Machining

Science
• Machining Science

Introduction: Overview of the course, Examination and Evaluation patterns, Classification of Manufacturing
Processes, History of Machining, Scope and Significance of Machining.

• Geometry of Cutting Tools: Geometry of single-point turning tool: Tool-in hand system, ASA system,
Significance of various angles of SPTT, Orthogonal Rake System (ORS), Normal Rake System (NRS),
Conversions between ASA and ORS systems.

• Mechanics of Machining: Processes: Orthogonal and Oblique cutting, Mechanics of Chip formation: Types
of chips, chip-breakers, Chip reduction coefficient, shear angle, shear strain, Built-Up-Edge and its effect in
metal cutting, Merchant’s analysis of metal cutting process - Various forces, power and specific energy in
cutting, Effect of tool geometry on cutting forces and surface finish.
• Thermal aspects in machining: Sources of heat generation, Effects of temperature,
Determination of cutting temperature using analytical methods, Determination of cutting
temperature using experimental methods, Methods of Controlling Cutting Temperature.
• Tool wear, Tool life, Machinability: Wear Mechanisms, Types of tool wear, Tool Life and
Machinability.
• Machining Economics: A brief treatment for single pass turning operations.
• Cutting Tool Materials: Desirable Properties of tool materials, Characteristics of Cutting Tool
Materials, Indexable inserts and coated tools.
• Cutting Fluids: Functions, characteristics and types, Selection of cutting fluids.
• Mechanics of Multipoint machining processes: Mechanics of Milling process, Mechanics of
Grinding (plunge grinding and surface grinding).
Manufacturing Processes: Definition
▪ Manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical processes to alter the
geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a given raw material to make parts or
products; manufacturing also includes assembly of multiple parts to make products.
▪ Economically, manufacturing is the transformation of materials into items of greater
value by means of one or more processing and/or assembly operations.

▪ While a product can be manufactured by two or more processes, the real problem is to
select the most economical out of them.
▪ Most modern manufacturing is accomplished by automated and computer-controlled
machinery.
History of Manufacturing:
▪ Several inventions of the Industrial Revolution greatly contributed to the
development of manufacturing: (1) Watt’s steam engine, a new power-generating
technology for industry; (2) machine tools, starting with John Wilkinson’s boring
machine around 1775; (3) the spinning jenny, power loom, and other machinery for
the textile industry that permitted significant increases in productivity; and (4) the
factory system, a new way of organizing large numbers of production workers
based on division of labor.
▪ In 1797, Whitney negotiated a contract to produce 10,000 muskets for the U.S.
government. The secret behind his achievement was the collection of special
machines, fixtures, and gages that he had developed in his factory.
▪ Interchangeable parts manufacture required many years of development before
becoming a practical reality, but it revolutionized methods of manufacturing.
▪ Interchangeable parts production came to be known as the American System of
manufacture.
History of Manufacturing:
▪ Second Industrial Revolution in the mid-and late 1800s, characterized the
manufacturing systems by: (1) mass production, (2) scientific management
movement, (3) assembly lines, and (4) electrification of factories.
▪ Scientific management included several features: (1) motion study, aimed at finding
the best method to perform a given task; (2) time study, to establish work standards
for a job; (3) extensive use of standards in industry; (4) the piece rate system and
similar labor incentive plans; and (5) use of data collection, record keeping, and cost
accounting in factory operations.
▪ Henry Ford (1863–1947) introduced the assembly line in 1913 at his Highland Park,
MI plant.
▪ 1920, electricity had overtaken steam as the principal power source in U.S.
factories.
▪ The twentieth century was a time of more technological advances than in all other
centuries combined. Many of these developments resulted in the automation of
manufacturing.
Manufacturing Processes: Classification
Metal Removal Processes:
▪ DEFINITION: The material removal processes are a family of shaping operations in
which excess material is removed from a starting workpart so that what remains is
the desired final geometry. The machines on which these operations are performed
are called machine tools.
Variables in Processes of Metal Cutting:
▪ Machine tool selected to perform the processes
▪ Cutting tool (geometry and material)
▪ Properties and parameters of workpiece
▪ Cutting parameters (speed, feed, depth of cut)
▪ Workpiece holding devices (fixture or jigs)
▪ It is a value addition process by which raw materials of low utility and value due
to its inadequate material properties and poor or irregular size, shape and
finish are converted into high utility and valued products with definite
dimensions, forms and finish imparting some functional ability.
Classification:
▪ Traditional Process (Machining) – Material
removal by a sharp cutting tool. e.g., turning,
milling and drilling. The ‘‘other machining
operations’’ include shaping, planing, broaching,
and sawing.
▪ Abrasive processes – Material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding. The ‘‘other
abrasive processes’’ include honing, lapping, and
superfinishing.
▪ Nontraditional processes - Various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool or abrasive materials
to remove material generally by erosion. e.g., Laser
and Electron Beam machining. The energy forms
include mechanical, electrochemical, thermal, and
chemical.
Basic Principle of Machining:
▪ Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away
material to leave the desired part shape.
▪ The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear deformation of the work material
to form a chip; as the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.
▪ Machining is most frequently applied to shape metals.

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process.

(b) Tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
Basic objectives of Machining:
▪ Basic objectives of the economical and efficient machining practice :
1. Quick Metal Removal (or MRR)
2. High class surface finish.
3. Economy in tool cost.
4. Less power consumption.
5. Economy in the cost of replacement and sharpening of tools.
6. Minimum deal time of machine tools.
Advantages of machining:
1. Variety of work materials. Machining can be applied to a wide variety of work materials.
Virtually all solid metals can be machined. Plastics and plastic composites can also
be cut by machining. Ceramics pose difficulties because of their high hardness and
brittleness; however, most ceramics can be successfully cut by the abrasive machining
processes.
2. Variety of part shapes and geometric features. Machining can be used to create any
regular geometries, such as flat planes, round holes, and cylinders. By introducing
variations in tool shapes and tool paths, irregular geometries can be created, such as
screw threads and T-slots. By combining several machining operations in sequence,
shapes of almost unlimited complexity and variety can be produced.
3. Dimensional accuracy. Machining can produce dimensions to very close tolerances. Some
machining processes can achieve tolerances of 0.025 mm, much more accurate than most
other processes.
4. Good surface finishes. Machining is capable of creating very smooth surface finishes.
Roughness values less than 0.4 microns can be achieved in conventional machining
operations. Some abrasive processes can achieve even better finishes.
Disadvantages of machining:
On the other hand, certain disadvantages are associated with machining and other material
removal processes:
1. Wasteful of material. Machining is inherently wasteful of material. The chips
generated in a machining operation are wasted material. Although these chips can
usually be recycled, they represent waste in terms of the unit operation.
2. Time consuming. A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given part
than alternative shaping processes such as casting or forging.
Basic Elements of Machining:

▪ The basic elements of machining operations are:

▪ Work piece
▪ Tool
▪ Chip
▪ For providing cutting action, a relative motion
between the tool and work piece is necessary.
▪ This relative motion can be provided by:
1. Either keeping the work piece stationary and
moving the tool. Or
2. By keeping the tool stationary and moving
the work. Or
3. By moving both in relation to one another.
Basic Machining Operations:
▪ Turning: Single point cutting tool removes
material from a rotating workpiece to form a
cylindrical shape.
▪ Drilling: Used to create a round hole, usually by
means of a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting
edges
▪ Milling: Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is
moved across work to cut a plane or straight
surface.
▪ Shaping and planning: Used to create flat surface
▪ Broaching: Multi teeth tool used to make (a) turning, (b) drilling, (c) peripheral milling,
and (d) face milling.
roughing and finishing in single stroke
▪ Sawing: Used for cutoff operations.
Parameters influencing a Machining Process:
▪ The work piece provides the parent metal, from which the unwanted metal is removed by the
cutting action of the tool to obtain the predetermined shape and size of the component.
▪ The chemical composition and physical properties of the metal of the workpiece have a
significant effect on the machining operation.
▪ The tool material and its geometry are equally significant for successful machining.
▪ The type and geometry of the chip formed are greatly effected by the metal of the work piece,
geometry of the cutting tool and the method of cutting.
▪ The chemical composition and the rate of flow of the cutting fluid also provide considerable
influence over the machining operation.
Single Point Cutting Tool: Important terms
▪ Shank forms the main body of a solid tool and it
is this part of the tool which is gripped in the tool
holder.
▪ Face is the top surface of the tool between the
shank and point of the tool. In cutting action the
chip flow along this surface only.
▪ Point (nose) is a wedge shaped portion where
the face and flank of the tool meet.
▪ Flank is a portion of the tool which faces the
work.

▪ Base is actually the bearing surface of the tool on which it is held in a tool holder.
▪ Heel is the curved portion at the bottom of the tool where the base and flank of the tool
meet.
Single Point Cutting Tool: Geometry

Principal Angles of Single Point Tools:

1. Rake angle: Back, Side
2. Relief angle: Side, End
3. Cutting angle: End, Side
4. Lip angle or wedge angle
Single Point Cutting Tool: Principle angles
1. Back rake angle: (Rake angle)
▪ It is the angle formed between the face of the
tool and a plane parallel to its base.
▪ When this inclination is towards the shank, it is
known as back rake or top rake.
▪ When it is measured towards the side of the
tool it is called the side rake.
▪ Function: to guide the chips away from the
cutting edge, thereby reducing the chip
pressure on the face.
▪ Higher the rake angle better is the cutting and
less are the cutting forces.
▪ Higher rake angle reduces the strength of the
tool tip as well as the heat dissipation through
the tool.
▪ Thus there is a maximum limit to the rake
angle and this is generally of the order of 15°
for HSS tools cutting mild steel.
Single Point Cutting Tool: Principle angles
Rake angle:
▪ Positive rake - helps reduce
cutting force and thus cutting
power requirement.
▪ Zero rake - to simplify design
and manufacture of the form
tools.
▪ Negative rake (5°-10°) - to
increase edge-strength and life
of the tool.

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Single Point Cutting Tool: Principle angles
2. Side rake angle: Side rake angle is the
angle by which the face of tool is inclined
side ways.
▪ Side rake angle of cutting tool determines
the thickness of the tool behind the cutting
edge.
▪ It is responsible for directing the chip away
from the finished surface.
3. Side cutting edge angle:
▪ It is the angle between the side cutting
edge and the side of the tool shank. (15° to
30°)
▪ It is provided on tool to provide clearance
between workpiece and tool so as to
prevent the rubbing of workpiece with end
flake of tool.
Single Point Cutting Tool: Principle angles
4. End cutting edge angle:
▪ It is the angle between the end cutting
edge and line normal to the tool
shank.
▪ It prevents the rubbing of front cutting
edge of the tool against the work
piece.
Single Point Cutting Tool: Principle angles
5. End (Front) relief angle :
▪ It is the angle between the surface in front
of the tool just bellow the point and a plane
normal to the base of the tool.
▪ End relief angle allows the tool to cut
without rubbing on the workpiece.
6. Side relief angle:
▪ It is the angle between the surface bellow
the side cutting edge and a plane normal to
the base of the tool.
▪ Side relief angle is the angle that prevents
the interference as the tool enters the
material.
▪ It is incorporated on the tool to provide relief
between its flank and the workpiece
surface.
▪ Large clearance angles weaken the cutting edge and chances of chipping of the tool tip are high.
Single Point Cutting Tool: Principle angles
7. Nose Radius:
▪ It effects the surface finish and tool tip
strength.
▪ A sharp tool results in rough finish of
the work piece and lower the strength
of the tool.
▪ Larger nose radius lead to chatter.

8. Lip Angle/ Wedge Angle:

▪ It is defined as the angle between
face and minor flank of the single
point cutting tool.

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Single Point Cutting Tool: Tool Signature
▪ Tool signature denotes the sequential suppression of seven geometrical elements,
describing the tool geometry.
▪ When specified in the following order, they are collectively called the tool geometry
signature:
Ex: Tool signature of HSS tool:
1. Back rake angle,
7-8-6-6-12-20-2
2. Side rake angle,
3. End relief angle,
4. Side relief angle,
5. End cutting edge angle,
6. Side cutting edge angle, and
7. Nose radius.

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Reference system of description of tool geometry:
▪ In order to describe the location, position and direction of motion of a cutting wedge,
reference systems are utilized in which characteristic planes are defined that are valid
for all process variants.

▪ Tool-in-hand system
▪ Machine reference system – ASA system
▪ Tool reference system
▪ Orthogonal Rake system (ORS)
▪ Normal Rake System (NRS)
▪ Work reference system (WRS)

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Tool-in-hand system:
▪ In tool-in-hand system, the reference plane of which is oriented orthogonally to the
assumed cutting direction.
▪ Tool-In-Hand system basically refers to the identification of few useful salient features
just by observing the cutting tool in bare eyes.
▪ There is no quantitative information, i.e., value of the angles.

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ASA (American Standards Association) system:
▪ The turning tool angles are designated based on
machine longitudinal plane and machine
transverse plane along with reference plane.
▪ πR = Reference plane: plane perpendicular to
the velocity vector.
▪ πX = Machine longitudinal plane: plane
perpendicular to πR and taken in the direction of
assumed longitudinal feed.
▪ πY = Machine Transverse plane: plane
perpendicular to both πR and πX taken in the
direction of assumed cross feed.
▪ Axes: Xm, Ym and Zm in the direction of
longitudinal feed, cross feed and cutting
velocity (vector) respectively.
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ASA (American Standards Association) system:
▪ Back Rake Angle (αY): It is the angle of orientation of
tool’s rake surface from the reference plane (πR) and
measured on machine transverse plane (πY).
▪ Side Rake Angle (αX): It is the angle of orientation of
tool’s rake surface from the reference plane (πR) and
measured on machine longitudinal plane (πX).
▪ End Clearance Angle (βY): It is the angle of orientation
of tool’s principal flank surface from the cutting velocity
vector (Vc) and measured on machine transverse
plane (πY).
▪ Side Clearance Angle (βX): It is the angle of orientation
of tool’s principal flank surface from the cutting velocity
vector (Vc) and measured on machine longitudinal
plane (πX).
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ASA (American Standards Association) system:
▪ End Cutting Edge Angle (Φe): It is the angle between
auxiliary cutting edge and the machine longitudinal
plane (πX), measured on reference plane (πR).
▪ Side Cutting Edge Angle (Approach Angle) (Φs): It is
the angle between principal cutting edge and the
machine transverse plane (πY), measured on
reference plane (πR).
▪ Nose Radius (r): This is nothing but the curvature at
the tool tip. It is to be noted that in ASA system, nose
radius value is expressed in inch.
▪ The order of representation:
Back Rake, Side Rake,
End Clearance, Side Clearance,
End Cutting Edge, Side Cutting Edge,
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Nose Radius.
Orthogonal Rake System (ORS):

▪ Inclination Angle (λ)

▪ Orthogonal Rake Angle (α)
▪ Orthogonal Clearance Angle (γ)
▪ Auxiliary Orthogonal Clearance Angle (γ1)
▪ Principal Cutting Edge Angle (Φ0)
▪ Auxiliary Cutting Edge Angle (Φ1)
▪ Nose Radius (r)

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Orthogonal Rake System (ORS):
▪ This system is also known as ISO.
▪ The planes of reference and the co-ordinate
axes used for expressing the tool angles in
ORS are: πR– πC– πO and X0 – Y0 – Z0
▪ πR: Reference plane perpendicular to the
cutting velocity vector,
▪ πC: Cutting plane; plane perpendicular to πR
and taken along the principal cutting edge
▪ πO: Orthogonal plane; plane perpendicular to
both πR and πC
▪ X0 = along the line of intersection of πR and πO
▪ Y0 = along the line of intersection of πR and πC
▪ Z0 = along the velocity vector, i.e., normal to
both X0 and Y0 axes. 32
Orthogonal Rake System (ORS):
▪ Inclination Angle (λ): It is the angle of inclination
of tool’s principal cutting edge from the reference
plane (πR) and measured on cutting plane (πC).
▪ Orthogonal Rake Angle (α): It is the angle of
orientation of tool’s rake surface from the
reference plane (πR) and measured on
orthogonal plane (πO).
▪ Orthogonal Clearance Angle (γ): It is the angle of
orientation of tool’s principal flank surface from
the cutting plane (πC) and measured on
orthogonal plane (πO).
▪ Auxiliary Orthogonal Clearance Angle (γ1): It is
the angle of orientation of tool’s auxiliary flank
surface from the auxiliary cutting plane (πC’) and
measured on auxiliary orthogonal plane (πO’). 33
Orthogonal Rake System (ORS):
▪ Principal Cutting Edge Angle (Φ0):It is the
angle between cutting plane (πC) (which
contains principal cutting edge) and the
longitudinal feed direction, measured on
reference plane (πR).
▪ Auxiliary Cutting Edge Angle (Φ1): It is the
angle between auxiliary cutting plane (πC’)
(which contains auxiliary cutting edge) and the
longitudinal feed line, measured on reference
plane (πR).
▪ Nose Radius (r): This is nothing but the
curvature at the tool tip. It is to be noted that in
ORS system, nose radius value is expressed in
mm.

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Orthogonal Rake System (ORS): Tool Nomenclature
▪ The ORS system comprises seven parameters to describe a tool.
▪ The main elements of ORS designated in the following order:
▪ Angle of inclination
▪ Normal rake angle Example: Tool signature 5, 10, 6, 6, 5, 90, 1
▪ Side relief angle Angle of inclination = 5°
▪ End relief angle Normal rake angle = 10°
▪ End cutting edge angle Side relief angle = 6°
▪ Approach angle and End relief angle = 6°
▪ Nose radius. End cutting edge angle = 5°
Approach angle = 90°
Nose radius =1mm

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Normal Rake System (NRS):
▪ This system is also known as ISO (new).
▪ ASA system has limited advantage and use like convenience of inspection.
▪ ORS is advantageously used for analysis and research in machining and tool
performance.
▪ ORS does not reveal the true picture of the tool geometry when the cutting edges
are inclined from the reference plane, i.e., λ≠0.
▪ Besides, sharpening or resharpening, if necessary, of the tool by grinding in ORS
requires some additional calculations for correction of angles.
▪ These two limitations of ORS are overcome by using NRS for description and use
of tool geometry.

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Normal Rake System (NRS):
▪ Normal Rake System (NRS) utilizes three planes as reference for measuring various
tool angles.
▪ Reference Plane (πR): It is a plane perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector (Vc).
▪ Cutting Plane (πC): It is a plane perpendicular to reference plane (πR) and contains the
principal cutting edge of the tool.
▪ Normal Plane (πN): It is a plane perpendicular to the principal cutting edge of the tool.
Normal plane may not be perpendicular to the reference plane (πR) and Cutting Plane
(πC). However, normal plane is always perpendicular to the principal cutting edge.
▪ Unlike ASA and ORS systems of tool designation where all three planes of reference
are mutually perpendicular, in NRS system three planes of reference may not be
mutually perpendicular.
▪ They will become mutually perpendicular only when the cutting tool has zero inclination
angle (λ).
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Normal Rake System (NRS):
▪ Normal Rake Angle (γN): It is the angle of orientation of tool’s rake surface from the reference
plane (πR) and measured on normal plane (πN).
▪ Inclination Angle (λ): It is the angle of inclination of tool’s principal cutting edge from the
reference plane (πR) and measured on cutting plane (πC).
▪ Normal Clearance Angle (αN): It is the angle of orientation of tool’s principal flank surface from
the cutting plane (πC) and measured on normal plane (πN).
▪ Auxiliary Normal Clearance Angle (αN’): It is the angle of orientation of tool’s auxiliary flank
surface from the auxiliary cutting plane (πC) and measured on auxiliary normal plane (πN).
▪ Principal Cutting Edge Angle (Φ): It is the angle between cutting plane (πC) (which contains
principal cutting edge) and the longitudinal feed direction, measured on reference plane (πR).
▪ Auxiliary Cutting Edge Angle (Φ1): It is the angle between auxiliary cutting plane (πC) (which
contains auxiliary cutting edge) and the longitudinal feed line, measured on reference plane
(πR).
▪ Nose Radius (r): This is nothing but the curvature at the tool tip. Similar to ORS system, in NRS
system, nose radius value is expressed in mm.
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Orthogonal & Oblique Cutting:
▪ Orthogonal Cutting (2-D Cutting): Cutting edge is straight, parallel to
the original plane surface on the work piece and perpendicular to the
direction of cutting.
▪ Oblique Cutting (3-D Cutting): Cutting edge of the tool is inclined to the
line normal to the cutting direction.

Orthogonal Cutting

Oblique Cutting
Orthogonal & Oblique Cutting:
Orthogonal Cutting: Oblique Cutting:
1. The cutting edge of the tool 1. The cutting edge of the tool always
remains normal to the direction of remains inclined at an acute angle to
tool feed or work feed. the direction of tool feed or work feed.
2. The direction of chip flow velocity
is normal to the cutting edge of the 2. The direction of chip flow velocity is at
tool. (chip flow angle) an angle β with the normal to the
cutting edge of the tool. (chip flow
3. The angle of inclination ‘i’ of the
cutting edge of the tool with the angle)
normal to the velocity Vc is ‘zero’. 3. The cutting edge of the tool is inclined
4. There are only two mutually at an angle ‘i’ with the normal to the
perpendicular components of direction of work feed or tool feed Vc .
cutting forces act at the cutting 4. Three mutually perpendicular components of cutting
edge of the tool. forces act at the cutting edge of the tool.
5. The cutting edge is longer than the 5. The cutting edge may or may not be is longer than the
width of the cut. width of the cut.
6. Shear force act on a smaller area, 6. The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force
thus, the tool life is smaller.
acts on a larger area and thus tool life is increased.
The Process of Chip Formation:
▪ A wedge shaped single point cutting tool moves relative to the
work piece. As the tool makes contact with the metal, it exerts
pressure on it. Due to these compressive forces shear
stresses are induced on the workpiece.
▪ Whenever and wherever the value of the shear stress
reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work material in
the primary deformation region, yielding or slip takes place.
▪ This results in shear deformation in that region and in the
plane of maximum shear stress. A chip is produced ahead of
the cutting tool by first elastic deformation or yielding and
then finally by plastic deformation and shearing the material
continuously, along the shear plane.
▪ But the forces causing the shear stresses in the region of the
chip quickly diminishes and finally disappears while that
region moves along the tool rake surface towards the
secondary shear zone and then goes beyond the point of
chip-tool engagement.
▪ As a result the slip or shear stops propagating long before total separation takes place. In the meantime the
succeeding portion of the chip starts undergoing compression followed by yielding and shear. This
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phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and removal of chips in thin layer by layer.
Types of Chips:
▪ The chips produced during machining can be broadly classified as three types.
1. Discontinuous or Segmental Chips
2. Continuous Chips
3. Continuous Chip with built-up edge
Discontinuous or Segmental Chips:
▪ This type of chips produced during machining of brittle
materials like cast iron and bronze. These chips are
produced in the form of small segments.
▪ As the tool advances forward, the shear plane angle gradually reduces until the value
of compressive stresses acting on the shear plane becomes too low to prevent
rupture.
▪ At this stage, any further advancement of the tool results in the fracture of the metal
ahead of it, thus producing a segment of the chip.
▪ With further advancement of the tool, the processes of metal fracture and production
of chips segments go on being repeated, and this is how the discontinuous chips 42
are
produced.
▪ Discontinuous chips are also produced in machining of ductile materials when low
cutting speeds are used and adequate lubricant is not provided.
▪ This causes excessive friction between the chip and tool face, leading to the fracture of
the chip in to small segments.
▪ This will also result in excessive wear on the tool and the poor surface finish on the
work piece.

▪ Other factors responsible: smaller rake angle, too much depth of cut.

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Continuous Chips:
▪ The basis of the production of the continuous chip is the continuous plastic deformation
of the metal ahead of the tool, the chip moving smoothly up the tool face.
▪ This type chip is produced while machining a ductile
material, like mild steel, under favorable conditions, such
as high cutting speeds and minimum friction between the
chip and the tool face.
▪ The friction between the chip-tool interface can be
minimized by polishing the tool face and adequate use of
coolant.

▪ Other factors responsible:

bigger rake angle, finer feed and keen cutting edge.

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Continuous Chips with built-up edge:
▪ While machining ductile material when high friction exists
at the chip-tool interface results the continuous chips with
built-up edge.
▪ The normal reaction of the chip on the tool face is quite
high. It is maximum at the cutting edge or nose of the tool.
▪ This gives rise to an extensively high temperature and
compressed metal adjacent to the tool nose gets welded to
it.
▪ The chip is also sufficiently hot and gets oxidized as it
comes off the tool and turns blue in color. The extra metal
welded to the nose of the tool is called built-up edge.
▪ Metal in built-up edge is highly strain hardened and brittle.
▪ During the chip flow up the tool, the built-up edge is broken
and carried away with chip, rest of it bonded to the work
piece and make it rough.
▪ Due to the built-up edge the rake angle also altered and so
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is the cutting force.
Continuous Chips with built-up edge:
▪ Other factors responsible: low cutting speed, excessive feed, small rake angle, lack of
lubricant.
Adverse effects of built-up edge formation:
▪ Rough surface finish.
▪ Fluctuating cutting force, causing, vibrations in cutting tool.
▪ Chances of carrying away some material from the tool by the built-up surface,
producing crater on the tool face and causing tool wear.
Precautions to avoid built-up edge formation:
▪ The coefficient of friction at the chip-tool interface should be minimized by means of
polishing the tool face.
▪ Adequate supply of coolant.
▪ Large rake angle.
▪ High cutting speeds and low feeds.

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Chip Control:
▪ The chips produced during machining, specially while employing higher speeds in
machining of high tensile strength materials, need to be effectively controlled.
▪ Higher speeds causing to higher temperatures resulting chip will be continuous, of blue
colour and take the shape of coil.
Adverse effect of coiled chips on machining:
▪ Effects the tool life by spoiling the cutting edge, creating
crater and rising the temperature.
▪ Lead to poor surface finish on the work piece.
▪ If the chip gets curled around the rotating w/p or tool, it
may be hazardous to the machine operator.
▪ If a large and continuous coil is allowed to be formed, it may engage the entire
machine and even the work piece, its quite dangerous.
▪ Very large coils offer a lot of difficulty in their removal.

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Chip Breakers:
▪ The chip breaker break the produced chips into small
pieces.
▪ The work hardening of the chip makes the work of the
chip breakers easy.
▪ If the job requirements do not call for very strict chip
control the common methods used for chip breaking
are:
1. By control of tool geometry: by grinding proper back a) Groove type b) Step type
rake and side rake according to the speeds and feeds. c) Secondary Rake type
2. By obstruction method: by interposing a metallic d) Clamp type
obstruction in the path of the coil.
▪ When a strict chip control is desired, some sort of chip
breaker has to be employed.

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Chip thickness ratio:
▪ Thickness of the upward flowing chip is more than the actual depth of cut.
chip velocity < velocity of cut.
▪ The velocity of chip flow is directly proportional to the shear plane angle.
▪ Smaller angle, lower the chip flow, hence larger will be the thickness.
▪ Chip thickness ratio,
▪ Chip reduction coefficient,

▪ In orthogonal cutting,
Volume of the chip produced = Volume of the metal cut.
Volume= Width x thickness x length

From triangle OAP,

From triangle OBP,

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Velocity Relationships:
Analytically,
vc vf vs
= =
sin(90 − ( −  )) sin  sin(90 −  )

vc vf vs
= =
cos( −  ) sin  cos 
Vf

 sin 
 r = cos(  -  )  Vs
 
φ

α (φ-α)
(φ-α)
vc cos 
φ
(90°- φ) α
vs =
cos(  −  ) Vc

50
Cutting Forces in Metal Cutting:
▪ The relationships among the cutting forces were established by Merchant with the
following assumptions.
1. The cutting velocity always remains constant.
2. Cutting edge of the tool remains sharp throughout the cutting.
3. There is no side ways of flow of the chip.
4. Only continuous chip is produced.
M. Eugene Merchant
5. There is no built-up edge.
6. No consideration is made of the inertia force of the chip.
7. The behavior of the chip is like that of a free body which is in the state of stable
equilibrium under the action of two resultant forces which are equal, opposite and
collinear.

51
Cutting Forces in Metal Cutting:
Fs = Shear Force, which acts along the shear plane, is the
resistance to shear of the metal in forming the chip.
Fn = Force acting normal to the shear plane, is the backing
up force on the chip provided by the work piece.

F = The friction force F is the frictional force resisting the

flow of the chip along the rake face of the tool.
N = The normal force to friction N is perpendicular to the
friction force.

Fc = Horizontal cutting force exerted by the tool on the work

piece.
Ft = Vertical or Tangential force which helps in holding the
tool in position and acts on the tool nose. 52
Merchant’s Circle:
▪ It is useful to determine the relation between the
various forces and angles.
▪ Vector addition of the two force components Fs
and Fn yields the resultant force R’.
▪ In order for the forces acting on the chip to be in
balance, this resultant R’ must be equal in
magnitude, opposite in direction, and collinear
with the resultant R.
▪ The four force components F, N, Fs, and Fn can
not be directly measured in a machining
operation, because the directions in which they
are applied vary with different tool geometries
and cutting conditions.
▪ The force components Fc and Ft acting against the tool can be directly measured by
using a force measuring device called a dynamometer.
▪ The shear angle () can be obtained from it’s relation with chip reduction coefficient.
53
Force Relationships:
▪ Equations can be derived to relate the four
force components that cannot be measured to
the two forces that can be measured.
▪ Using the force diagram in Figure, the following
trigonometric relationships can be derived:
Force Relationships:
Force Relationships:
Shear strain & Shear strain rate:
Construction of Merchant’s Circle:
▪ Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in the
center of the page. The cutting force (Fc) is drawn
horizontally, and the tangential force (Ft) is drawn
vertically. (Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
▪ Locate the center of R, and draw a circle that encloses
vector R. If done correctly, the heads and tails of all 3
vectors will lie on this circle.
▪ Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand
quadrant, taking care to draw the correct rake angle (α)
from the vertical axis.
▪ Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the same rake angle) through the
circle. This now gives the friction vector (F).
▪ A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction vector, to the head of the resultant
vector (R). This gives the normal vector (N). Also add a friction angle (β) between
vectors R and N. Therefore, mathematically, R = Fc + Ft = F + N.
Cont..
 Construction of Merchant’s Circle:
▪ Draw a feed thickness line parallel to the horizontal axis.
Next draw a chip thickness line parallel to the tool cutting
face.
▪ Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the
intersection of the two chip lines, stopping at the circle.
The result will be a shear force vector (Fs). Also measure
the shear force angle between Fs and Fc.
▪ Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of
Fs to the head of R.
▪ Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances
(forces) and angles.
Theory of Ernst and Merchant:
Ernest and Merchant gave the relation

1
 = − ( − )
4 2

Assumptions of the theory:

▪ Tool edge is sharp.
▪ The work material undergoes deformation across a thin shear plane.
▪ There is uniform distribution of normal and shear stress on the shear plane.
▪ The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
▪ The shear angle ∅ adjusts itself to give minimum work.
▪ The friction angle β remains constant and is independent of ∅.
▪ The chip width remains constant.
Theory of Ernst and Merchant:
Fs = R cos( +  −  )
R = Fc sec(  −  )
 Fs = Fc sec(  −  ) cos( +  −  )
Fs
s =
As
wt0
where, As =
sin 
F sec(  −  ) cos( +  −  )
s = c
wt0
sin 
Fc sec(  −  ) cos( +  −  ) sin 
s =
wt0
▪ They have assumed that  adjusts itself to give minimum work. And for a given set of
cutting condition, to, w and α are all constants. They also assumed that β is
independent of .
Theory of Ernst and Merchant:
We can either maximize  s or minimize Fc
Therefore in the above equation the term Experimental verification revealed that the
contains only one variable . above equation is an over estimate.
let y = cos( +  −  ) sin 
Merchant later modified this equation and
dy
= − sin( +  −  ) sin  + cos( +  −  ) cos  gave another equation as: 2 +  −  = C
d
for maximum value of y Where C is the machining constant.
dy
 =0
d According to Merchant, C is a property of
 sin( +  −  ) sin  = cos( +  −  ) cos  work material unaffected by cutting conditions,
 tan( +  −  ) = cot  but grain size and micro structure have an
affect on C.
 tan( +  −  ) = tan( −)
2
  +  − =  −
2
 1
 = − ( −  )
4 2
Lee & Shaffer’s Theory:
▪ They analyzed process of orthogonal metal cutting by applying the theory of plasticity
for an ideal rigid plastic material. 
▪ The principle assumptions made by them include:  = +  −  = 45o
+  −
4
1. The work piece metal ahead of the cutting tool or  +  −  = 45o
behaves like an ideal plastic metal.
this was further mod ified as :
2. The deformation of the metal occurs on a single

shear plane.  = +  +  −
3. There is a stress field with in the produced chip 4
which transmits the cutting force from the shear = 45o +  +  − 
plane to the tool face and, therefore, the chip or  +  − ( +  ) = 45o
does not get hardened. The term θ was introduced to cover
4. The chip separates from the parent metal at the the changes in different parameters
on account of the formation of BUE.
shear plane.
▪ Based on the above assumptions, they developed a slip line field for stress zone.
▪ There no deformation would occur even if it is stressed to its yield point.
Work Done in Cutting:
Work Done in Cutting:
Horsepower Calculation:
work done in cutting / min
H .P. required in cutting =
4500
Fc  Vc  Fc in kgs
= h. p. 
4500  Vc in m / min
Fc  Vc
= kw.
4500 1.36

66
Contact Length:
▪ After machining as the chip flow over the
rake face, the temperature of material will N
be very high. At high temperature
coefficient of friction increases and hence
shear stress.
▪ Once the stress reaches yield strength of O
shear, sticking will take place between
the materials.
▪ So over the rake face initially there will be
sticking and there is slipping.

67
Sources of heat in metal cutting:
▪ During metal cutting, heat is generated in three regions as shown in Figure.
1. Around share plane
2. Tool-chip interface
3. Tool-work piece interface
1. Around share plane:
▪ It is the region in which actual plastic deformation
of the metal occurs during machining.
▪ Due to this deformation heat is generated.
▪ A portion of this heat is carried away by the chip,
due to which its temperature is raised.
▪ The rest of the heat is retained by the work piece.
▪ It is known as Primary Deformation Zone.

68
Sources of heat in metal cutting:
2. Tool-chip interface:
▪ As the chip slides upwards along face of the tool friction occurs between their surfaces,
due to which heat is generated.
▪ A part of this heat carried by the chip, which further raises the temperature of the chip. And
the rest transferred to the tool and the coolant.
▪ This area is known as Secondary deformation zone.
▪ The amount of heat generated due to friction increases with the increase in cutting speed.
▪ It is not appreciably effected with the increase in depth of cut.
▪ When the feed rate is increased the amount of frictional heat generated is relatively low.
But, in that case, the surface finish obtained is inferior.
3. Tool-work piece interface:
▪ That portion of tool flank which rubs against the work surface is another source of heat
generation due to friction.
▪ This heat is also shared by the tool, work piece and the coolant used.
▪ It is more pronounced when the tool is not sufficiently sharp. 69
 Sources of heat in metal cutting:
▪ Fig. shows the distribution of the heat generated during
metal cutting, neglecting the heat flowing to the
atmosphere.
▪ On an average, about 70% of the total heat is carried
away by the chip, about 15% is transferred to the tool
and the remaining 15% to the work piece.
▪ With an increase in the cutting speed a higher amount of
heat is absorbed by the chip and lesser amount is
transferred to the tool and the work piece.
▪ It is an obvious advantage in high speed machining.
▪ Some of the heat generated is also shared and carried away by the flowing cutting fluid,
when used.
▪ The shear angle also effects the heat generation.
▪ A larger share angle leads to a smaller heat generation in the primary deformation zone.
70
Effect of heat generation:
▪ Of the total energy consumed in machining, nearly all of it (about 98%) is converted
into heat.
▪ This heat can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool–chip interface over 600C
is not unusual.
▪ The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy in the chip.
▪ Cutting temperatures are important because high temperatures:
(1) reduce tool life,
(2) produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the machine operator, and
(3) can cause inaccuracies in workpart dimensions due to thermal expansion of the
work material.

71
Determination of cutting temperature:
ANALYTICAL METHOD:
▪ The mean temperature for the orthogonal cutting is derived by Nathan Cook from
dimensional analysis using experimental data for various work materials is:
0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T =  
where C  K 
T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U = specific energy; v = cutting speed;
to = chip thickness before cut; C = volumetric specific heat of work material;
K = thermal diffusivity of work material
Cutting temperature increases with: Cutting temperature decreases with:
▪ Strength of the workpiece material ▪ Increasing specific heat
▪ Cutting speed ▪ Increasing thermal conductivity of
▪ Depth of cut workpiece material

72
Determination of cutting temperature:
Experimental Methods:
▪ Calorimetric Method – quite simple and low cost but inaccurate and gives only grand
average value
▪ Using decolorizing agent – some paint or tape, which change in color with variation of
temperature, is pasted on the tool or job near the cutting point; the as such color of the
chip (steels) may also often indicate cutting temperature.
▪ Tool-work thermocouple technique – simple and inexpensive but gives only average or
maximum value.
▪ Moving thermocouple technique
▪ Embedded thermocouple technique
▪ Using compound tool
▪ Indirectly from microhardness distribution
▪ Photo-cell technique
▪ Infra-ray detection method.
73
Determination of cutting temperature:
▪ Tool work thermocouple technique: In a
thermocouple two dissimilar but electrically
conductive metals are connected at two
junctions. Whenever one of the junctions is
heated, the difference in temperature at the hot
and cold junctions produce a proportional
current which is detected and measured by a
milli-voltmeter.
▪ Moving thermocouple technique: This simple method,
schematically shown in Fig. enables measure the
gradual variation in the temperature of the flowing
chip before, during and immediately after its
formation.
▪ A bead of standard thermocouple like chrome alumel is
brazed on the side surface of the layer to be removed
from the work surface and the temperature is attained
74
in terms of mV.
Determination of cutting temperature:
▪ Infra-red photographic technique: This modern and powerful method is based on taking
infra-red photograph of the hot surfaces of the tool, chip, and/or job and get
temperature distribution at those surfaces.
▪ Proper calibration is to be done before that.
▪ This way the temperature profiles can be recorded in PC as indicated in Fig.
▪ The fringe pattern readily changes with the change in any machining parameter
which affect cutting temperature.

75
Control of cutting temperature:
▪ Cutting temperature can be controlled in varying extent by the following general
methods:
1. Proper selection of material and geometry of the cutting tool(s)
2. Optimum selection of VC – so combination without sacrificing MRR
3. Proper selection and application of cutting fluid
4. Application of special technique, if required and feasible.

76
Tool Failure:
▪ A properly designed and ground cutting tool is expected to perform the metal cutting
operation in an effective smooth manner.
▪ If, however, it is not giving a satisfactory performance it is indicative of the tool failure
and the same is reflected by the following adverse effects observed during the
operation.
1. Extremely poor surface finish on the work piece.
2. Higher consumption of power.
3. Work dimensions not being produced as specified.
4. Overheating of cutting tool.
5. Appearance of a burnishing band on the work surface.
▪ During the operation, a cutting tool may fail due to one or more of the following
reasons:
1. Thermal cracking and softening
2. Mechanical chipping
77
3. Gradual wear
Tool Failure due to Thermal cracking and softening:
▪ Due to the heat generated during the process of metal cutting the tool tip and the
area closer to the cutting edge becomes very hot.
▪ Although the cutting tool material is quite hard to withstand this temperature, still
every tool material has a certain limit to which it can withstand the elevated
temperature without losing its hardness.
▪ If that limit crossed, the tool material starts deforming plastically at the tip and
adjacent to the cutting edge under the action of the cutting pressure and the high
temperature.
▪ Thus the tool loses its cutting ability and is said to have failed due to softening.
▪ The main factors responsible for creating such conditions of tool failure are cutting
speed, high feed rate, excessive depth of cut, smaller nose radius and choice of a
wrong tool material.

78
Tool Failure due to Thermal cracking and softening:
▪ The temperature ranges within which the common tool materials can successfully
operate without losing their hardness are:
▪ Carbon tool steels: 2000C -2500C
▪ High speed steels: 5600C-6000C
▪ Cemented carbides: 8000C -10000C
▪ On account of fluctuations in temperatures and severe temperature gradients the
tool material is subjected to local expansion and contraction.
▪ This gives rise to the setting up of temperature stresses or thermal stress, due to
which cracks are developed in the material.
▪ These cracks, known as thermal cracks, start from the cutting edge and extend in
words.
▪ The tool failure due to this aspect is known as failure due to thermal cracking.

79
Tool Failure due to Mechanical chipping:
▪ Mechanical chipping of the nose and/or the
cutting edge of the tool are commonly
observed causes of tool failure.
▪ The common reasons for such failure are too
high cutting pressure, mechanical impact,
Excessive wear, too high vibration and chatter,
weak tip and weak cutting edge, etc.
▪ This type of failure is more pronounced in
carbide tipped and diamond tool due to the
high brittleness of tool material.

80
Tool Failure due to Gradual wear:
▪ When a tool is in use for sometime it is found to have
lost some weight or mass, implying that it has lost
some material from it, which is due to wear.
▪ Crater wear: The principal region where wear takes
places in a cutting tool is its face, at a small distance
(say ‘a’) from its cutting edge.
▪ This type of wear generally
takes places while
machining ductile materials,
like steel and steel alloys, in
which continuous chip is
produced.

▪ This type of wear, or the formation of crater on the tool face, is due to the pressure of
the hot chip sliding up the face of the tool.
▪ The metal from the tool face is supposed to be transferred to the sliding chip by means
81
of the diffusion process.
Tool Failure - Crater wear:
▪ The shape of the crater formed corresponding to the
shape of the underside of the chip.
▪ The principal dimensions of the formed crater are its
breadth ‘b’ and depth ‘d’ as shown in fig.
▪ A continued growth of crater will result in the cutting edge
of the tool becoming weak and may finally lead to the tool
failure.
▪ Higher feeds and lack of cutting fluids increase the rate of crater wear.

82
Tool Failure - Flank wear:
▪ Another region where an appreciable amount of wear occurs is the
flank below the cutting edge.
▪ It occurs due to abrasion between the tool flank and the work
piece and excessive heat generated as a result of the same.
▪ The entire area subjected to flank wear is known as wear land.
▪ This type of wear mainly occurs on the tool nose, front and side
relief faces.
▪ The magnitude of this wear mainly depends on the relative hardness of the workpiece
and tool materials at the time of cutting operation and also the extent of strain hardening
of the chip.
▪ When the tool is subjected to this type of wear, the workpiece loses its dimensional
accuracy, energy consumption is increased and the surface finish is poor.
▪ The effect of flank wear is expressed in terms of the width (or height) of wear land,
which is dependent on time.
▪ This height is a linear measure and is symbolically denoted by VB, WL, FW83 or hf
millimeters.
Tool Failure - Flank wear:
▪ The total flank wear consists of three main components,
drawn between the wear land height (VB) and time (t).
▪ The first component (A), which exists for a small duration,
represents the period during which initial wear takes places
at a rapid rate.
▪ The second segment (B), which exists for a very long
duration, represents the period during which the wear
progress uniformly.
▪ The last segment (C) represents the region
in which wear occurs at a very rapid rate and
results in total failure of the tool. That is why
this region is also known as the period of
destructive wear.

Effect of Cutting Speed on Flank wear:

84
Mechanism of tool wear:
▪ However, the common mechanisms supposed to be responsible for causing wear are
the following:
1. Abrasion
2. Adhesion
3. Diffusion
4. Chemical wear
▪ Abrasion is a type of mechanical wear.
▪ Under this mechanism, hard particles on the underside of the sliding chip, which are
harder than the tool material, plough into the relatively softer material of the tool face
and remove metal particles by mechanical action.
▪ The hard particles present on the underside of the chip may be:
▪ Fragments of hard tool material.
▪ Broken pieces of built-up edge, which are strain hardened.
▪ Extremely hard constituents, like carbides, oxides, scales, etc., present in the work
material. 85
Mechanism of tool wear:
▪ Adhesion wear: It is due to the excessive pressure a lot of friction
occurs between the sliding surface of the chip and the tool face.
▪ This gives rise to an extremely high localized temperature, causing
metallic bond between the materials of the tool faces and the chip.
▪ But, the surfaces of both the chip underside and the tool face,
although appear to be smooth apparently, are microscopically
rough.
▪ Due to the excessively high temperature at the chip-tool interface a metallic bond takes
places between the chip material and tool materials at the contact points, in the form of
small spot welds, as shown in the diagram. When the chip slides, these small welds are
broken. But this separation is not along the line of contact.
▪ A small portion of the welded tool contact is also carried away by the sliding chip. Thus,
small particles from the tool face continue to be separated through this phenomenon so
transferred from the tool face to the chip will depended upon the contact area and
relative hardness of chip and the tool materials.
86
Mechanism of tool wear:
Diffusion wear:
▪ Solid state diffusion, which consists of transfer of atoms in a metal crystal lattice, is
another cause of wear.
▪ This transfer of atoms takes places at elevated temperature from the area of high
concentration to that of low concentration.
▪ The favorable condition for diffusion is provided by the rise in localized temperature
over the actual contact area between the chip underside and the tool faces.
▪ In such a condition, the tool material transfer to the chip material at the points of
contact. This weakens the surfaces structure of the cutting tool and may ultimately lead
to tool failure.
▪ The amount of diffusion depends upon:
a) Temperature at the contact area between the tool faces and the chip
b) The period of contact between the tool face and the chip.
c) The bonding affinity between the materials of the tool and the chip.
87
Mechanism of tool wear:
Chemical wear
▪ This type ware occurs when such a cutting fluid is used in the process of metal
cutting which is chemically active to the material of the tool.
▪ This is clearly the result of chemical reaction taking places between the cutting fluid
and the tool material, leading to a change in the chemical composition of the
surface material of tool.

88
Tool life:
▪ Tool life can be defined as the time interval for which the tool works satisfactorily
between two successive grindings (sharpening).
▪ When the tool wear is increased considerably, the tool loses its ability to cut efficiently
and must be reground.
▪ The tool life can be effectively used as the basis to evaluate the performance of the tool
material, assess machinability of the work piece material and know the cutting
conditions.
There are three common ways of expressing tool life:
a) As time period in minutes between two successive grindings.
b) In terms of number of components machined between two successive grindings.
This mode is commonly used when the tool operates continuously, as in case of
automatic machines.
c) In terms volume of material removed between two successive grindings. This mode
of expression is commonly used when the tool is primarily used for heavy stock
removal. 89
Tool life:
▪ The method of assessing the tool life in terms of the volume of material removed per
unit of time is a practical one and can be easily applied as follows:
▪ Volume of material removed per unit time = π.D. t. f. N mm3/min
Where,
D= dia. of work piece in mm t = depth of cut in mm
f= feed rate in mm/rev N= r.p.m

▪ If ‘T’ be the time in minutes to tool failure,

then the total volume of metal removed to tool failure,
 .D.t. f .N .T mm3  DN
V= m / min
1000
 TotalVolume of metal removed to tool failure :
= V 1000  t  f  T mm3
 Tool life , TL = V .1000.t. f .T mm3
90
Tool life: Taylor’s tool equation
▪ Tool life of a cutting tool may be expressed as: VT n = C
Where,
V= cutting speed in m/min
T=Tool life in min
C= constant (numerically eqaul to cutting speed that gives the tool life in one min)
n= constant (depends on finish, workpiece material and tool material)
▪ Tool life can be defined as the time interval for which the tool works:
257
V = 0.19 m / min
T  f t0.36 0.80
▪ For a give Tool life,
where,
C
V = cutting speed in m / min V = m / min
f t
a b

T = Tool life in min

where,
f = Feed rate in mm / min
C = Acons tan
t = Depth of cut in mm 91
Factors affecting tool life:
1. Cutting speed
2. Feed and depth of cut
3. Tool Geometry
4. Tool material
5. Work material
6. Nature of cutting
7. Rigidity of machine tool and work
8. Use of cutting fluids.

92
Effect of cutting speed, feed & DoC on tool life:
▪ Out of all the others factors, the maximum effect on tool life is of cutting speed.
▪ The tool life varies inversely as the cutting speed, i.e., the higher the cutting speed
smaller the tool life.
▪ An increase in feed and depth of cut reduce the tool life, however, the effect is not so
severe as produced in case of cutting speed.

93
Effect of tool geometry on tool life:
▪ Many geometrical parameters (tool angles) of a cutting tool influence its performance
and life.
▪ For example, the Ranke angle has a mixed effect. The increased rake angle reduce
the cutting force and the amount of heat generation. Obviously, this should help to
increase the life of cutting tool.
▪ But, if it is very large the cutting edge is weakened and also its capacity to conduct heat
is reduced.
▪ Thus, a considerable increase of the positive rake results in reduction of mechanical
strength of the tool and, hence, lowering of tool life.
▪ Since the a above two effects are opposite to each other, for an effectively economical
tool life it is necessary to strike a balance between the two, for which the optimum value
of rake angle needs to be used.
▪ This value varies from -50 to +100.
▪ Cemented carbide and ceramic tools are generally provided negative rake.
94
Effect of tool geometry on tool life:
▪ Similar contradictory effects are observed with the variations in relief angles or
clearance angles.
▪ These angles are provided on the cutting tool to prevent rubbing of tool flank against
the machined work surface.
▪ They, thus, help in a very lowering the amount of heat generated and, therefore,
increasing the tool life.
▪ But a very large relief angle results in weakening of tool and, hence, reduction of tool
life.
▪ Again, therefore, a balance needs to be struck and only an optimum value should be
used.
▪ These angles normally vary from 50 to 80, but in special cases, such as in carbide
tipped tools, a higher value up to 100 can be used to prevent rubbing of shank.

95
Effect of tool geometry on tool life:
▪ The side cutting edge angle or the plane approach angle has a complex effect on tool
life If this angle is smaller, higher speeds can be employed.
▪ A larger end cutting edge angle increase tool life.
▪ Up to a certain optimum value an increase in this angle permits the use of higher
speeds without an adverse effect on tool life.
▪ But, an increase beyond that value will result in reduction of tool life. It generally varies
from 50 to 80.
Some other geometrical parameters effecting the tool
life are:
▪ Inclination angle. Tool life increase with the increase in
this angle up to an optimum value.
▪ Nose radius. While it increase abrasion, it also helps in
improving surface finish and tool strength and, hence,
the tool life.
96
Effect of work material on tool life:
▪ The microstructure of the work material plays a significant role because it directly
effects the hardness of the material.
▪ The increase in cutting temperature and power consumption vary directly as the
hardness of work piece material.
▪ Consequently, higher the hardness of the work material greater will be the tool wear
and, therefore, shorter will be the tool life.
▪ For example, presence of free graphite and ferrite in cast iron and steel imparts
softness to them. Pearlitic structure is harder than this and the martensitic structure is
the hardest.
▪ Similarly, scale formation and presence of oxide layer on the work surface serve as
abrasives and, therefore, have a detrimental effect on tool life.
▪ Adverse effects on tool life are also experienced in machining of pure metal because of
their tendency to stick to the tool face, specially at high temperature.
▪ This results in more friction and, hence, high amount of wear on tool and, therefore, a
shorter tool life. 97
Effect of nature of cutting on tool life:
▪ Tool life is also effected by the nature of cutting i.e. whether it is continuous or
intermittent.
▪ In the latter case, the tool is subjected to repeated impact loading and may give way
much earlier than expected until it is made substantially strong and tough.
▪ In continuous cutting, a similar tool will have a relatively longer life.

Rigidity of machine tool and work:

▪ Both the machine tool and the work piece should remain rigid during the machining
operation.
▪ If not, vibration will take place and then the cutting tool will be subjected to intermittent
cutting instead of continuous cutting.
▪ This will result in impact loading of tool and, therefore, a shorter life.

98
Effect of use of cutting fluids on tool life:
▪ Cutting fluids are used in machining work for helping the efficient performance of the
tool operation.
▪ They are used either in liquid or gaseous form.
▪ They assist in the operation in many ways, such as by cooling the tool and work,
reducing friction, improving surface finish, helping in breaking of chips and washing
them away, etc.
▪ These factors help in improving tool life, permitting higher metal removal rate and
improving the quality of surface finish.

99
Cutting tool materials: Desirable properties
▪ Basic properties that cutting must posses (requirements) are:
1. The material should be harder than the workpiece so that it is able to penetrate into
the workpiece and it should have hot hardness i.e. the ability of material to retain
hardness at elevated temperatures.
2. The coefficient of friction at the tool chip interface should be low for better surface
finish and less wear.
3. The material should have wear resistance to prevent wear and tear of the cutting tool
surface.
4. It should be chemically stable so that it does not react with the workpiece and
chemically inert so that there is no oxidation and hence no scales and pits are formed
on the surface.
5. The material must have sufficient strength and toughness to withstand shocks and
vibrations.
6. The thermal conductivity should be high so that there is heat dissipation which is
generated during the machining process thereby increasing the life of the cutting100
tool.
Cutting tool materials:
▪ Types of cutting tool materials:
1. High Speed Steel (HSS)
2. Cast cobalt (Stellite)
3. Carbides
4. Ceramics
5. Diamond

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Cutting Tool Materials: High Speed Steel (HSS)
▪ These are special alloy steels which are obtained by alloying tungsten, Chromium,
Vanadium, Cobalt and Molybdenum with steel.
HSS compositions:
a) 18-4-1 HSS i.e. 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium with a carbon content of 0.6 -
0.7%. If vanadium is 2% it becomes 18-4-2 HSS.
b) Cobalt high speed steel: This is also referred to as super high speed steel. Cobalt is
added 2 – 15%. The most common composition is tungsten 20%, 4% chromium, 2%
vanadium and 12% cobalt.
c) Molybdenum high speed steel: It contains 6% tungsten, 6% molybdenum, 4% chromium
and 2% vanadium.
▪ The main advantages of HSS is in their high hardness, hot hardness, good wear
resistance, high toughness, and reasonable cost.
▪ Especially suited to applications involving complicated tool geometries, such as the most
widely used tool material today for taps, drills, reamers, gear tools, end cutters, slitting,
broaches, etc. 102
Cutting Tool Materials: Stellite
▪ It is a non-ferrous alloy consisting of mainly cobalt, tungsten and chromium.
▪ This material retain their hardness even at elevated temperatures and at high
cutting speeds than HSS.
▪ It has good shock and wear resistances and retain its hardness at red heat upto
920oC.
▪ Tools made of stellite are capable of operating at speeds upto 2 times more than
those of HSS tools.

103
Cutting Tool Materials: Carbides
▪ Cemented carbides are formed by the mixture of tungsten, titanium or tantalum
with carbon.
▪ They are able to retain this hardness at elevated temperatures up to 1000oC.
▪ These can retain their hardness to much higher temperatures and as a result the
cutting speeds used are 3 to 6 times that of HSS.
▪ Higher Young’s modulus results in stiffer cutting tools with less tendency towards
chatter.
▪ However, carbides are more brittle and expensive.
▪ The usual composition of the straight-grade carbides is: 6 wt.% Co and 94 wt.%
WC with the cobalt composition ranging from 5 to 12 wt.%.

104
Cutting Tool Materials: Ceramics
▪ Ceramics are essentially alumina (Al2O3) based high-refractory materials
introduced specifically for high-speed machining of difficult-to-cut materials and
cast iron.
▪ These can withstand very high temperature, are chemically more stable and have
higher wear resistance than the other cutting-tool materials.
▪ Therefore these materials can be used for machining at very high speeds of the
order of 10m/s.
▪ Apart from the pure Al2O3 based ceramics, sometimes other materials such as
titanium carbide (TiC), titanium nitride (TiN) and titanium diboride (TiB2) are added
to enhance the transverse rupture strength, hardness and thermal shock
resistance.
▪ Ceramic tools can be used for very high cutting speeds on steels.
▪ Typical products that can be machined are brake discs, brake drums, cylinder
liners and fly wheels. 105
Cutting Tool Materials: Diamond
▪ Diamond is the hardest material known and used as cutting tool material.
▪ It is brittle and offers a low resistance to shock, but is highly wear resistant.
▪ On account of the above factors diamonds are employed for only light cuts on
material like bakelite, carbon, plastics, aluminum and brass, etc.
▪ Because of their low coefficient of friction they produce a high grade of surface
finish.
▪ However, on account of their excessively high
cost and the demerits narrated above, they find
only a confined use in tool industry.
▪ They are used in the form of bits inserted or
held in a suitably designed wheel or bar.
▪ Diamond particles are used in diamond wheels
and laps.
106
Machinability:
▪ Machinability of a material gives the idea of the ease with which it can be
machined.
▪ The parameters generally influencing the machinability of a material are:
1. Physical properties of the material
2. Mechanical properties of the material
3. Chemical composition of the material
4. Micro-structure of the material
5. Cutting conditions

107
Machinability:
▪ Since this property (machinability) of the material depends on various variable
factors, it is not possible to evaluate the same in terms of precise numerical values,
but as a relative quantity. The criteria of determining the same may be as follows:
1. Tool life - The longer the tool life it enables at a given cutting speed the better is
the machinability.
2. Surface finish – It is also directly proportional i.e., the better the surface finish the
higher is the machinability.
3. Power consumption – Lower power consumption per unit of metal removed
indicates better machinability.
4. Cutting forces – The lesser the amount of cutting force required for the removal of
a certain volume of metal or the higher the volume of metal removed under
standard cutting forces the higher will be the machinability.
5. Shear angle – Larger shear angle denotes better machinability.
6. MRR - Rate of metal removal under standard cutting conditions. 108
Machinability index:
▪ The machinability of a material is a relative quantity.
▪ The machinability for different materials are compared in terms of their
machinability indexes.
▪ The machinability index of free cutting steel serves as datum, with reference to
which all other machinability indexes are compared and the machinability index of
this steel is taken as 100%.
▪ For computing the machinability index of any other material the following
relationship used.

Material Machinability Index (%) Material Machinability index (%)

Stainless steel 25 Red brass 180
Low carbon steel 55-65 Aluminum alloys 300-1500
Copper 70 Magnesium alloys 500-2000 109
Economics machining:
▪ The basic endeavour in any production process is to produce an acceptable
component at the minimum possible cost.
▪ In order to achieve this objective in metal cutting, optimizing the tool life in order to
minimize the production cost is one of the attempts.
▪ If cutting speed is reduced in order to enhance the tool life the metal removal rate
is also reduced and, therefore, the production cost is increased.
▪ A similar effect is observed if effort is made to increase tool life by reducing the feed
rate and depth of cut.
▪ Against this, if effort is made to increase the metal removal rate by substantially
increasing the cutting speed, feed and depth of cut, the tool life shortens and,
therefore, tooling cost increase and so the total production cost also increase.
▪ A balance is, therefore, required to be struck and a reasonable (optimum) cutting
speed determined, corresponding to which an economical tool life will be ensured
and an economical production will result. 110
Economics machining:

111
Economics machining:

112
Tool life:
1. A throw away carbide insert was used to machine a steel work piece with a cutting
speed of 60 m/min and tool life 40 min when the speed was increased to 100 m/min the
tool life was reduced to 10 min.
(i) The cutting speed for maximum productivity, if the tool change time is 2 min.
(ii) The tool life for maximum productivity, if the tool change time is 2 min.

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Economics machining:

114
Economics machining:

115
Economics machining:

116
Economics machining:

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Economics machining:

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Economics machining:

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