Geography

Geography (from Ancient Greek γεωγραφία geōgraphía; combining gê 'Earth' and gráphō 'write') is the
study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth.[1] Geography is an all-encompassing
discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely
where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth,
many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies in the field of planetary science.[2]
Geography has been called "a bridge between natural science and social science disciplines."[3]

Origins of many of the concepts in geography can be traced to Greek Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who may
have coined the term "geographia" (c. 276 BC – c. 195/194 BC).[4] The first recorded use of the word
γεωγραφία was as the title of a book by Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemy (100 – 170 AD).[1] This work
created the so-called "Ptolemaic tradition" of geography, which included "Ptolemaic cartographic
theory."[5] However, the concepts of geography (such as cartography) date back to the earliest attempts to
understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th
century BCE in ancient Babylon.[6] The history of geography as a discipline spans cultures and millennia,
being independently developed by multiple groups, and cross-pollinated by trade between these groups.
The core concepts of geography consistent between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and
scale.[7][8][9][10][11][12]

Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. There have
been multiple attempts to organize the discipline, including the four traditions of geography, and into
branches.[13][3][14] Techniques employed can generally be broken down into quantitative[15] and
qualitative[16] approaches, with many studies taking mixed-methods approaches.[17] Common techniques
include cartography, remote sensing, interviews, and surveying.

Fundamentals
Geography is a systematic study of the
Earth (other celestial bodies are
specified, such as "geography of Mars",
or given another name, such as
areography in the case of Mars), its
features, and phenomena that take place
on it.[18][19][20] For something to fall
into the domain of geography, it
generally needs some sort of spatial
component that can be placed on a map,
such as coordinates, place names, or Physical map of Earth
addresses. This has led to geography
being associated with cartography and
place names. Although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main
preoccupation. Geographers study the
Earth's spatial and temporal distribution
of phenomena, processes, and features
as well as the interaction of humans and
their environment.[21] Because space
and place affect a variety of topics, such
as economics, health, climate, plants,
and animals, geography is highly
interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary
nature of the geographical approach
depends on an attentiveness to the Political map of Earth
relationship between physical and
human phenomena and their spatial
patterns.[22]

Names of places...are not geography...To know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would
not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to
classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the
latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out
the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a description of the world'—
that is Geography. In a word, Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of
argument and reason, of cause and effect.[23]

— William Hughes, 1863

Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into three main branches: human geography, physical
geography, and technical geography.[3][24] Human geography largely focuses on the built environment
and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space.[24] Physical geography examines the natural
environment and how organisms, climate, soil, water, and landforms produce and interact.[25] The
difference between these approaches led to the development of integrated geography, which combines
physical and human geography and concerns the interactions between the environment and humans.[21]
Technical geography involves studying and developing the tools and techniques used by geographers,
such as remote sensing, cartography, and geographic information system.[26]

Key concepts
Narrowing down geography to a few key concepts is extremely challenging, and subject to tremendous
debate within the discipline.[27] In one attempt, the 1st edition of the book "Key Concepts in Geography"
broke down this into chapters focusing on "Space," "Place," "Time," "Scale," and "Landscape."[28] The
2nd edition of the book expanded on these key concepts by adding "Environmental systems," "Social
Systems," "Nature," "Globalization," "Development," and "Risk," demonstrating how challenging
narrowing the field can be.[27]

Another approach used extensively in teaching geography are the Five themes of geography established
by "Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools," published jointly by the
National Council for Geographic Education and the Association of American Geographers in 1984.[29][30]
These themes are Location, place, relationships within places
(often summarized as Human-Environment Interaction),
movement, and regions.[30][31] The five themes of geography have
shaped how American education approaches the topic in the years
since.[30][31]

Space

Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a Maps, like this 17th Century
history, they also exist in space and have a depiction of Pembrokeshire, are a
central element in the study of
geography.[32]
geography.

— United States National Research Council, 1997

For something to exist in the realm of geography, it must be able

to be described spatially.[32][33] Thus, space is the most
fundamental concept at the foundation of geography.[7][8] The
concept is so basic, that geographers often have difficulty defining
exactly what it is. Absolute space is the exact site, or spatial
coordinates, of objects, persons, places, or phenomena under
investigation.[7] We exist in space.[9] Absolute space leads to the
view of the world as a photograph, with everything frozen in place
when the coordinates were recorded. Today, geographers are
trained to recognize the world as a dynamic space where all
processes interact and take place, rather than a static image on a A right-handed three-dimensional
map.[7][34] Cartesian coordinate system used
to indicate positions in space

Place
Place is one of the most complex and important terms in
geography.[9][10][11][12] In human geography, place is the synthesis
of the coordinates on the Earth's surface, the activity and use that
occurs, has occurred, and will occur at the coordinates, and the
meaning ascribed to the space by human individuals and
groups.[33][11] This can be extraordinarily complex, as different
spaces may have different uses at different times and mean
different things to different people. In physical geography, a place
includes all of the physical phenomena that occur in space,
including the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere.[12] Places do not exist in a vacuum and instead have
complex spatial relationships with each other, and place is
concerned how a location is situated in relation to all other Yi-Fu Tuan, geographer who
locations.[36][37] As a discipline then, the term place in geography foregrounded the importance of
includes all spatial phenomena occurring at a location, the diverse language in the making of place.[35]
uses and meanings humans ascribe to that location, and how that
location impacts and is impacted by all other locations on
Earth.[11][12] In one of Yi-Fu Tuan's papers, he explains that in his view, geography is the study of Earth
as a home for humanity, and thus place and the complex meaning behind the term is central to the
discipline of geography.[10]

Time
Time is usually thought to be within the domain of history,
however, it is of significant concern in the discipline of
geography.[38][39][40] In physics, space and time are not separated,
and are combined into the concept of spacetime.[41] Geography is
subject to the laws of physics, and in studying things that occur in
space, time must be considered. Time in geography is more than
just the historical record of events that occurred at various discrete
coordinates; but also includes modeling the dynamic movement of
people, organisms, and things through space.[9] Time facilitates
movement through space, ultimately allowing things to flow
through a system.[38] The amount of time an individual, or group
of people, spends in a place will often shape their attachment and Examples of the visual language of
perspective to that place.[9] Time constrains the possible paths that time geography: space-time cube,
path, prism, bundle, and other
can be taken through space, given a starting point, possible routes,
concepts.
and rate of travel.[42] Visualizing time over space is challenging in
terms of cartography, and includes Space-Prism, advanced 3D
geovisualizations, and animated maps.[36][42][43][34]

Scale
Scale in the context of a map is the ratio between a
distance measured on the map and the corresponding
distance as measured on the ground.[2][44] This concept
is fundamental to the discipline of geography, not just
cartography, in that phenomena being investigated
A graphical or bar scale. A map would also
appear different depending on the scale used.[45][46]
usually give its scale numerically ("1:50,000", for
Scale is the frame that geographers use to measure instance, means that one cm on the map
space, and ultimately to understand a place.[44] represents 50,000 cm of real space, which is
500 meters).

Laws of geography
During the quantitative revolution, geography shifted to an empirical law-making (nomothetic)
approach.[47][48] Several laws of geography have been proposed since then, most notably by Waldo
Tobler and can be viewed as a product of the quantitative revolution.[49] In general, some dispute the
entire concept of laws in geography and the social sciences.[36][50][51] These criticisms have been
addressed by Tobler and others, such as Michael Frank Goodchild.[50][51] However, this is an ongoing
source of debate in geography and is unlikely to be resolved anytime soon. Several laws have been
proposed, and Tobler's first law of geography is the most generally accepted in geography. Some have
argued that geographic laws do not need to be numbered. The existence of a first invites a second, and
many have proposed themselves as that. It has also been proposed that Tobler's first law of geography
should be moved to the second and replaced with another.[51] A few of the proposed laws of geography
are below:

Tobler's first law of geography: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are
more related than distant."[36][50][51]
Tobler's second law of geography: "The phenomenon external to a geographic area of
interest affects what goes on inside."[50][52]
Arbia's law of geography: "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a
coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer
resolution."[45][50][46][53][54]
Spatial heterogeneity: Geographic variables exhibit uncontrolled variance.[51][55][56]
The uncertainty principle: "That the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any
representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty, that many definitions used in
acquiring geographic data contain elements of vagueness, and that it is impossible to
measure location on the Earth's surface exactly."[51]
Additionally, several variations or amendments to these laws exist within the literature, although not as
well supported. For example, one paper proposed an amended version of Tobler's first law of geography,
referred to in the text as the Tobler–von Thünen law,[49] which states: "Everything is related to everything
else, but near things are more related than distant things, as a consequence of accessibility."[Note 1] [49]

Sub-disciplines
Geography is a branch of inquiry that focuses on spatial information on Earth. It is an extremely broad
topic and can be broken down multiple ways.[14] There have been several approaches to doing this
spanning at least several centuries, including "four traditions of geography" and into distinct
branches.[57][13] The Four traditions of geography are often used to divide the different historical
approach theories geographers have taken to the discipline.[13] In contrast, geography's branches describe
contemporary applied geographical approaches.[3]

Four traditions
Geography is an extremely broad field. Because of this, many view the various definitions of geography
proposed over the decades as inadequate. To address this, William D. Pattison proposed the concept of the
"Four traditions of Geography" in 1964.[13][58][59] These traditions are the Spatial or Locational Tradition,
the Man-Land or Human-Environment Interaction Tradition (sometimes referred to as Integrated
geography), the Area Studies or Regional Tradition, and the Earth Science Tradition.[13][58][59] These
concepts are broad sets of geography philosophies bound together within the discipline. They are one of
many ways geographers organize the major sets of thoughts and philosophies within the
discipline.[13][58][59]

Branches
In another approach to the abovementioned four traditions, geography is organized into applied
branches.[60][61] The UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems organizes geography into the three
categories of human geography, physical geography, and technical geography.[3][62][60][14] Some
publications limit the number of branches to physical and human, describing them as the principal
branches.[33] Geographers rarely focus on just one of these topics, often using one as their primary focus
and then incorporating data and methods from the other branches. Often, geographers are asked to
describe what they do by individuals outside the discipline[10] and are likely to identify closely with a
specific branch, or sub-branch when describing themselves to lay people. Human geography studies
people and their communities, cultures, economies, and environmental interactions by studying their
relations with and across space and place.[33] Physical geography is concerned with the study of
processes and patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and
geosphere.[33] Technical geography is interested in studying and applying techniques and methods to
store, process, analyze, visualize, and use spatial data.[61] It is the newest of the branches, the most
controversial, and often other terms are used in the literature to describe the emerging category. These
branches use similar geographic philosophies, concepts, and tools and often overlap significantly.

Physical
Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an Earth science.[63][64][65] It aims to
understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere,
and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere). Physical geography is the study of earth's seasons,
climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans.[66] Physical geographers will often work in
identifying and monitoring the use of natural resources.

Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including:

Biogeography Climatology and Coastal geography

meteorology

Environmental Geomorphology Glaciology

management
 Hydrology and hydrography Landscape ecology Oceanography

Palaeogeogra Pedology Quaternary science

phy

Human
Human geography (or anthropogeography) is a branch of geography that focuses on studying patterns and
processes that shape human society.[67] It encompasses the human, political, cultural, social, and
economic aspects. In industry, human geographers often work in city planning, public health, or business
analysis.

Human geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:

Cognitive Cultural geography Development Economic

geography geography geography

Health Historical Internet Political geography

geography geography geography and Geopolitics
 Population Religion Social geography Transportation
geography or geography geography
Demography

Tourism Urban geography

geograph
y

Various approaches to the study of human geography have also arisen through time and include:

Behavioral geography
Culture theory
Feminist geography
Geosophy

Technical
Technical geography concerns studying and developing tools, techniques, and statistical methods
employed to collect, analyze, use, and understand spatial data.[26][3][60][62] Technical geography is the
most recently recognized, and controversial, of the branches. Its use dates back to 1749, when a book
published by Edward Cave organized the discipline into a section containing content such as cartographic
techniques and globes.[57] There are several other terms, often used interchangeably with technical
geography to subdivide the discipline, including "techniques of geographic analysis,"[68] "Geographic
Information Technology,"[1] "Geography method's and techniques,"[69] "Geographic Information
Science,"[70] "geoinformatics," "geomatics," and "information geography". There are subtle differences to
each concept and term; however, technical geography is one of the broadest, is consistent with the
naming convention of the other two branches, has been in use since the 1700s, and has been used by the
UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems to divide geography into themes.[3][60][57] As academic
fields increasingly specialize in their nature, technical geography has emerged as a branch of geography
specializing in geographic methods and thought.[26] The emergence of technical geography has brought
new relevance to the broad discipline of geography by serving as a set of unique methods for managing
the interdisciplinary nature of the phenomena under investigation. While human and physical
geographers use the techniques employed by technical geographers, technical geography is more
concerned with the fundamental spatial concepts and technologies than the nature of the data.[26][61] It is
therefore closely associated with the spatial tradition of geography while being applied to the other two
major branches. A technical geographer might work as a GIS analyst, a GIS developer working to make
new software tools, or create general reference maps incorporating human and natural features.[71]

Technical geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:

Geodesign Geodesy Geoinformatics Geographic

information science

Geomatics Geovisualization Statistical Spatial analysis

geography

Time
geography

Methods
All geographic research and analysis start with asking the question "where," followed by "why there."
Geographers start with the fundamental assumption set forth in Tobler's first law of geography, that
"everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things."[36][37] As
spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science, maps are a key tool. Classical cartography has
been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based geographic
information systems (GIS).

In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches:

Analytical – Asks why we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.
Descriptive – Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.
Regional – Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or
 location on the planet.
Systematic – Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.

Quantitative methods
Quantitative methods in geography became particularly influential
in the discipline during the quantitative revolution of the 1950s
and 60s.[15] These methods revitalized the discipline in many
ways, allowing scientific testing of hypotheses and proposing
scientific geographic theories and laws.[72] The quantitative
revolution heavily influenced and revitalized technical geography,
and lead to the development of the subfield of quantitative
geography.[26][15]

Quantitative cartography
Cartography is the art, science, and technology of making
maps.[73] Cartographers study the Earth's surface representation
with abstract symbols (map making). Although other
subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their
analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be James Cook's 1770 chart of New
regarded separately.[74] Cartography has grown from a collection Zealand
of drafting techniques into an actual science.

Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey
information about the Earth most effectively and behavioural psychology to induce the readers of their
maps to act on the information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand
how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing.
It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of
geography grew.

Geographic information systems

Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with storing information about the Earth for automatic
retrieval by a computer in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose.[75] In addition to
all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and
database systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all mapmaking is now done
with the assistance of some form of GIS software. The science of using GIS software and GIS techniques
to represent, analyse, and predict the spatial relationships is called geographic information science
(GISc).[76]

Remote sensing
Remote sensing is the art, science, and technology of obtaining information about Earth's features from
measurements made at a distance.[77] Remotely sensed data can be either passive, such as traditional
photography, or active, such as LiDAR.[77] A variety of platforms can be used for remote sensing,
including satellite imagery, aerial photography (including consumer drones), and data obtained from
hand-held sensors.[77] Products from remote sensing include Digital elevation model and cartographic
base maps. Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain
information about the Earth's land surface, ocean, and atmosphere,
because it: (a) supplies objective information at a variety of spatial scales
(local to global), (b) provides a synoptic view of the area of interest, (c)
allows access to distant and inaccessible sites, (d) provides spectral
information outside the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum,
and (e) facilitates studies of how features/areas change over time.
Remotely sensed data may be analyzed independently or in conjunction
with other digital data layers (e.g., in a geographic information system).
Remote sensing aids in land use, land cover (LULC) mapping, by helping
to determine both what is naturally occurring on a piece of land and what
human activities are taking place on it.[78]

Geostatistics
Geostatistics deal with quantitative data analysis, specifically the
application of a statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic
phenomena.[79] Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields,
Synthetic aperture radar
including hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis,
image of Death Valley
urban planning, logistics, and epidemiology. The mathematical basis for colored using polarimetry
geostatistics derives from cluster analysis, linear discriminant analysis and
non-parametric statistical tests, and a variety of other subjects.
Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on geographic information systems, particularly for the
interpolation (estimate) of unmeasured points. Geographers are making notable contributions to the
method of quantitative techniques.

Qualitative methods
Qualitative methods in geography are descriptive rather than numerical or statistical in nature.[80][16][47]
They add context to concepts, and explore human concepts like beliefs and perspective that are difficult
or impossible to quantify.[16] Human geography is much more likely to employ qualitative methods than
physical geography. Increasingly, technical geographers are attempting to employ GIS methods to
qualitative datasets.[16][81]

Qualitative cartography
Qualitative cartography employs many of the same software and techniques as quantitative
cartography.[81] It may be employed to inform on map practices, or to visualize perspectives and ideas
that are not strictly quantitative in nature.[81][16] An example of a form of qualitative cartography is a
Chorochromatic map of nominal data, such as land cover or dominant language group in an area.[82]
Another example is a deep map, or maps that combine geography and storytelling to produce a product
with greater information than a two-dimensional image of places, names, and topography.[83][84] This
approach offers more inclusive strategies than more traditional cartographic approaches for connecting
the complex layers that makeup places.[84]

Ethnography
Ethnographical research techniques are used by
human geographers.[85] In cultural geography, there is
a tradition of employing qualitative research
techniques, also used in anthropology and sociology.
Participant observation and in-depth interviews
provide human geographers with qualitative data.

Geopoetics
Geopoetics is an interdisciplinary approach that
combines geography and poetry to explore the
interconnectedness between humans, space, place,
and the environment.[86][87] Geopoetics is employed
as a mixed methods tool to explain the implications of
geographic research.[88] It is often employed to
address and communicate the implications of complex A compound chorochromatic map of Indo-Aryan
topics, such as the anthropocene.[89][90][91][92][93] (Indic) languages

Interviews
Geographers employ interviews to gather data and acquire valuable understandings from individuals or
groups regarding their encounters, outlooks, and opinions concerning spatial phenomena.[94][95]
Interviews can be carried out through various mediums, including face-to-face interactions, phone
conversations, online platforms, or written exchanges.[47] Geographers typically adopt a structured or
semi-structured approach during interviews involving specific questions or discussion points when
utilized for research purposes.[94] These questions are designed to extract focused information about the
research topic while being flexible enough to allow participants to express their experiences and
viewpoints, such as through open-ended questions.[94]

Origin and history

The concept of geography is present in all cultures, and therefore the history of the discipline is a series of
competing narratives, with concepts emerging at various points across space and time.[96] The oldest
known world maps date back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC.[97] The best known
Babylonian world map, however, is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC.[98] The map as reconstructed by
Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria,
Urartu, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged
around it so as to form a seven-pointed star.[99] The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions
beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived.[100] In contrast to the Imago
Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being
further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to
represent.[97]

The ideas of Anaximander (c. 610–545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of
geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors.[101] Anaximander is credited with the
invention of the gnomon, the simple, yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement
of latitude.[101] Thales is also credited with the prediction
of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced
to ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and
early modern Chinese. The Greeks, who were the first to
explore geography as both art and science, achieved this
through Cartography, Philosophy, and Literature, or
through Mathematics. There is some debate about who
was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in
shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or
Pythagoras. Anaxagoras was able to demonstrate that the
profile of the Earth was circular by explaining eclipses.
However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk,
as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first
estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by
Etching of an ancient seal identified as
Eratosthenes.[102] Eratosthenes. Philipp Daniel Lippert,
Dactyliothec, 1767.
The first rigorous system of latitude and longitude lines is
credited to Hipparchus. He employed a sexagesimal
system that was derived from Babylonian mathematics. The meridians were subdivided into 360°, with
each degree further subdivided into 60 (minutes). To measure the longitude at different locations on
Earth, he suggested using eclipses to determine the relative difference in time.[103] The extensive
mapping by the Romans as they explored new lands would later provide a high level of information for
Ptolemy to construct detailed atlases. He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid system on his
maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.[104]

From the 3rd century onwards, Chinese methods of geographical study and writing of geographical
literature became much more comprehensive than what was found in Europe at the time (until the 13th
century).[105] Chinese geographers such as Liu An, Pei Xiu, Jia Dan, Shen Kuo, Fan Chengda, Zhou
Daguan, and Xu Xiake wrote important treatises, yet by the 17th century advanced ideas and methods of
Western-style geography were adopted in China.

During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a
shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic
world.[105] Muslim geographers such as Muhammad al-Idrisi
produced detailed world maps (such as Tabula Rogeriana), while
other geographers such as Yaqut al-Hamawi, Abu Rayhan Biruni,
Ibn Battuta, and Ibn Khaldun provided detailed accounts of their
journeys and the geography of the regions they visited. Turkish
geographer Mahmud al-Kashgari drew a world map on a linguistic
The Ptolemy world map,
basis, and later so did Piri Reis (Piri Reis map). Further, Islamic
reconstituted from Ptolemy's
scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans Geographia, written c. 150
and the Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad
for this purpose.[106] Abū Zayd al-Balkhī, originally from Balkh,
founded the "Balkhī school" of terrestrial mapping in Baghdad.[107] Suhrāb, a late tenth century Muslim
geographer accompanied a book of geographical coordinates, with instructions for making a rectangular
world map with equirectangular projection or cylindrical equidistant projection.[108]
Abu Rayhan Biruni (976–1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the
celestial sphere.[109] He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring
the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent.
He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations to develop methods of pin-
pointing locations by recording degrees of latitude and longitude. He also developed similar techniques
when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the valleys, and expanse of the horizon.
He also discussed human geography and the planetary habitability of the Earth. He also calculated the
latitude of Kath, Khwarezm, using the maximum altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex geodesic
equation to accurately compute the Earth's circumference, which was close to modern values of the
Earth's circumference.[110] His estimate of 6,339.9 km for the Earth radius was only 16.8 km less than the
modern value of 6,356.7 km. In contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth's circumference by
sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, al-Biruni developed a new method of using
trigonometric calculations based on the angle between a plain and mountain top, which yielded more
accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference, and made it possible for it to be measured by a
single person from a single location.[111]

The European Age of Discovery during the 16th and the 17th
centuries, where many new lands were discovered and accounts by
European explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Marco Polo,
and James Cook revived a desire for both accurate geographic
detail and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. In 1650,
the first edition of the Geographia Generalis was published by
Bernhardus Varenius, which was later edited and republished by Map of southern Atlantic ocean from
[112][113] 1733 edition of the Geographia
others including Isaac Newton. This textbook sought to
Generalis
integrate new scientific discoveries and principles into classical
geography and approach the discipline like the other sciences
emerging, and is seen by some as the division between ancient and modern geography in the
West.[112][113]

The Geographia Generalis contained both theoretical background and practical applications related to
ship navigation.[113] The remaining problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the
latitude and longitude of a geographic location. While the problem of latitude was solved long ago, but
that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridians should be was only part of the problem. It
was left to John Harrison to solve it by inventing the chronometer H-4 in 1760, and later in 1884 for the
International Meridian Conference to adopt by convention the Greenwich meridian as zero
meridians.[110]

The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic
discipline, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin). The
development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century, with the foundations of
the Société de Géographie in 1821, the Royal Geographical Society in 1830, Russian Geographical
Society in 1845, American Geographical Society in 1851, the Royal Danish Geographical Society in 1876
and the National Geographic Society in 1888.[114] The influence of Immanuel Kant, Alexander von
Humboldt, Carl Ritter, and Paul Vidal de la Blache can be seen as a major turning point in geography
from philosophy to an academic subject.[115][116][117][118][119] Geographers such as Richard Hartshorne
and Joseph Kerski have regarded both Humboldt and Ritter as the founders of modern geography, as
Humboldt and Ritter were the first to establish geography as an independent scientific discipline.[120][121]
Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with
computers have led to the development of geomatics and new practices
such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into
geography's portfolio of tools. In the West during the 20th century, the
discipline of geography went through four major phases: environmental
determinism, regional geography, the quantitative revolution, and critical
geography. The strong interdisciplinary links between geography and the
sciences of geology and botany, as well as economics, sociology, and
demographics, have also grown greatly, especially as a result of earth
system science that seeks to understand the world in a holistic view. New
concepts and philosophies have emerged from the rapid advancement of
computers, quantitative methods, and interdisciplinary approaches. In Waldo Tobler in front of the
Newberry Library. Chicago,
1970, Waldo Tobler proposed the first law of geography, "everything is
November 2007
related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant
things."[36][37] This law summarizes the first assumption geographers
make about the world.

Notable geographers
Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) – published Cosmos,
founder of the subfield biogeography, and established
geography as an independent scientific discipline.
Anne Kelly Knowles (Born 1957) – influential in the use of GIS
and geographic methods in History.
Bernhardus Varenius (1622–1650)– German geographer and
author of Geographia Generalis
Carl O. Sauer (1889–1975) – cultural geographer.
Carl Ritter (1779–1859) – occupied the first chair of geography,
at the University of Berlin, and established geography as an
independent scientific discipline. Gerardus Mercator

Cynthia Brewer – cartographic theorist that created the web

application ColorBrewer.
Dana Tomlin – originator of map algebra
Doreen Massey (1944–2016) – scholar in the space and places
of globalization and its pluralities; winner of the Vautrin Lud
Prize.
Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932) – first female president of
the Association of American Geographers.
Eratosthenes (c. 276–c. 195/194 BC) – calculated the size of
the Earth.
Ernest Burgess (1886–1966) – creator of the concentric zone
model. Mei-Po Kwan
George F. Jenks (1916–1996) – influential in computer
cartography and thematic mapping
Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594) – cartographer who produced the mercator projection
Mark Monmonier (born 1943) – cartographic theorist who wrote numerous books
contributing to Geographic Information Systems.
 Mei-Po Kwan (born 1962) – contributed significantly to the use of GPS and real-time
mapping within GIS
Michael Frank Goodchild (born 1944) – GIScience scholar and winner of the RGS founder's
medal in 2003.
Muhammad al-Idrisi (Arabic: ‫ ;أبو عبد الله محمد اإلدريسي‬Latin: Dreses) (1100–1165) – author
of Nuzhatul Mushtaq.
Nigel Thrift (born 1949) – originator of non-representational theory.
Paul Vidal de La Blache (1845–1918) – founder of the French school of geopolitics, wrote
the principles of human geography.
Ptolemy (c. 100–c. 170) – compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book
Geographia.
Roger Tomlinson (1933 – 2014) – the primary originator of modern geographic information
systems.
Sir Halford Mackinder (1861–1947) – co-founder of the LSE, Geographical Association.
Strabo (64/63 BC – c. AD 24) – wrote Geographica, one of the first books outlining the study
of geography.
Waldo Tobler (1930–2018) – coined the first law of geography and second law of geography.
Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – human geographer and inventor of Central place theory.
William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography and developer of the
cycle of erosion.
Yi-Fu Tuan (1930–2022) – Chinese-American scholar credited with starting Humanistic
Geography as a discipline.

Institutions and societies

American Association of Geographers (AAG)[122]
American Geographical Society (US) [123]
Anton Melik Geographical Institute (Slovenia)
Gamma Theta Upsilon (international)
Institute of Geographical Information Systems (Pakistan)
International Geographical Union (International)
National Council for Geographic Education (United States)
National Geographic Society (United States) [124]
Royal Canadian Geographical Society (Canada)
Royal Danish Geographical Society (Denmark)
Royal Geographical Society (UK) [125]
Russian Geographical Society (Russia)

Publications
Annals of the American Association of Geographers
Antipode
Applied Geography
Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography
Dialogues in Human Geography
Economic Geography
 Geographia Technica
Geographical Review
Geographical Bulletin
GeoHumanities
International Journal of Geographical Information Science
ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information
Journal of Maps
Journal of Rural Studies
Journal of Transport Geography
National Geographic
Professional Geographer
Progress in Human Geography
The Geographical Journal
The Professional Geographer

Related fields

Geology
The discipline of geography, especially physical geography, and
geology have significant overlap. In the past, the two have often
shared academic departments at universities, a point that has led to
conflict over resources.[126] Both disciplines do seek to understand
the rocks on the Earth's surface and the processes that change
them over time. Geology employs many of the tools and
techniques of technical geographers, such as GIS and remote
sensing to aid in geological mapping.[127] However, geology
includes research that goes beyond the spatial component, such as The rock cycle shows the
the chemical analysis of rocks and biogeochemistry.[128] relationship between igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks.
History
The discipline of History has significant overlap with geography,
especially human geography.[129][130] Like geology, history and geography have shared university
departments. Geography provides the spatial context within which historical events unfold.[129] The
physical geographic features of a region, such as its landforms, climate, and resources, shape human
settlements, trade routes, and economic activities, which in turn influence the course of historical
events.[129] Thus, a historian must have a strong foundation in geography.[129][130] Historians employ the
techniques of technical geographers to create historical atlases and maps.

Planetary science
While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the Earth, the term can also be informally
used to describe the study of other worlds, such as the planets of the Solar System and even beyond. The
study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology. The study of
other planets is usually called planetary science.
Alternative terms such as areography (geography of
Mars) have been employed to describe the study of
other celestial objects. Ultimately, geography may be
considered a subdiscipline within planetary science.

See also
Earth analog – Planet with environment
similar to Earth's
Geologic time scale – System that relates
geologic strata to time
Geophysics – Physics of the Earth and its
vicinity
History of Earth Photograph from Apollo 15 command module.
Terrestrial planet – Planet that is composed Endeavour of the rilles in the vicinity of the crater
primarily of silicate rocks or metals Aristarchus on the Moon.
Theoretical planetology – Scientific modeling
of planets

Notes
1. Emphasis added.

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External links
Geography (https://www.britannica.com/science/geography) at the Encyclopaedia Britannica
website
Definition of geography at Dictionary.com (https://www.dictionary.com/browse/geography)
Definition of geography by Lexico (https://web.archive.org/web/20210416161729/https://ww
w.lexico.com/en/definition/geography)
Origin and meaning of geography by Online Etymology Dictionary (https://www.etymonline.c
om/word/geography)
Topic Dictionaries at Oxford Learner's Dictionaries (https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.c
om/topic/geography)

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