, the composite signal cannot be per iodic,
because that implies that we are repeating the same
wor d or wor ds with exactly the same tone.

3.30
 Figure 3.11 The time and frequency domains of a nonper iodic signal

3.31
 Bandwidth and Signal
Frequency
 The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that
signal.

3.32
 Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of per iodic and nonper iodic composite signals

3.33
 Example 3.6

If a per iodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves

with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz,
what is its bandwidth? Dr aw the spectr um, assuming
all components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectr um has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500,

700, and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
3.34
 Figure 3.13 The bandwidth for Example 3.6

3.35
 Example 3.7

A per iodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The

highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest
frequency? Dr aw the spectr um if the signal contains
all frequencies of the same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectr um contains all integer frequencies. We

show this by a ser ies of spikes (see Figure 3.14).
3.36
 Figure 3.14 The bandwidth for Example 3.7

3.37
 Example 3.8

A nonper iodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200

kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have
an amplitude of 0. Dr aw the frequency domain of the
signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the
highest at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows the frequency
domain and the bandwidth.

3.38
 Figure 3.15 The bandwidth for Example 3.8

3.39
 Example 3.9

An example of a nonper iodic composite signal is the

signal propagated by an AM r adio station. In the
United States, each AM r adio station is assigned a 10-
kHz bandwidth. The total bandwidth dedicated to AM
r adio r anges from 530 to 1700 kHz. We will show the
r ationale behind this 10-kHz bandwidth in Chapter 5.

3.40
 Example 3.10

Another example of a nonper iodic composite signal is

the signal propagated by an FM r adio station. In the
United States, each FM r adio station is assigned a 200-
kHz bandwidth. The total bandwidth dedicated to FM
r adio r anges from 88 to 108 MHz. We will show the
r ationale behind this 200-kHz bandwidth in Chapter 5.

3.41
 Example 3.11

Another example of a nonper iodic composite signal is

the signal received by an old-fashioned analog black-
and-white TV. A TV screen is made up of pixels. If we
assume a resolution of 525 × 700, we have 367,500
pixels per screen. If we scan the screen 30 times per
second, this is 367,500 × 30 = 11,025,000 pixels per
second. The wor st-case scenar io is alter nating black
and white pixels. We can send 2 pixels per cycle.
Therefore, we need 11,025,000 / 2 = 5,512,500 cycles
per second, or Hz. The bandwidth needed is 5.5125
MHz.

3.42
 Fourier Analysis

Note

Fourier analysis is a tool that changes a

time domain signal to a frequency
domain signal and vice versa.

3.43
 Fourier Series
 Every composite periodic signal can be
represented with a series of sine and cosine
functions.
 The functions are integral harmonics of the
fundamental frequency “f” of the composite
signal.
 Using the series we can decompose any
periodic signal into its harmonics.

3.44
 Fourier Series

3.45
 Examples of Signals and the
Fourier Series Representation

3.46
 Sawtooth Signal

3.47
 Fourier Transform
 Fourier Transform gives the frequency
domain of a nonperiodic time domain
signal.

3.48
 Example of a Fourier
Transform

3.49
 Inverse Fourier Transform

3.50
 Time limited and Band limited
Signals
 A time limited signal is a signal for which
the amplitude s(t) = 0 for t > T1 and t < T2
 A band limited signal is a signal for which
the amplitude S(f) = 0 for f > F1 and f < F2

3.51