FEDERAL UNIVERSITY LOKOJA

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

SOC 122 (INTRODUCTION TO AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND CULTURES) LECTURE

NOTES

The study and criticism of ethnographic descriptions of African societies, people and their
cultures, both as scientific reporting and as a literary art form. A survey of African
societies and cultures in a contemporary setting; the cultural regions, social organizations,
language, polity, economy and world views.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA

Africa is the second-largest continent, Africa covers over 30 million square kilometers. Bordered
by oceans and seas on nearly all sides, the continent has approximately 30,500 kilometers of
coastline. The oceans and seas forming the coastline where they meet the continent are the
Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and the Arabian Sea. Africa is also
the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia. it covers 6% of
Earth's total surface area and 20% of its land area, with over 1.3 billion people.

Despite a wide range of natural resources, Africa is the least wealthy continent per capita, in part
due to geographic impediments, legacies of European colonization in Africa and the Cold War,
predatory/neo-colonialist activities by Western nations and China, and undemocratic rule and
deleterious policies. Despite this low concentration of wealth, recent economic expansion and the
large and young population make Africa an important economic market in the broader global
context

Africa has eight major physical regions: they Sahara, the Sahel, the Ethiopian Highlands, the
savanna, the Swahili Coast, the rain forest, the African Great Lakes and Southern Africa. Each of
these regions has unique animal and plant communities.

1. The Sahara is the world's largest hot desert, covering 3.3 million square miles. The
Sahara is in North Africa and makes up 25 percent of the continent.
2. The Sahel is a narrow band of semi-arid land that forms a transition zone between the
Sahara to the north and the savannas to the south. The Sahel is made up of flat, barren
plains and stretches roughly 3,300 miles across Africa, from Senegal to Sudan.
Unfortunately, the Sahel's fertile land is rapidly becoming desert. This is happening
because of drought, deforestation and agriculture. It is a process called desertification.
 The Sahel's animals constantly hunt for scarce water and vegetation. The region's green
vegetation only emerges during the rainy season, but is often harvested quickly by
farmers or eaten by animals.
3. The Ethiopian Highlands began to rise 75 million years ago when magma from Earth's
mantle uplifted a broad dome of ancient rock. The Ethiopian Highlands are home to 80
percent of Africa's tallest mountains.
4. The Savanna, or grasslands, cover almost half of Africa. These grasslands make up
most of central Africa, beginning south of the Sahara and the Sahel and ending north of
the continents southern tip. (Kenya, Tanzania). The Savanna is home to one of the
continents highest concentrations of large mammal species, including lions, hyenas,
zebras, giraffes, and elephants
5. The Swahili Coast stretches about 1,610 kilometers (1,000 miles) along the Indian
Ocean, from Somalia to Mozambique. The nearby coral reefs and barrier islands protect
the coast from severe weather. There is a lot of animal life on the sandy Swahili Coast.
The golden-rumpled elephant shrew, an insect-eating rodent with a long snout, is
common. A small, primitive species of primate known as the bush baby inhabits
vegetated areas of the Swahili Coast. Bush babies, which have enormous eyes for hunting
at night, feed primarily on insects, fruit, and leaves. The Mangrove forests are the most
common vegetation in the Swahili coast. Mangroves have exposed root systems. This
allows the trees to absorb oxygen directly from the air, as well as from the nutrient-poor
soil.
6. Rain Forest. Most of Africa’s native rain forest has been destroyed by development,
agriculture, and forestry. Today, 80 percent of Africa’s rain forest is concentrated in
central Africa, along the Congo River basin. Africa’s rain forests have a rich variety of
animal life; a 6-kilometer (4-mile) patch could contain up to 400 bird species, 150
butterfly species, and 60 species of amphibians. Important mammals include African
forest elephants, gorillas, the black colobus monkey, and the okapi, a donkey-like giraffe.
The African rain forests plant community is even more diverse, with an estimated 8,000
plant species documented. More than 1,100 of these species are endemic, or found
nowhere else on Earth. Only 10 percent of the plants in the African rain forest have been
identified
7. African Great Lakes. The Great Lakes are located in nine countries that surround the
Great Rift Valley. As the African continent separated from Saudi Arabia, large, deep
cracks were created in the earth’s surface. These cracks were later filled with water. This
geologic process created some of the largest and deepest lakes in the world. There are
seven major African Great Lakes: Lake Albert, Lake Edward, Lake Kivu, Lake Malawi,
Lake Tanganyika, Lake Turkana, and Lake Victoria. Lake Victoria, the largest lake in
Africa, is the southern source of the Nile River, the longest river in the world. The
African Great Lakes region has a diverse range of aquatic and terrestrial animal life. Fish
include the 45-kilogram (100-pound) Nile perch and the 2.5-centimeter (1-inch) cichlid.
 Migrating savanna animals, such as wildebeest, use the lakes as watering holes. Hippos
and crocodiles call the region their home
8. Southern Africa. Southern Africa is the epicenter of Africa’s well-known reserves,
which protect animal species such as lions, elephants, baboons, white rhinos, and
Burchells zebras. Other important animal species include the impala, a type of deer, and
the springbok, a type of gazelle that can spring several feet into the air to avoid predators.
Southern Africa’s Cape Floral Region is one of the richest areas for plants in the world.
While the Cape Floral Region covers less than 0.5 percent of Africa, it is home to nearly
20 percent of the continents flora. The giant protea, South Africa’s national flower, is
found in the Cape Floral Region.

Today, Africa is home to more countries than any other continent in the world. These countries
are: Morocco, Western Sahara (Morocco), Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Sudan, Chad, Niger,
Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte
d’Ivoire, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central Africa Republic,
Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, Namibia,
Botswana, South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi,
Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Eritrea and the island
countries of Cape Verde, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, and Comoros.

THE MAIN RACIAL/ETHNIC TYPES INHABITING THE AFRICAN CONTINENT

Both the term race and ethnicity are difficult concepts. While there is a conceptual distinction
between race and ethnicity, these terms are often used interchangeably or as synonyms. The
traditional scientific concept of race refers to biological homogeneity as defined by a few phenol
typical features – a socially constructed category of people based on skin color and other
physical features. However, these traits are only a tiny part of their genetic makeup, and it has
even been shown that two people assigned to different racial categories may share more genetics
in common than two people assigned to the same racial category. In this course we consider it
more accurate to describe people in terms of their ethnicity, which is based on their cultural
heritage and customs. Ethnic groups in Africa number in the hundreds, each generally having its
own language (or dialect of a language) and culture.

Major racial classification that scholars have identified in the African continent.
- There is no general agreements amongst scholars as to the racial classification of African
people. The different classifications of African people into racial groups were based on
phenotypic and genotypic features. The major racial classifications scholars have
identified in the African continent are:
- Caucasoid race: they are more closely related to Europeans, that is, the Mediterrean
race. They are found among the Berbers of North Africa in present day, Algeria, Tunisia,
Morocco, and Libya, as well as the Kushites of Ethiopian and Somalia. The Caucasoid
are much taller than other races in Africa, they are narrow headed than their kinsmen in
 Europe. They have an average height of 5fts 10inches, they are of brown eyes, narrow
nose, thin lips, strong chin.
- Negroid race: they are one of the largest population in Africa, South of the Saharan.
They are mainly found in the Guinea Coast and parts of West Africa, and Eastern Sudan.
Their physical features includes, most of the male adults have an average height of 5ft,
8inches, their skin colour are usually dark brown., they have a narrow head, broad-nose,
bulging fore-head, thick and averted lips and scanty facial body.
- Bushmonoid race: They are relatively small in population size when compared with the
Negroids. They are found in parts of the Kalahari deserts and Botswana. They still
constitute a distinct race within the African continent, because they live in isolated
groups. Their physical features, are short stature of an average of 4ft 10inches. They have
wrinkling skin of yellowish-brown colour and they are not hairy on the body. Their
women have prominent buttocks.
- Mongoloid race: This race in Africa have survived only in present day Madagascar
Island, where they have mixed up with the Negroid race. Their physical features includes;
shorter in stature 5ft, 2inches, when compared with Negroid race, they have yellowish
brown skin straight black hair, which is scanty both in the body and face, broad nose,
dark eyes, and their lips of medium thickness.
- Pygmoid race: The Pygmoids are found in the Central African region around the Ituri
forest in the Congo Basin of present day Democratic Republic of Congo. They are also
close to the Negroids in appearance. They are one of the less affected by Negroids
contact. Their physical features are average stature of 4ft and 9inch, downy bodily hair,
and reddish in infant. Dark-brown skin in adult and they have bulging fore-head, broad
flat nose. Some Pygmoids are darker because of their admixture with Negroids.
 Arabic, speaking groups: ca. 180 million. See also Ethnic groups of the Middle East •
Arab, up to ca. 100 million, see Demographics of the Arab League
 Hausa in Nigeria, Niger, Ghana, Chad, Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire and Sudan (ca. 30
million)
 Yoruba in Nigeria and Benin (ca. 30 million)
 Oromo in Ethiopia and Kenya (ca. 30 million)
 Igbo in Nigeria and Cameroon (ca. 30 million)
 Akan in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire (ca. 20 million)
 Amhara in Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea and Djibouti (ca. 20 million)
 Somali in Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya (ca. 15-17 million)
 Ijaw in Nigeria (ca. 14 million)
 Kongo in Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola and Republic of the Congo (ca. 10
million)
 Fula in Guinea, Nigeria, Cameroon, Senegal, Mali, Sierra Leone Central African
Republic, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Ghana, Chad, Sudan,
Togo and Côte d'Ivoire (ca. 10 million)
 Shona in Zimbabwe and Mozambique (ca. 10 million)
  Zulu in South Africa (ca. 10 million.

IMPORTANCES/REASONS FOR STUDYING AFRICAN SOCIETIES AND

CULTURES

Africa is a vital region in the world. Africa is a continent of thousands of languages and cultures,
unparalleled eco-diversity, and over a billion vibrant and innovative people. The relevance of
African issues is apparent in our everyday lives, among the reasons why it is important to study
African societies and cultures are as follows.

1. The Importance of African Knowledge: The continent of Africa is rich with the history
of mankind. Some of the earliest archeological discoveries of human development have
been found in Africa including ancient cave paintings many thousands of years old. One
of the oldest and longest-lasting civilizations was Ancient Egypt which is still famous
today for its pyramids and pharaohs. However, the Egyptians weren’t the only
civilization to develop in ancient Africa. Important civilizations developed throughout the
continent such as Carthage, the Mali Empire, and the Kingdom of Ghana. According to
researchers, such as Dr. Louis Leakey, Africa has been proven to be the original home of
man (homo sapiens). Africa and its history are woven into the history of almost every
single society and region on the earth. This is in no small part because of the role the
African continent and its people have been made to play in the building of these countries
and societies. For historians and all individuals interested in world history, studying
Africa should thus be the first step to learning about any other history. African history
details the very genesis of man and what better way to understand how the world we live
in today came to be than by starting with Africa
2. The Diversity of Human Experience: The geography of Africa helped to shape the
history and development of the cultures and civilizations of the continent. The geography
impacted where people could live, the production of goods such as gold and salt, and
trade routes that helped different civilizations to interact and develop, culminating into a
certain uniqueness to each African society. The culture of ancient Africa was as diverse
as the geography of the continent. Thus, though connected, each African nation is unique.
3. The Study of African Societies and culture enables the student to develop a critical
mind and appreciate the variety of human behavior and motives. In this respect,
studying history can increase human tolerance and respect for differences in opinion.
Gaining knowledge of other cultures through the appreciation of history encourages
students of history to engage in critical analysis of their own culture and society and to
understand and criticize their assumptions. By studying Africa, you begin to understand
the reasons behind these customs and beliefs; you come to understand the uniqueness of
the African experience.
 4. Oral Tradition: Someone who studies African history is able to appreciate the use of
different types of sources in the writing and reconstruction of African history apart from
written sources. Much of what we know about ancient Africa has been passed down
orally over the years. One can gain an understanding of the intricacies of African
traditions and beliefs through a study of oral histories and in this way come to understand
current societies better.
5. Personal Development: The study of African Societies and culture gives the individual
the opportunity to better relate their past with the present. Thus, the various stages of
society’s development have to be evaluated to understand the present situation. One will
better understand the social, economic, and political state of affairs of society if they
know how things were done in the past. This gives them the key to finding solutions to
today’s problems.
6. Professional Development: Students of African Societies and culture can engage in
learning experiences that bolster their preparation for undergraduate and graduate
programs, deepen their understanding of social problems, and practice skills that will
make them more marketable in the professional world. A professional qualification in
African history and political thought can enhance job prospects of journalists, educators
and policymakers. This is why in addition to our Public Lectures, the African History
Project has launched Foundation Certificate to allow students to engage with African
political and intellectual narratives more profoundly.

DEFINITION OF BASIC TERMS, SOCIETY, AFRICAN SOCIETIES, CULTURE

AFRICAN CULTURE.

SOCIETY is a grouping of individuals, which is characterized by common interest and may

have distinctive culture and institutions. A "society" may refer to a particular ethnic group, such
as the Yoruba to a nation state, or to a broader cultural group, such as Western society. An
organized group of people associated together for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific,
political, patriotic, or other purposes may also be considered a society.

AFRICAN SOCIETIES are a collection of people united by tradition, norms, values and
culture that originate and live in the continent of Africa. African societies are diverse, rich in
cultural heritage, and marked by a complex interplay of history, traditions, and modern
influences. Spanning across 54 countries, the continent is home to over 1.2 billion people and
boasts more than 2,000 distinct languages, reflecting an intricate mosaic of ethnic groups, each
with unique customs, beliefs, and social structures.

Historically, African societies have been characterized by a range of political and social
organizations, from centralized kingdoms and empires like Mali, Ghana, and Zimbabwe, to
decentralized stateless societies such as the Igbo and Somali. These societies developed
sophisticated systems of governance, trade networks, and artistic traditions long before European
colonization disrupted their trajectories. For instance, the Great Zimbabwe ruins are a testament
to the architectural and administrative prowess of pre-colonial African civilizations. The family
unit is central to African social organization. Extended families often live together or maintain
close ties, with elders playing a crucial role in decision-making and maintaining social harmony.
Traditional belief systems, including animism and ancestor worship, remain influential, though
they often coexist with Islam and Christianity, the two dominant religions introduced through
trade, conquest, and colonialism. Rural and urban lifestyles in Africa present a stark contrast. In
rural areas, traditional ways of life prevail, with communities engaged in agriculture, animal
husbandry, and artisanal crafts. Urban centers, however, are rapidly modernizing, blending
traditional elements with contemporary influences. Cities like Lagos, Nairobi, and Johannesburg
are bustling hubs of commerce, technology, and cultural exchange, reflecting both the challenges
and opportunities of modern African life.

African societies have also been profoundly shaped by their colonial past and the struggle for
independence in the 20th century. The legacy of colonialism is evident in the political
boundaries, languages, and economic systems that continue to impact the continent. Post-
independence, many African nations have grappled with issues such as governance, economic
development, and social cohesion, often exacerbated by external influences and internal
conflicts.

Despite these challenges, African societies are dynamic and resilient. There is a strong emphasis
on community, mutual aid, and collective responsibility. Cultural festivals, music, dance, and
oral traditions play vital roles in preserving and transmitting heritage. Contemporary African
artists, writers, and musicians are gaining global recognition, contributing to a broader
understanding and appreciation of Africa’s diverse cultures.

Education and technology are transforming African societies. Increasing access to education is
empowering young people, while mobile technology is revolutionizing communication, banking,
and health services. African entrepreneurs and innovators are creating solutions tailored to local
needs, fostering economic growth and development. African societies are a testament to the
continent's rich history, cultural diversity, and capacity for adaptation and innovation. They
embody a blend of tradition and modernity, facing contemporary challenges with a deep-rooted
sense of identity and community. As Africa continues to evolve, its societies remain vibrant and
resilient, offering valuable insights into human ingenuity and cultural endurance.

CULTURE refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes,
meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe,
and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations
through individual and group striving.

The Latin term "cultura," which is related to cult or worship, is where the word "culture"
originates. The phrase broadly refers to the outcome of human contact.
When one is referred to as being highly cultured, it often indicates that they have unique
characteristics that set them apart from other people, such as their speech, demeanor, and tastes
in art, music, and literature. Sometimes culture is used in popular discourse to refer to a
celebration or an evening of entertainment, as when one speaks of a ‘cultural show.’ Culture is
identified with aesthetics or the fine arts, such as dance, music, or drama. In some case when an
individual dress indecently, speak to an elderly person in a manner-lessly way, we often refer to
them as uncultured.

In this context, culture is used to describe specific individual traits. But this is not how the term
"culture" is used or understood in the field of social science. Additionally, this is distinct from
the technical definition of the word "culture." Sociology and Anthropology employ the concept
of culture in particular ways.

To Sociology and Anthropology it refers to the sum of human beings’ lifeway’s, behavior,
beliefs, feelings, and thoughts; it connotes everything they acquire as social beings. Culture has
been defined in several ways.

The definition of culture is not agreed upon by sociologists and anthropologists. Certain authors
supplement these categories with certain crucial "other capabilities and habits," such in language
and knowledge of how to make and use tools.

Meaning of Culture

The term "culture" is broad and all-inclusive, embracing everything we have learnt about our
history, morals, values, customs, art, and habits. The complex of beliefs, attitudes, values, and
other significant symbols that people have built to influence how people behave and the artifacts
of that behavior are passed down from one generation to the next is referred to as culture.

The definition above identifies three crucial components of a person's culture.

First, it is "created by people," then it changes as a result of human activity and is passed on to
subsequent generations.

Secondly, the influence of culture has both tangible and intangible effects. People's fundamental
views and values are directly influenced by their cultural surroundings. Human activity has
produced beliefs in the existence of God, sexual orientation, and the freedom of speech and
choice. Additionally, people leave physical evidence of their culture through art and craftwork,
buildings, furniture, laws, and food.

Lastly, the cultural environment changes, and it usually does so gradually. Women's roles in the
workplace and at home are changing slowly, as is their apparent demand for leisure time. But
some changes happen faster than others. For instance, fashion trends change fairly quickly.

Definition of Culture
Culture can simply be defined as the totality of human life. Culture can also be defined in some
ways, but most simply, as the learned and shared behavior of a community of interacting human
being.

The British Anthropologist Edward B. Taylor states that, “Culture is that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society”. According to R. Linton, “A culture is a configuration
of learned behaviors and results of behavior whose component elements are shared and
transmitted by the members of a particular society.”

According to J.P. Lederach, “Culture is the shared knowledge and schemes created by a set of
people for perceiving, interpreting, expressing, and responding to the social realities around
them.” According to H.T. Mazumdar, “Culture is the total of human achievements, material and
non-material, capable of transmission, sociologically, i.e., by tradition and communication,
vertically as well as horizontally.” Culture can also be defined as the shared patterns of behaviors
and interactions, cognitive constructs, and affective understanding learned through socialization.
These shared patterns identify the members of a culture group while distinguishing those of
another group.

These cultural norms are passed down to people through social institutions like the family,
schools, churches, and social classes, as well as through languages, parents' attitudes and
behaviors, reading, and social classes.

AFRICAN CULTURES includes the varied and manifold cultures, consisting of a mixture of
countries with various tribes that each have their unique characteristic from the continent of
Africa. African culture is a vibrant tapestry woven from a rich heritage of traditions, languages,
and artistic expressions. Spanning over 54 countries, the continent's cultural diversity is
immense, encompassing thousands of ethnic groups, each with its unique customs and social
norms. Traditional music, dance, and storytelling play crucial roles in preserving and
transmitting cultural values and history. Instruments like the talking drum and the kora harp are
iconic in African music, while dances vary widely from the energetic rhythms of West African
celebrations to the intricate movements of East African rituals. Oral traditions, including
proverbs, folktales, and epic narratives, are central to African culture, serving as vital means of
education and cultural continuity. Languages such as Swahili, Hausa, and Yoruba are spoken
alongside colonial languages like English and French, reflecting the continent's complex history.

Art in Africa is deeply symbolic and functional, with masks, sculptures, and textiles often linked
to spiritual and social activities. These art forms are not merely decorative but serve purposes in
ceremonies, religious rituals, and community events. African cuisine, marked by the use of staple
ingredients like maize, millet, and cassava, varies regionally but often features rich, flavorful
stews and dishes. Community and family meals are integral to social life, emphasizing
hospitality and sharing. Despite modern influences, traditional practices and communal values
remain strong, highlighting the resilience and adaptability of African culture. From the vibrant
festivals and colorful attire to the enduring oral traditions and artistic expressions, African
culture is a testament to the continent's enduring heritage and dynamic spirit.

AFRICAN ORAL TRADITIONS

Oral traditions are messages that are transmitted orally from one generation to another. The
messages may be passed down through speech or song and may take the form of folktales and
fables, epic histories and narrations, proverbs or sayings, and songs. Oral Traditions make it
possible for a society to pass knowledge across generations without writing. They help people
make sense of the world and are used to teach children and adults about important aspects of
their culture.

Africans' oral tradition is an essential social antecedent and cultural heritage. Proverbs, folktales,
music, dances, customs, religious rituals, and ancestor utterances are examples of African oral
tradition. The African oral tradition distils the essences of human experiences, transforming them
into memorable, easily retrievable imagery with a high potential for evoking emotional
responses.

Importance of African Oral traditions

1. Although written history existed for centuries in West Africa, most writing was in
Arabic, and the majority of people did not read or write in Arabic. So the transmission of
knowledge, history and experience in West Africa became eminent through oral tradition
and performance rather than on written texts.
2. Oral traditions guide social and human morals, giving people a sense of place and
purpose. There is often a lesson or a value to instill, and the transmission of wisdom to
children is a community responsibility.
3. Parents, grandparents, and relatives take part in the process of passing down the
knowledge of culture and history, not only did this give them a sense of responsibilities,
it also availed them time for family bounding.
4. Storytelling/Folktales was also beyond just a means of passing knowledge from
generations to another it also proved to be a means of entertainment, developed
imagination, and teaches important lessons about everyday life.
5. Oral tradition in the form of storytelling was employed in preliterate African society’s
civilizations to foster listening skills. Oral inscriptions in the form of stories were passed
down to young children by their parents, grandparents, and other senior family members.
By honing their listening skills and learning about their heritage, young children were
able to learn how to obey orders from their elders. The elders’ wisdom, expertise, and
strength were demonstrated through storytelling for the older listeners.
SOCIETY

The term "society" came from the 12th Century French société (meaning company'). This was in
turn from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun socius ("comrade,
friend, ally") adjectival form socialist) used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that
are friendly, or at least civil. Societies are defined by the patterns of interactions (social relations)
that exist between people who have a common culture and set of institutions; a society can be
summed up by the interactions that exist between its individual members. Society can also be
defined as “People who live in a definable community and who share a culture." (Strayer, 2015).
For sociologists, society is the cornerstone of everything, this is why it's important to study it.
The type of society we live in determines many aspects of our lives, such as where we grow up,
how we are influenced, who we meet, what we do, and how we experience life. Each society is
different, and there are millions across the world. According to Peil (1977) Society can also be
defined as group of people with shared values, beliefs and symbols, patterns of behaviors and
territory. People usually become members of a society by birth, though there are also ways of
assimilating outsiders who wish to join.

Society is a large societal grouping that have or share the same geographical territory and it’s
subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectation. Society can be defined
as people who live and interact in a defined territory and share a culture, Society is the web of
social relationship which ever changing. A society is a group of individuals involved in
persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory,
typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are
characterized by patterns of relationships (social relation) between individuals who share a
distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such
relationships among its constituent of members. African is dominated with Nomadic and State
societies.

NOMADIC SOCIETIES is a traditional form of society that allows the mobility and flexibility
necessary for relatively even use of vegetation over large areas of low quality
rangeland. Nomadic society have no permanent place of settlement. The people roam from place
to place with their luggage on the backs of camels, horses, cows, and donkeys in search of fodder
and water for their animals and food for themselves. They have no hereditary property. They are
more a tribe and have tribal culture. The cultural traditions have very forceful binding upon the
members. Example are the Maasai Nomad people found in swamps of Upper East Africa and the
Fulani of Nigeria and Gambia.
Characteristics of Nomadic Society
a. Population size: Population is very small sometimes not more than thousands.
b. Geographical mobility: Geographical mobility is common for the sake of food, grass,
shelter water and income. They don’t have their permanent place of residence.
c. Absence of ownership: Nomadic society people don’t have agricultural or ancestral
property.
 d. Traditional way of living: Their way of living is old and traditional. Old customs and
values are practiced and transmitted from generation to generation.
e. Strict social norms: They have defined their own social norms which are very strict in
practice. Strict punishment is awarded by their council to the violator of norms.
f. Local Culture: They are having their own subculture which include local language,
dialect, dresses, marriage ceremonies, and practices on the occasion of death and birth
g. Profession: Animal husbandry, labor and small cottage industry are the major
professions of the people. Now some of them are serving in Arab states as laborer.
h. Resistance to social change: The Nomadic people dislikes and strongly resist to social
changes. They prefer to live with their own old way of living and culture as they consider
it convenient. Therefore, very minimal changes observed.

STATE SOCIETIES (CENTRALIZED ADMINISTRATION): State-level societies in Africa

are the most complex in terms of social, economic, and political organization, and have a formal
government and social classes. States control or influence many areas of its member’s lives.
From regulation of social relations like marriage to outlining the rights and obligations of its
citizens, there is little in daily life that is not impacted. State societies have large populations.

TYPES OF SOCIETY

 Hunting and gathering societies

 Pastoral societies,
 Horticultural societies
 Agricultural societies
 Feudal societies
 Industrial societies
 Postindustrial societies
CHARACTERISTICS OF A STATE SOCIETY
A. Population Size - is one of the basic characteristic of a society, as society is considered
to be the largest social group of people living together.
B. Subgroups – are the important components of the larger group. Individual are organized
into a variety of units we call group. These range from small family unit to bigger
communities. Within one society, these different subgroups are classified on the basis of
sex, age, profession, religion, etc.
C. Interdependence – the survival and well-being of each member is very much depended
on the interdependence, no individual is self-sufficient, it has to depend on others for
food, shelter, security, and the fulfillment of many other needs and necessities.
D. Social institution – These are the main organ of the society. A social institution is a
complex, inter –grated set of social norms organize around the preservation of a base
societal value. The interrelationship among institutions create structure for society. Such
institution include family, schools, economic, political, religion, etc.
 E. Culture – it is fundamental for the survival of the societal, culture can be said to include
all the human phenomena in a society and all learned behavior. Culture is a very board
term that include in itself all walks of life, modes of behavior, philosophies and ethics,
morals and manner, religious, political, economics and other type of activities.
F. Socialization – is a life-long process which enable the individual to learn the content of
his/her culture and the behavior patterns of the group to which he/she belongs. The
individual learned to become a functioning and participating member of the society or
group through the socialization.
G. Permanent group – permanence is another important characteristic of the society. It is
not a temporary organization of the individual. Society continue to exist even after the
death of the individual member. Society is a coherent organization.
H. Rural – Urban composition – human societies have at least two aspects. Rural - sparely
residing group of people with simple culture. Urban – people living in clusters with
complex culture.
I. States societies have power over their domain. They define citizenship and its rights
and responsibilities. Inequality is the norm, with clear social classes defined. States
monopolize the use of force and maintenance of law and order through laws, courts, and
police.
J. States control population in numerous ways. They regulate marriage and adoption.
They create administrative divisions, e.g., provinces, districts, counties, townships, that
help to create loyalties and help to administer social services and organize law
enforcement.
K. States often uses religious beliefs and symbols to maintain power. State leaders may
claim to be a deity may conscript popular ideology for political purposes. Regalia may be
used to create a sense of pageantry and authority.
L. Most African State Societies are hierarchical and patriarchal.
M. The subsistence base of most African state societies is intensive agriculture. The first
states centered production on one major crop that could be produced in large quantities
and was easily storable: wheat, rice, millet, barley, maize, and tubers (potato, manioc,
yams). Wheat, rice, and maize still dominate production today.
CULTURE

Cultures can be "understood as systems of symbols and meanings that even their creators contest,
that lack fixed boundaries, that are constantly in flux, and that interact and compete with one
another." Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a
population that are passed down from generation to generation. Culture has been called "the way
of life for an entire society." As such, it includes codes of manners, dress, language, religion,
rituals, and art, Norms of behavior, such as law and morality, and systems of belief.

Sir Edward B. Tylor's definition of culture (1871) “Culture… is that complex whole which
includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by [a human] as a member of society.” Culture at its most basic level can be defined as
symbols, norms, and values in a social organization (Walsham, 2002). In addition, Hall and Hall
(1990) define culture as a system for creating storing, and process information. As such, it
includes codes of manners, dress, language, religion, rituals. Culture simply refers to the total
way of life.

Culture is a term that refers to a large and diverse set of mostly intangible aspects of social life.
According to sociologists, culture consists of the values, beliefs, systems of language,
communication, and practices that people share in common and that can be used to define them
as a collective. Culture also includes the material objects that are common to that group or
society.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

 Culture is learned
 Culture is shared
 Culture is based on symbols
 Culture is dynamic
 Culture is Abstract
 Culture is a way of Life
.
1. Culture is Learned - Although most behavior is learnt, not all of it is; for example,
learning to comb one's hair, eating, wearing of cloths, wait in line, crack jokes, criticize
the President, and learning how to pray. Culture is learned rather than programmed
genetically. As an individual grows in a particular environment, he learns about different
aspects of culture through interacting with other society members. One learns cultural
values, norms, beliefs, etc., formally, informally, or technically.
2. Culture is shared - Most people in a given culture share the same cultural values,
beliefs, customs, etc. because it satisfies our needs. The majority of people in a society
practice them as they are passed down from one generation to the next. Our educational
and religious organizations also impart them to us. Despite some outliers, the majority is
very likely to hold the fundamental attitudes, values, and beliefs of its culture. For
instance, the 'Jumma' prayer is said at mosques on Fridays, and this is regarded as a social
activity.
3. Culture is based on symbols – some culture has a symbols that represent or sent a
meaning to the user of such a symbol, for example Nigeria National Flag.
4. Culture is Dynamic - Every culture is dynamic. There are shifts in culture. Culture must
adapt to the changing environment in order to survive. As a result, rather than being a
static concept, culture is dynamic. Our buying habits and lifestyles change as cultural
standards do. People who want to succeed in the dynamic culture must carefully and
constantly watch for changes and adapt to it, e.g Fashion, technology etc.
5. Culture is Abstract - The behaviors and thoughts of society's citizens make up culture.
The common patterns of doing and thinking make up culture. Cultural behavior can be
 seen in different ways, from people's routine to their interior motivations. In other words,
we can only see human behavior and not culture as such. Culture is the regular,
predictable pattern of this behavior.
6. Culture is a way of Life - Kluckhohn and Kelly describe culture in this sense: "A culture
is a historically derived system of explicit and implicit designs for living, which tends to
be shared by all or specially designed members of a group." Culture is essentially the
"way of life" of a people or their "design for a living." Similarities in speech and behavior
that are plainly visible are referred to as explicit cultural similarities. For instance,
patterns in attire, gestures, and discourse might be used to generalize teenage cultural
behavior. Implicit culture can be found in obscure, abstract forms.

TWO TYPES OF CULTURE

1. Material culture
2. Non material culture

The term "Material culture" describes the tangible items, materials, and environments that
people utilize to identify their culture. Homes, communities, cities, schools, churches,
synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories, plants, tools, production equipment, goods and
commodities, stores, and so on are examples of this. All of these outward manifestations of a
culture aid in defining the attitudes and behaviors of its people. For instance, in the contemporary
society technology is an essential component of material culture. While the "Non-Material
culture" refers to people's non-material conceptions of their culture, such as their beliefs, values,
conventions, and linguistic, organizational, and institutional systems. A set of ideas and beliefs
about God, worship, values, and ethics, make up the non-material cultural. Therefore, how the
culture reacts to its religious topics, issues, and events is determined by these beliefs.
Sociologists refer to a number of techniques that a culture use to mold the thoughts, emotions,
and actions of its members when discussing non-material culture. Among these, symbols,
language, values, and norms rank as the top four.

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

Symbols

Culture is a system of symbols. Symbols are anything used to represent express and stand for an
event situation. Symbols direct to guide our behavior. It is used to show an event of past, present
or future. For example, the heap of ash shows that something has been burnt or the wet street
shows that it has rained. Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something
else and that often evoke various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of
nonverbal communication, while other symbols are in fact material objects. Let’s look at
nonverbal symbols first. A common one is shaking hands, which is done in some societies but
not in others. It commonly conveys friendship and is used as a sign of both greeting and
departure. Probably all societies have nonverbal symbols we call gestures, movements of the
hands, arms, or other parts of the body that are meant to convey certain ideas or emotions.
However, the same gesture can mean one thing in one society and something quite different in
another society. In Nigeria, for example, if we nod our head up and down, we mean yes, and if
we shake it right and left, we mean no. In Bulgaria, however, nodding means no, while shaking
our head back and forth means yes! In the United States, if we make an “O” by putting our
thumb and forefinger together, it means “OK,” but the same gesture in certain parts of Nigeria
signifies an obscenity.

Language

Language is a systematic method of communication that uses speech and written symbols that is
unique in every civilization and culture. It can also be defined as the common spoken word and
written form of communication of a nation Language is a system of conventional spoken, manual
(signed), or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and
participants in its culture, express themselves. Perhaps our most important set of symbols is
language. In English, the word chair means something we sit on. In Spanish, the
word silla means the same thing. As long as we agree how to interpret these words, a shared
language and thus society are possible. Most cultures are brought together by a common
language and way of speaking. But even within languages (like English or French) there are
regional dialects. And this is often where cultures express themselves most. A group of words or
ideas having common meaning and is shared to a social situation is called language. Language is
the entrance to a culture. Language is a set of socially sound pattern, words, and sentences
having specific meaning and terminology common to the same culture. Language is a source of
communication and to transmit message from one person to another. It is the method to mold the
behavior and experience of a person. Language differs from culture to culture and is transmitted
from one generation to another.

Values

Values are another important element of culture and involve judgments of what is good or bad
and desirable or undesirable. Anything getting importance in our daily life becomes our values.
The origin of values is not biological but it is social production while living in society the values
develop. Values depend upon the culture. Culture varies from society to society and thus values
are different in every social situation. Values are what we like, some values are hereditary which
we gain from our elders, books and parents. The culture is full of values and can transmit from
one generation to another. When a natural object gets a meaning it becomes a value. Values are
things we attach importance to.

Norms

Norms are aspects of culture that humans live by, standards set up to tell one right from
wrong. Cultural norms are different from beliefs in that they are specific guidelines passed down
from parents and elders, rather than views on the world that tend to be more philosophical. In
addition, norms exist even on a small scale. Norms as elements of culture are the rules and the
guidelines which specify the behavior of an individual. Norms keep a person within the
boundary of society and its culture. It gives us restriction about something which to do and
which not to do. It molds our behavior and gives us knowledge about wrong and right.

Norms can be divided into:

a) Folkways. Folkways are the simple customary ways of the people. It is the normal and
habitual action of people within a culture. Folkways are the recognized or accepted ways
of behavior. These are the behavior pattern which a person used generally in his daily
life.
b) Mores. Mores is a Latin word and the plural of mos which means customs or beliefs
accordance with a group customary expectation. It is the “must” behavior of a person.
Mores refers to “what ought to be and what ought not to be.” Mores are serious norms
but are informed like folkways. They have a serious binding on a group the violation of
mores threats to social order. Punishment may be both formal and informal for the
violation of mores.
Formal norms and Informal norms. Formal norms, also called mores (MOOR-ayz) and laws,
refer to the standards of behavior considered the most important in any society. Examples in
Nigeria it includes traffic laws, criminal law, student dressing codes, cheating in examination,
etc. Informal norms, also called folkways and customs, refer to standards of behavior that are
considered less important but still influence how we behave. Table manners are a common
example of informal norms, and as such everyday behaviors as how we interact with a cashier
and how we receive calls in a public place matters.

Rituals

Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures and ceremonies that often
mark transitions in the life course. As such, rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms
and other elements from one generation to the next. Graduation ceremonies in colleges and
universities are familiar examples of time-honored rituals. In many societies, rituals help signify
one’s gender identity. For example, girls around the world undergo various types of initiation
ceremonies to mark their transition to adulthood. Among the Bemba of Zambia, girls undergo a
month-long initiation ceremony called the chisungu, in which girls learn songs, dances, and
secret terms that only women know. In some cultures, special ceremonies also mark a girl’s first
menstrual period. But in other cultures the first period is a cause for celebration involving gifts,
music, and food. Boys have their own initiation ceremonies, some of them involving
circumcision. Rituals and Ceremonies Cultural rituals and ceremonies are similar to festivals but
often have a more solemn and commemorative element. For example, when someone does, we
often have a funeral for them. This is usually in a Church or other place of worship.

Surnames
Surnames are social heredity, which is transmitted from one generation to another with the
accumulation of individual’s experiences. Surnames also serve as a means of Identity, it is also
an ascribe status that one’s get right from birth and in some cases to death. For example, some
families in Nigeria have been using a particular surname for over a long decade and such name
may not go into extinction for a very long time because even the younger generation are also
using same name for their own children which is also making the name a hereditary e.g
AROKOYO in kabba of Kogi State Nigeria.

Dance

Cultures also develop their own dance preferences. If you don’t dance in the same way as the rest
of the cultural group, you might look a bit funny on the dance floor! In Kabba cultural group
there is a dance step called Arebile (traditional dance), every culture or tribe has a particular kind
of dance, known and respected by the people of such a community. In the Ibaji (Ejuleonuh or
Elelle) there is a dance step called Obele, the Miangos in Plateau State also have a dance step
called Wasa Ruwa.

Artifacts

One of the element of culture is the artifacts, or material objects, that constitute a society’s
material culture. In the must simple societies, artifacts are largely limited to a few tools, the huts
people live in, and the clothing they wear, it also includes beads, calabash, cowries, etc.

Food

Many cultures develop their own tastes for a particular food and diet. Famously Italian culture is
oriented around coffee, pasta, and pizza. Yoruba culture is well-known for its Amala and Ewedu
with some Gbegiri (Beans soup). Interestingly, the Igala are known with Ojabasha with Oro –
egbe cultural dishes.

Taboos

Cultural taboos are things that are considered shocking or shameful within a culture.
An examples of an American taboo is not tipping the waitress. If you failed to tip the waitress,
you would be very much frowned upon. Other nations, like New Zealand, do not have tipping as
part of the culture. Therefore, a New Zealander coming to the United States might get a
little culture shock! Another cultural taboo example is men wearing shorts in Morocco.
Westerners might find it quite normal, but shorts in Morocco are often seen as too informal,
especially among older generations. In some African culture it is been seen as a taboo for
siblings to have sexual intercourse.

AFRICAN CULTURAL VALUES

We have examined general background or profile of the continent of Africa and also discussed
the concept of society and culture. Now let us link our understanding on the two concepts to
Africa. Human culture is an embodiment of different values. Values are things we attach
importance to, Cultural values occupy a central place of people’s culture and a core principles
and idea upon which society exists. Value can be seen as some point of view or conviction
which we can live with, live by and can even die for. This is why it seems that values actually
permeate every aspect of human life. There are many types and classifications of values. As
people differ in their conception of reality, then the values of one individual may be different
from those of another. Life seems to force people to make choices, or to rate things as better or
worse as well as formulate some scale or standard of values. Depending on the way we perceive
things we can praise and blame, declare actions right or wrong or even declare the scene or
objects before us as either beautiful or ugly.

The Africa cultural values is the worth or importance we attached to certain Africa cultural
practices so much cherished, respected and treasured as an African. These values differ across
cultures but in Africa, most Africa society shared certain common cultural values that make the
continent unique to other cultures of the world. We shall attempt to look at a few of these values
namely Social, Moral, Religious, Political, Aesthetic and Economic, Health Value.

a. SOCIAL VALUES: Social values can simply be seen as those beliefs and practices that
are practiced by any particular society. The society has a way of dictating the beliefs and
practices that are performed either routinely by its members or performed whenever the
occasion demands. Hence, we have festivals, games, sports and dances that are peculiar
to different societies. These activities are carried out by the society because they are seen
to be necessary. Some social values, especially in African society, cannot exactly be
separated from religious, moral, political values and so on. This is why we can see that in
a traditional African society like in Ibibio land (Nigeria), festivals which were celebrated
often had religious undertones − they end with sacrifices offered to certain deities on
special days in order to attract their goodwill on the members of the society. Social values
are backed by customary laws. They comprise of those traditional carnivals that a people
see as necessary for their meaningful survival. Example across cultures in Nigeria is the
new yam festival.

b. MORAL VALUES: African culture is embedded in strong moral considerations. It has

a system of various beliefs and customs which every individual ought to keep in order to
live long and to avoid bringing curses on them and others. Adultery, stealing and other
forms of immoral behaviors are strongly discouraged and whenever a suspected offender
denies a charge brought against him, he would be taken to a soothsayer or made to take
an oath for proof of innocence. African proverbs and wise sayings also have a rich
repository of wisdom. The proverbs warn the African against evil conduct and, according
to Mbiti (1977: 8), are “therefore a major source of African wisdom and a valuable part
 of African heritage”. African culture has a moral code that forbids doing harm to a
relative, a kinsman, an in-law, a foreigner and a stranger, except when such a person is
involved in an immoral act; and if that is the case, it is advisable to stay away from such
an individual and even at death, their corpses would not be dignified with a noble burial
in a coffin and grave.

c. RELIGIOUS VALUES: Religion in African societies seems to be the fulcrum around

which every activity revolves. Hence religious values are not toyed with. African
traditional religion, wherever it is practiced, has some defining characteristics. For
instance, it possesses the concept of a Supreme Being which is invisible and indigenous.
It holds a belief in the existence of the human soul and the soul does not die with the
body. African traditional religion also has the belief that good and bad spirits do exist and
that these spirits are what make communication with the Supreme Being possible. Above
all, it holds a moral sense of justice and truth and the knowledge of the existence of good
and evil. African religious values seem to permeate every facet of the life of the African
and the African believes that anything can be imbued with spiritual significance. The
worship of different deities on different days goes on to show that the African people
hold their religious values in high esteem. Sorcerers and diviners are seen to be mediating
between God and man and interpreting God’s wishes to the mortal. The diviners,
sorcerers and soothsayers help to streamline human behavior in the society and people
are afraid to commit offences because of the fear of being exposed by the diviners and
sorcerers.

d. POLITICAL VALUES: The African society definitely has political institutions with
heads of such institutions as respected individuals. The most significant thing about the
traditional society is that the political hierarchy begins with the family. Each family has a
family head; each village has a village head. From these, we have clan head and above
the clan head, is the paramount ruler. Prior to the coming of Western Colonization and its
subsequent subversion of the African traditional political arrangements, African societies
had their council of chiefs, advisers, cult groups, and so on. It was believed that
disloyalty to a leader was disloyalty to God and the position of leadership was either
hereditary or by conquest.

e. AESTHETIC VALUES: The African concept of aesthetics is predicated on the

fundamental traditional belief system which gave vent to the production of the art. Now
art is usually seen as human enterprise concerned with the production of aesthetic objects.
Thus, when a people in their leisure time try to produce or create objects that they
consider admirable, their sense of aesthetic value is brought to bear. If we see art as being
concerned with the production of aesthetic objects, then we can truly say of African
aesthetic value that it is immensely rich. Aesthetic value is what informs a people’s arts
and crafts as it affects their sense of what is beautiful as opposed to that which is ugly.
 The aesthetic value of a society influences the artist in his endeavor to produce aesthetic
objects that are acceptable to the society in which he lives.

f. ECONOMIC VALUES: Economic values of the traditional African society are marked
by cooperation. The traditional economy, which is mainly based on farming and fishing,
was co-operative in nature. In Ibibio land, for instance, friends and relatives would come
and assist in doing farm work not because they will be paid but so that if it happens that
they need such assistance in the near future, they will be sure to find it. Children were
seen to provide the main labor force. That is why a man took pride in having many of
them, especially males. The synergetic nature of the African society is what made two or
more individuals to pool their resources together and uplift each other economically
through the system of contributions called osusu. Apart from this, they even cooperated
in the building of houses and doing other things for their fellow members. When any of
them was in difficulty, all members rallied around and helped him or her. Hence, we can
state without fear of contradiction that the economic values of the traditional African
society were founded on hard work and cooperation.

g. HEALTH VALUES: Just as we know that our health is also an important area of
concern to human life, the Africa also value their life and has local medication for curing
and prevention of sicknesses and disease before the white men. Africans believes in herbs
and incision, with sacrifices to the gods or Deities to prevent illness. In some typical
African Community, the practice is still much in place and highly respected.