Vector Functions

We are familiar with real valued functions whose values is a real number. This module
introduces vector-valued functions whose values are vectors. We will use the calculus of
vector-valued functions to describe the motion of objects in a plane or in space.

1 Vector-Valued Function

a domain, which is a subset of ℝ, and a rule, which assigns to each number in the domain
Definition 1. A vector-valued function (or simply, vector function) consists of two parts:

one and only one vector.

The rule is usually given as a formula. The formula of the function can be expressed as

⃗ = 𝑥(𝑡)i ⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡)j ⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡)k⃗ = ⟨𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)⟩

r(𝑡)

where the functions 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) and 𝑧(𝑡) are real-valued functions of the parameter 𝑡. The
functions 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) and 𝑧(𝑡) are called the component functions or the components of
⃗
r(𝑡).

The domain of r ⃗ consists of all values of 𝑡 for which the expression for r(𝑡)
⃗ is defined.
⃗ is 𝒟(𝑥) ∩ 𝒟(𝑦) ∩ 𝒟(𝑧).
Therefore, the domain of r(𝑡)

The range (or image) of a vector-valued function is a curve in space.

Example 1.

(a) ⃗ = √𝑡 i ⃗ + 𝑡 j ⃗ are
The component functions of r(𝑡)

𝑥(𝑡) = √𝑡, 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡

1
⃗ = (1 + 2𝑡)i ⃗ + 3𝑡 j ⃗ + k⃗ are
𝑡
(b) The component functions of r(𝑡)

1
𝑥(𝑡) = 1 + 2𝑡, 𝑦(𝑡) = 3𝑡, 𝑧(𝑡) =
𝑡

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 Vector Functions

Graphs of Vector-Valued Functions

⃗ is a vector-valued function in 2-space or 3-space, then we define the graph of r(𝑡)
⃗ to
⃗
If r(𝑡)
be the parametric curve described by the component functions for r(𝑡).

(𝑥(𝑡0 ), 𝑦(𝑡0 ))

⃗ 0 ) = ⟨𝑥(𝑡0 ), 𝑦(𝑡0 )⟩
𝐶
r(𝑡

⃗ = 𝑥(𝑡)i ⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡)j ⃗ consists of the set of all points

(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡)) and curve 𝐶 is called a plane curve.
• The graph of a vector-valued function r(𝑡)

𝑧
𝐶

𝑃(𝑥(𝑡0 ), 𝑦(𝑡0 ), 𝑧(𝑡0 ))

⃗ 0 ) = ⟨𝑥(𝑡0 ), 𝑦(𝑡0 ), 𝑧(𝑡0 )⟩

r(𝑡

𝑦
𝑥

⃗ = 𝑥(𝑡)i ⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡)j ⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡)k⃗ consists of the set of all

points (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)) and curve 𝐶 is called a space curve.
• The graph of a vector-valued function r(𝑡)

Any representation of a plane curve or space curve using a vector-valued function is called
a vector parameterization of the curve.

Remark.

plot points (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡)) or (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)) to produce a graph, which each point rep-
• Vector-valued functions are closely related to parametric equations of graphs. We

resents a vector in the context of vector functions.

• Parametric equations for a curve are equations of the form

𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡), and 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡)

that describe the (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) coordinates of a point on a curve in ℝ3 .

2
 Vector Functions

Example 2 (Sketching a Plane Curve). Sketch the plane curve represented by the vector-

⃗ = 2 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ − 3 sin 𝑡 j,⃗ 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋.

valued function
r(𝑡)
Solution:

⃗
Method I: We start with a table of values 𝑡 and r(𝑡), ⃗ (green
then graph each of vectors r(𝑡)
dotted arrow) and connect the terminal points of each vector to form a curve (red curve).

𝑡 ⃗ 𝑦
2i ⃗ 3𝜋
r(𝑡)
𝑡=
√ 2
0
𝜋 √2i ⃗ − 3 2 j ⃗
4 2 5𝜋 3 7𝜋
𝜋 𝑡= 𝑡=
−3j ⃗ 4 4
2
3𝜋 3 √2 ⃗ 2
−√2i ⃗ −
4 2
j
𝜋 −2i ⃗ 1
5𝜋 3√2 ⃗ 𝑡=𝜋 𝑡=0
−√2i ⃗ +
4 2 𝑥
j
3𝜋
3j ⃗ −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
2
7𝜋 √
√2 i ⃗ + 3 2 j ⃗ −1
4 2 3𝜋 𝜋
2𝜋 2i ⃗ 𝑡= 𝑡=
4 −2 4
𝜋
𝑡=
−3 2

⃗ = 2 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ − 3 sin 𝑡 j,⃗

𝐶 ∶ r(𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

⃗ = 2 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ − 3 sin 𝑡 j,⃗ 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋 is the ellipse. The curve has a clockwise

orientation, i.e., as 𝑡 increases from 0 to 2𝜋, the position vector r(𝑡) ⃗ moves clockwise and its
The graph of r(𝑡)

terminal point traces the ellipse.

⃗ the corresponding parametric equations are 𝑥(𝑡) =

⃗ ). Solving for cos 𝑡 and sin 𝑡 using the
2 cos 𝑡, 𝑦(𝑡) = −3 sin 𝑡 (component functions of r(𝑡)
Method II: From the position vector r(𝑡),

𝑥2 𝑦2
identity cos2 𝑡 + sin2 𝑡 = 1 produces the ellipse equation 2 + 2 = 1
2 3

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 Vector Functions

We make a table of 𝑥 and 𝑦 values with enough 𝑡 values. Plotting these points and sketch the
full graph.

𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡)
0 2 0
𝜋 √2 −3√2
4
𝜋 2
−3
2
0
3𝜋 −3√2
−√2
4 2
𝜋 −2 0
5𝜋 √
3 2
−√2
4 2
3𝜋
2
0 3
7𝜋 √2 3√2
4 2
2𝜋 2 0

𝜋 𝑦
𝑡= , (0, 3)
2
3
7𝜋
𝑡= , (1.41, −2.12)
3𝜋 4
𝑡= , (−1.41, 2.12) 2
4

𝑡 = 𝜋, (−2, 0) 𝑡 = 0, (2, 0)
𝑥
−3 −1 1 3

−1

−2
5𝜋 𝜋
𝑡= , (−1.41, −2.12) 𝑡= , (−1.41, −2.12)
4 4
−3
3𝜋
𝑡= , (0, −3)
2
⃗ = 2 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ − 3 sin 𝑡 j ⃗
𝐶 ∶ r(𝑡)

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 Vector Functions

Example 3 (Sketching a Space Curve). Sketch the space curve represented by the vector-

⃗ = 2 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ + 2 sin 𝑡 j ⃗ + 𝑡 k,⃗ 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4𝜋.

valued function
r(𝑡)
Solution: The parametric equations for this curve are

𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑡, 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑡.

𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑧(𝑡) Point 𝐶 12 𝑧

H
𝜋 𝜋
0 2 0 0 A

2 2
0 2 B
𝜋 𝜋 10
G

3𝜋 3𝜋
-2 0 C

2 2
0 -2 D
2𝜋 2𝜋
5𝜋 5𝜋 8
2 0 E

2 2
F
0 2 F
3𝜋 3𝜋
7𝜋 7𝜋 6
-2 0 G

2 2
0 -2 E
4𝜋 4𝜋
D
0 2
4
C

2
B
−2
−2 −1 𝑦
𝑥 A 1 2
2

As the parameter 𝑡 increases, the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) moves upward in a spiral shape wraps
around the circular cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4. This curve is called a circular helix.

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 Vector Functions

Example 4. Match the vector functions with the graphs (labeled I-VI).

(a) ⃗ = ⒧𝑡 2 − 1⒭ i ⃗ + (2𝑡 − 3)j,⃗ −𝜋 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝜋

r(𝑡)
(b) ⃗ = (𝑡 − 2 sin 𝑡)i ⃗ + ⒧𝑡 2 ⒭ j,⃗ −𝜋 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝜋
r(𝑡)
(c) ⃗ = (cos 2𝑡)i ⃗ + (sin 2𝑡)j ⃗ + k,⃗ 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
r(𝑡)
(d) ⃗ = (cos 𝑡)i ⃗ − (cos 𝑡)j ⃗ + sin 𝑡 k,⃗ 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
r(𝑡)

1.2 𝑧

1.1 1 𝑧

1 0.5 𝑦
−0.5 0.5
0.9 𝑦
−0.5
−0.5 −1 0.5𝑥
0.5 −0.5
1
−0.5
0.5𝑥 −1
1
(III)
(I)
𝑦 𝑦
10

8
𝑥
2 4 6 8 6

4
−5
2

𝑥
(II) −10 (IV) −2 2

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 Vector Functions

2 Derivative of Vector-Valued functions

The derivative of a vector-valued function is defined by a limit similar to that for the deriva-
tive of a real-valued function.

⃗ be a vector-valued function. The derivative of r ⃗ is the vector-valued

function r ⃗ (𝑡) defined by
Definition 2. Let r(𝑡)
′

⃗ + Δ𝑡) − r(𝑡)
⃗
r′⃗ (𝑡) = lim
r(𝑡
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡
for all 𝑡 such that the limit exists.
When the limit exists for 𝑡 = 𝑎, we say that r(𝑡) ⃗ is differentiable at 𝑡 = 𝑎.

⃗ + Δ𝑡) − r(𝑡)
r(𝑡 ⃗
⃗
r(𝑡)

⃗ + Δ𝑡)
r(𝑡
𝑦

⃗ are
Other notations for the derivative of r(𝑡)
𝑑 𝑑r⃗
⃗
[r(𝑡)], , r′⃗ (𝑡) r′⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or

When the component functions are differentiable, r′⃗ (𝑡) is obtained by simply differentiating
its component functions.

⃗ = ⟨𝑓(𝑡), 𝑔 (𝑡), ℎ(𝑡)⟩ where 𝑓, 𝑔 and ℎ are differentiable, then

Theorem 1. If r(𝑡)

r′⃗ (𝑡) = ⟨𝑓 ′ (𝑡), 𝑔 ′ (𝑡), ℎ ′ (𝑡)⟩

Higher order derivatives of a vector-valued function are also obtained by successive differ-
entiating its components.

Example 5. Find r′⃗ (𝑡) of r(𝑡)

⃗ = 𝑡 6 , sin 2𝑡, ln(𝑡 + 1).

Solution: According to theorem, we differentiate each component of r ⃗ :

1
r′⃗ (𝑡) = 6𝑡 5 , 2 cos 2𝑡, 
𝑡+1

7
 Vector Functions

Example 6. Find the derivative of each vector-valued function.

(a) ⃗ = sin ⒧𝑡 2 ⒭ i ⃗ + 𝑒 cos 𝑡 j ⃗ + 𝑡 ln 𝑡 k⃗

r′⃗ (𝑡) where r(𝑡)
(b) ⃗ = ⒧3𝑡 2 − 4𝑡⒭ i ⃗ + 4j ⃗ + ⒧−𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡 ⒭ k⃗
r′′⃗ (𝑡) where r(𝑡)
1
⃗ = (cos 𝑡 + 𝑡 sin 𝑡)i ⃗ + (sin 𝑡 − 𝑡 cos 𝑡)j ⃗ + k⃗
r′′⃗ (𝑡) where r(𝑡)
𝑡
(c)

Solution:

⃗ is a differentiable vector function with respect to 𝑠 and

⃗ with respect
𝑠 = 𝑢(𝑡) is a differentiable scalar function with, then the derivative of r(𝑠)
Theorem 2 (Chain rule). If r(𝑠)

to 𝑡 is
𝑑 r ⃗ 𝑑 r ⃗ 𝑑𝑠
= = r′⃗ (𝑠)𝑢′ (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡

⃗ = (cos 2𝑠)i ⃗ + (sin 2𝑠)j ⃗ + 𝑒 −3𝑠 k,⃗ where 𝑠 = 𝑡 4 then

Example 7. If r(𝑠)

𝑑 r ⃗ 𝑑 r ⃗ 𝑑𝑠
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡
= (−2 sin 2𝑠)i ⃗ + (2 cos 2𝑠)j ⃗ − 3𝑒 −3𝑠 k⃗ ⒧4𝑡 3 ⒭
= −8𝑡 3 ⒧sin 2𝑡 4 ⒭ i ⃗ + 8𝑡 3 ⒧cos 2𝑡 4 ⒭ j ⃗ − 12𝑡 3 𝑒 −3𝑡 k⃗
4

8
 Vector Functions

Velocity, Acceleration and Speed

Definition 3. If 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are twice-differentiable functions of 𝑡, and r ⃗ is a position func-

⃗
⃗ = 𝑥(𝑡)i+𝑦(𝑡) ⃗ k,⃗ then the velocity
vector, acceleration vector and speed of the particle at time 𝑡 are as follows.
tion of a particle moving along a curve given by r(𝑡) j+𝑧(𝑡)

⃗ = r′⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑥 ′ (𝑡)i ⃗ + 𝑦 ′ (𝑡)j ⃗ + 𝑧 ′ (𝑡)k⃗

⃗ = r′′⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑥 ′′ (𝑡)i ⃗ + 𝑦 ′′ (𝑡)j ⃗ + 𝑧 ′′ (𝑡)k⃗
Velocity: v(𝑡)
Acceleration: a(𝑡)
‖v(𝑡)‖
⃗ = r′⃗ (𝑡) = [𝑥 ′ (𝑡)] + [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)] + [𝑧 ′ (𝑡)]
2 2 2
Speed:

an object moving along the space curve 𝐶 given by

Example 8 (Sketching Velocity and Acceleration Vectors in Space). Sketch the path of

⃗ = 𝑡 i ⃗ + 𝑡 3 j ⃗ + 3𝑡 k,⃗
r(𝑡) 𝑡≥0

and find the velocity and acceleration vectors when 𝑡 = 1.

Solution:

𝑧
6
⃗
v(1)

2 (1, 1, 3) ⃗
−4
a(1)

−2
−2
0 2
2 4
𝑦
4

9
 Vector Functions

Differentiation Rules
The differentiation formulas for real-valued functions have analogs in the context of differ-
entiating vector-valued functions.

Theorem 3. Let r1⃗ (𝑡) and r2⃗ (𝑡) be differentiable vector-valued function, 𝑢(𝑡) be a differ-
entiable real-valued function and 𝑐 be a scalar. Then
𝑑
r ⃗ (𝑡) + r2⃗ (𝑡) = r′1⃗ (𝑡) + r′2⃗ (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 1
1.

𝑑
𝑐 r1⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑐 r′1⃗ (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
2.

𝑑
𝑢(𝑡)r1⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡)r′1⃗ (𝑡) + 𝑢′ (𝑡)r1⃗ (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
3.

𝑑
r ⃗ (𝑡) ⋅ r2⃗ (𝑡) = r′1⃗ (𝑡) ⋅ r2⃗ (𝑡) + r1⃗ (𝑡) ⋅ r′2⃗ (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 1
4.

𝑑
r ⃗ (𝑡) × r2⃗ (𝑡) = r′1⃗ (𝑡) × r2⃗ (𝑡) + r1⃗ (𝑡) × r′2⃗ (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 1
5.

⃗ is differentiable. Find the derivative of ‖r(𝑡)‖.

Example 9. Suppose r(𝑡) ⃗
⃗
Solution: Since ‖r(𝑡)‖ is a real-valued function of 𝑡, then by the chain rule for real-valued
function, we know that

𝑑 𝑑
⃗ 2 = 2‖r(𝑡)‖
‖r(𝑡)‖ ⃗ ⃗
‖r(𝑡)‖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗ 2 = r(𝑡)
But ‖r(𝑡)‖ ⃗ ⋅ r(𝑡),
⃗ therefore

𝑑 𝑑
⃗ 2 = [r(𝑡)
‖r(𝑡)‖ ⃗ ⋅ r(𝑡)]
⃗ = r′⃗ (𝑡) ⋅ r(𝑡)
⃗ + r(𝑡)
⃗ ⋅ r′⃗ (𝑡) = 2r′⃗ (𝑡) ⋅ r(𝑡)
⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑
Hence, we have
⃗
2‖r(𝑡)‖ ⃗
‖r(𝑡)‖ = 2r′⃗ (𝑡) ⋅ r(𝑡)
⃗
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 r′⃗ (𝑡) ⋅ r(𝑡)
⃗
⃗
If ‖r(𝑡)‖ ≠ 0 then ⃗
‖r(𝑡)‖ =
𝑑𝑡 ⃗
‖r(𝑡)‖
.

⃗
Theorem 4. If ‖r(𝑡)‖ ⃗
≠ 0, then ‖r(𝑡)‖ is constant if and only if r′⃗ (𝑡) ⟂ r(𝑡)
⃗ for all 𝑡.

𝑑
⃗
Proof. ‖r(𝑡)‖ ⃗
‖r(𝑡)‖ = 0.
𝑑𝑡
is constant if and only if
r ⃗ (𝑡) ⋅ r(𝑡)
′
⃗
= 0.
⃗
‖r(𝑡)‖
From example 9 , we must have
Thus r′⃗ (𝑡) ⋅ r(𝑡)
⃗ = 0, which means that r′⃗ (𝑡) ⟂ r(𝑡).
⃗

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 Vector Functions

Smooth Curves
⃗ be a vector function. We say that r(𝑡) ⃗ is a smooth

Definition 4 (Smooth Curves). Let r(𝑡)
function if r ⃗ (𝑡) is continuous and r ⃗ (𝑡) ≠ 0 for all 𝑡 on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
′ ′

A curve 𝐶 is said to be smooth curve if it is trace out by a smooth function r(𝑡). ⃗ Geomet-
rically, a smooth curve has no corners or cusps.

Example 10. Find the intervals on which the curve 𝐶 given by

⃗ = (5 cos 𝑡 − cos 5𝑡)i ⃗ + (5 sin 𝑡 − sin 5𝑡)j,⃗

r(𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

is smooth.
Solution: The derivative of r ⃗ is

r′⃗ (𝑡) = (−5 sin 𝑡 + 5 sin 5𝑡)i ⃗ + (5 cos 𝑡 − 5 cos 5𝑡)j ⃗

𝜋 3𝜋
In the interval [0, 2𝜋], the only values of 𝑡 for which r′⃗ (𝑡) = 0i ⃗ + 0j ⃗ are 𝑡 = 0, , 𝜋, and 2𝜋.
2 2
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋
Therefore, 𝐶 is smooth in the intervals ⒧0, ⒭ , ⒧ , 𝜋⒭ , ⒧𝜋, ⒭ and ⒧ , 2𝜋⒭.
2 2 2 2
𝑦

6
𝜋
𝑡=
4 2

𝑡=𝜋 𝑡=0
0 𝑥
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6

−2

−4 3𝜋
𝑡=
2
−6

⃗ = (5 cos 𝑡 − cos 5𝑡) i ⃗ + (5 sin 𝑡 − sin 5𝑡) j ⃗

r(𝑡)

Note: The curve is not smooth at points at which the curve makes abrupt changes in direc-
tion. The point where a curve has a sharp point or corner is called a cusp or node.

11
 Vector Functions

Example 11.

(a) Determine the open intervals for

⃗ = 3 cos3 𝑡, 3 sin3 𝑡
r(𝑡)

is smooth on [0, 2𝜋].

(b) Determine whether the curved represented by

⃗ = 𝑡 3 , 5𝑡 2 
r(𝑡)

is smooth on (−∞, ∞) ?

Solution:

(a) (b)

𝑦 𝑦
12
𝜋
3 𝑡=
2 10

8
1
𝑡=𝜋 𝑡=0 6
𝑥
−3 −2 −1 1 3
−1 4

−2 ⃗ = 𝑡 3 i ⃗ + 5𝑡 2 j ⃗
2
r(𝑡)

−3 3𝜋
𝑡= 𝑥
2 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6

−2
⃗ = 3 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ + sin 𝑡 j ⃗
r(𝑡) 3 3

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 Vector Functions

Geometric Interpretation of r′⃗ (𝑡)

Tangent Vector and Tangent Line
Recall that the derivative of a real-valued function at a point can be interpreted as the slope
of the tangent line to the graph at that point. Similarly, the derivative of a vector-valued
function is a tangent vector to the curve represented by the function.

⃗ + Δ𝑡) − r(𝑡)
r(𝑡 ⃗
⃗
r(𝑡) 𝑄
𝐶
⃗ + Δ𝑡)
r(𝑡
𝑦

𝑥

(a) The secant vector 𝑃𝑄
𝑧

r′⃗ (𝑡)
𝑃
⃗ + Δ𝑡) − r(𝑡)
r(𝑡 ⃗
Δ𝑡
⃗
r(𝑡) 𝑄
𝐶
⃗ + Δ𝑡)
r(𝑡
𝑦

𝑥
(b) The tangent vector r′⃗ (𝑡)

Let the points 𝑃 and 𝑄 have position vector r(𝑡) ⃗ and r(𝑡⃗ + Δ𝑡), then 𝑃𝑄  represents the vector
1
⃗ + Δ𝑡) − r(𝑡)
⃗ (Figure a). If Δ𝑡 > 0, the scalar multiple ⃗ + Δ𝑡) − r(𝑡))
(r(𝑡 ⃗
Δ𝑡
r(𝑡 has the same
⃗ + Δ𝑡) − r(𝑡).
⃗ As Δ𝑡 → 0, this vector approaches a vector r′⃗ (𝑡) that lies on the
tangent line (Figure b). If r ⃗ (𝑡) exits and r′⃗ (𝑡) ≠ 0, then we call r′⃗ (𝑡) the tangent vector to the
direction as r(𝑡
′

curve 𝐶 at 𝑃, and we call the line through 𝑃 parallel to r′⃗ (𝑡) the tangent line to 𝐶 at 𝑃.

13
 Vector Functions

Equation of the Tangent Line

⃗ at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 is the line
through r ⃗ (𝑡0 ) with direction parallel to r′⃗ (𝑡0 ) is
Definition 5. An equation of the tangent line to the graph of r(𝑡)

⃗ = r ⃗ (𝑡0 ) + 𝑡 r′⃗ (𝑡0 )

r(𝑡)

⃗ = 𝑡 2 , 𝑡 3  at 𝑡 = −1 and 𝑡 = 0.
Example 12. Find the equation of the lines tangent to r(𝑡)

Solution: We differentiate each component of r ⃗ ∶

r′⃗ (𝑡) = 2𝑡, 3𝑡 2 .

⃗
At 𝑡 = −1, we have r(−1) = ⟨1, −1⟩ and r′⃗ (−1) = ⟨−2, 3⟩, so the equation of the line tangent to
⃗ at 𝑡 = −1 is
⃗ = ⟨1, −1⟩ + 𝑡⟨−2, 3⟩.
the graph of r(𝑡)
r(𝑡)

3
⃗ = 𝑡2 i ⃗ + 𝑡3 j ⃗
r(𝑡)
2
tangent line

𝑥
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
𝑡 = −1
−2

−3

−4

⃗ = ⟨0, 0⟩ and r′⃗ (0) = ⟨0, 0⟩.

At 𝑡 = 0, we have r(0)
This implies that the tangent line has no direction, hence cannot find the equation of the
tangent line.

14
 Vector Functions

Example 13. Find parametric equations of the tangent line to the graph of the curve 𝐶
whose parametric equations are

𝑥 = 𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 − 𝑡, 𝑧 = −7𝑡 at 𝑡 = 3.

𝑧
Solution:
80
tangent line

60

40
−80

−60
20 −40
−80
−60 −20
−40
−20

20 20
40
40
60
60 −20 80 𝑦
100
80 (9, 6, −21); 𝑡 = 3
100
𝑥 −40

−60

−80

15
 Vector Functions

⃗ = √𝑡 i ⃗ + (2 − 𝑡)j,⃗ and
⃗ and the tangent vector r ⃗ (1).
Example 14. Find equation for the tangent line to the curve r(𝑡)
′
sketch the position vector r(1)
Solution:

𝑦
3

2.5

1.5
(1, 1)
1

0.5 ⃗
r(1) r′⃗ (1)

𝑥
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
−0.5

−1 ⃗
r(𝑡)

−1.5

16
 Vector Functions

Unit Tangent Vector

Definition 6. Let 𝐶 be a smooth curve represented by r ⃗ on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏). The
⃗ at 𝑡 is defined as
unit tangent vector T(𝑡)

⃗ = r ⃗ (𝑡) ,
′
r′⃗ (𝑡) ≠ 0
r′⃗ (𝑡)
T(𝑡)

Example 15. Find the unit tangent vector of

⃗ = ⒧1 + 𝑡 3 ⒭ i ⃗ + 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 j ⃗ + sin 2𝑡 k⃗
r(𝑡)

at the point where 𝑡 = 0.

Solution: We differentiate each component of r ⃗ :

r′⃗ (𝑡) = 3𝑡 2 i ⃗ + (1 − 𝑡)𝑒 −𝑡 j ⃗ + 2 cos 2𝑡 k⃗

⃗ = i ⃗ and r′⃗ (0) = j ⃗ + 2k,⃗ the unit tangent vector at the point (1, 0, 0) is
At 𝑡 = 0, we have r(0)

⃗ r′⃗ (0) j ⃗ + 2k⃗ 1 ⃗ 2 ⃗

= ′ = = j+
r ⃗ (0) √1 + 4 √5 √5
T(0) k

Example 16. Find the unit tangent vector to the curve given by

⃗ = 𝑡i ⃗ + 𝑡2j ⃗
r(𝑡)

when 𝑡 = 1.
Solution:

17
 Vector Functions

3 Length of Space Curve

⃗
⃗ = 𝑥(𝑡)i+𝑦(𝑡)
Definition 7. If 𝐶 is a smooth curve given by r(𝑡) ⃗ k⃗ on an interval [𝑎, 𝑏],
then the length of 𝐶 on the interval is
j+𝑧(𝑡)

𝑏 𝑏
𝐿 =  [𝑥 ′ (𝑡)] + [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)] + [𝑧 ′ (𝑡)] 𝑑𝑡 =  r′⃗ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
2 2 2

𝑎 𝑎

Example 17. Find the length of the curve given by

⃗ = ⟨2𝑡, 3 sin 2𝑡, 3 cos 2𝑡⟩

r(𝑡) for 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋.
Solution:

Example 18. Find the length of the curve given by

4 3 1
⃗ = 𝑡, 𝑡 2 , 𝑡 2  0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2.
3 2
r(𝑡) for

Solution: Since r′⃗ (𝑡) = 1, 2𝑡 2 , 𝑡, we have

1

r′⃗ (𝑡) = 12 + ⒧2𝑡 2 ⒭ + 𝑡 2 = √1 + 4𝑡 + 𝑡 2

1 2

The length of the curve is

2 2 2
 r ⃗ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 =  √1 + 4𝑡 + 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 =  (𝑡 + 2)2 − 3𝑑𝑡
′

0 0 0
2
=  (𝑡 + 2)2 − 3𝑑𝑡
0
𝑡+2 3
2
= (𝑡 + 2)2 − 3 − ln (𝑡 + 2) + (𝑡 + 2)2 − 3
2 2 0
3 3
= 2√13 − ln(4 + √13) − 1 + ln 3 ≈ 4.816 units
2 2
𝑢√ 2 𝑎2
Formula :  √𝑢2 − 𝑎 2 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 − 𝑎2 − ln 𝑢 + √𝑢2 − 𝑎 2  + 𝐶
2 2

18
 Vector Functions

Arc Length as a Parameter

the choice of parameter, for motion along a curve, the convenient parameter is time 𝑡, for
The curves can be represented by vector-valued functions in different ways, depending on

studying the geometric properties of a curve, the convenient parameter is often arc length 𝑠.

𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥

⃗
r(𝑡) ⃗
r(𝑠)
Time as Parameter Arc Length as a Parameter

⃗
⃗ = 𝑥(𝑡)i+𝑦(𝑡)
Definition 8 (Arc Length Function). If 𝐶 is a smooth curve given by r(𝑡) ⃗ k⃗
defined on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], For 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏, the arc length function is given by
j+𝑧(𝑡)

𝑡 𝑡
𝑠(𝑡) =  r ⃗ (𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 =  [𝑥 ′ (𝜏)] + [𝑦 ′ (𝜏)] + [𝑧 ′ (𝜏)] 𝑑𝜏
′ 2 2 2

𝑎 𝑎

The arc length 𝑠 is called the arc length parameter.

Remark. The arc length function 𝑠 is nonnegative. It measures the distance along 𝐶 from
the initial point (𝑥(𝑎), 𝑦(𝑎), 𝑧(𝑎)) to the point (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)).
Note:

1. Using the definition of the arc length function and the Second Fundamental Theorem

𝑑𝑠
of Calculus, we obtain
= r′⃗ (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
or

𝑑𝑠 = r′⃗ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

⃗ = 𝑥(𝑠)i ⃗ + 𝑦(𝑠)j ⃗ + 𝑧(𝑠)k⃗ where 𝑠 is the arc length

2. If 𝐶 is a smooth curve given by r(𝑠)
parameter, then r ⃗ (𝑠) = 1.
′

19
 Vector Functions

Example 19. Find the arc length parameterization of the helix

⃗ = 2 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ + 2 sin 𝑡 j ⃗ + 𝑡 k,⃗

r(𝑡) 𝑡 ≥ 0.

Solution: Since r′⃗ (𝑡) = −2 sin 𝑡 i ⃗ + 2 cos 𝑡 j ⃗ + k⃗ and r′⃗ (𝑡) = √5 The length of the curve from
⃗ to an arbitrary r(𝑡)
r(0) ⃗ is
𝑡 𝑡
𝑠(𝑡) =  r ⃗ (𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 =  √5𝑑𝜏 = √5𝑡
′
(arc length function)
0 0

Therefore, 𝑠 and 𝑡 are related by 𝑠 = √5𝑡.

𝑠
Using 𝑡 = , a vector equation of the helix can be parameterized in terms of 𝑠 as
√5
𝑠 ⃗ 𝑠 ⃗ 𝑠 ⃗
⃗ = 2 cos i + 2 sin j+
√5 √5 √5
r(𝑠) k.

Parametric equation of the helix are then

𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑥(𝑠) = 2 cos , 𝑦(𝑠) = 2 sin , 𝑧(𝑠) = .
√5 √5 √5

20
 Vector Functions

4 Curvature and Radius of Curvature

calculating the magnitude of the rate of change of the unit tangent vector T⃗ with respect to
Curvature is the measure of how sharply a curve bends. We can calculate curvature by

the arc length 𝑠 (Keep in mind that has constant length, only its direction changes).

Suppose 𝐶 is the graph of a smooth vector-valued function that parameterized in terms of

arc length as shown in figures below.

• If 𝐶 is a straight line ( 𝑛𝑜 bend), then the direction of T⃗ remains constant .

T⃗

T⃗

T⃗

• If 𝐶 bends slightly, then T⃗ undergoes a gradual change of direction.

𝐶
T⃗

T⃗

T⃗

• If 𝐶 bends sharply, then T⃗ undergoes a rapid change of direction.

𝑇⃗
𝑇⃗

𝑇⃗

21
 Vector Functions

⃗
Definition 9 (Curvature). Let 𝐶 be a smooth curve given by r(𝑠), where 𝑠 is the arc length
parameter. The curvature 𝜅 (”kappa”) at 𝑠 is given by

𝑑 T⃗
𝜅(𝑠) =   = T⃗ ′ (𝑠) = r′′⃗ (𝑠)
𝑑𝑠

Formula in terms of a general parameter 𝑡. Using the chain rule, we can write
Since the curve are generally not parameterized by arc length, it is convenient to express

𝑑 T⃗ 𝑑 T⃗ 𝑑𝑠
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 T⃗ 1 𝑑 T⃗
and consequently
𝑑 T⃗
= 𝑑𝑡
= .
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡 r′⃗ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

⃗ then curva-
Theorem 5 (Formulas for Curvature). Let 𝐶 be a smooth curve given by r(𝑡),
ture 𝜅 of 𝐶 at 𝑡 is given by

T⃗ ′ (𝑡) r′⃗ (𝑡) × r′′⃗ (𝑡)

𝜅(𝑡) = =
r′⃗ (𝑡) r′⃗ (𝑡)
3

Example 20. Find 𝜅(𝑡) for the circular helix

𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑡 where 𝑎, 𝑐 > 0

Solution: The vector function for the helix is
⃗ = 𝑎 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ + 𝑎 sin 𝑡 j ⃗ + 𝑐𝑡 k⃗
r(𝑡)

r′⃗ (𝑡) = −𝑎 sin 𝑡 i ⃗ + 𝑎 cos 𝑡 j ⃗ + 𝑐 k⃗

Thus,

r′′⃗ (𝑡) = −𝑎 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ − 𝑎 sin 𝑡 j ⃗

 i⃗ j⃗ k⃗ 

r ⃗ (𝑡) × r ⃗ (𝑡) =  −𝑎 sin 𝑡 𝑎 cos 𝑡 𝑐  = 𝑎𝑐 sin 𝑡 i ⃗ − 𝑎𝑐 cos 𝑡 j ⃗ + 𝑎 2 k⃗
′ ′′

−𝑎 cos 𝑡 −𝑎 sin 𝑡 0

r′⃗ (𝑡) = (−𝑎 sin 𝑡)2 + (𝑎 cos 𝑡)2 + 𝑐 2 = √𝑎 2 + 𝑐 2

Therefore,

r′⃗ (𝑡) × r′′⃗ (𝑡) = (𝑎𝑐 sin 𝑡)2 + (𝑎𝑐 cos 𝑡)2 + 𝑎 4
and

= √𝑎 2 𝑐 2 + 𝑎 4 = 𝑎 √𝑎 2 + 𝑐 2

r′⃗ (𝑡) × r′′⃗ (𝑡) 𝑎 √𝑎 2 + 𝑐 2 𝑎

So
𝜅(𝑡) = = =
r′⃗ (𝑡)
3 3 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2
⒧√𝑎 2 + 𝑐 2 ⒭
Note that 𝜅 does not depend on 𝑡, which tell us that the helix has constant curvature.

22
 Vector Functions

1
⃗
Example 21. Find the curvature of the curve given by 𝑟(𝑇) = 2𝑡 𝑖 ⃗ + 𝑡 2 𝑗 ⃗ − 𝑡 3 𝑘 ⃗
3
Solution:

⃗ = 2 cos 𝑡 𝑖 ⃗ + 3 sin 𝑡 𝑗,⃗ 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

Example 22. Find the curvature of the curve given by 𝑟(𝑡)
𝜋
at 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑡 = .
2
Solution:

23
 Vector Functions

Radius of Curvature

Let 𝐶 be a curve with curvature 𝜅 at point 𝑃. The circle passing through point 𝑃 with radius
1
𝜌 = is called the circle of curvature if the circle lies on the concave side of the curve and
𝜅
shares a common tangent line with the curve at point 𝑃. The radius is called the radius of
curvature at 𝑃, and the center of the circle is called the center of curvature.

Example 23. Find and graph the osculating circle of the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at the origin.
Solution:

24
 Vector Functions

1
Example 24. Find the curvature of the parabola given by 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 at 𝑥 = 2. Sketch
4
the circle of curvature at (2, 1).
Solution:

25
 Vector Functions

5 Unit Normal Vector and Binormal Vector

Unit Normal Vector
⃗ be a smooth space curve with unit tangent vector T(𝑡). ⃗ ⃗
Recall that if ‖r(𝑡)‖
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Let r(𝑡) is constant
then r ⃗ (𝑡) ⟂ r(𝑡),
′
⃗ and because ‖T(𝑡)‖ = 1, therefore T(𝑡) and T (𝑡) are orthogonal vectors.
′

This implies that T⃗ ′ (𝑡) is perpendicular to the tangent line to 𝐶 at 𝑡, so we say that T⃗ ′ (𝑡)
normal to 𝐶 at 𝑡. If T⃗ ′ (𝑡) ≠ 
0, then we can define the principal unit normal vector N(𝑡) ⃗ (or

T⃗ ′ (𝑡)
simply unit normal) as
⃗
N(𝑡) =
T⃗ ′ (𝑡)

Note The unit normal vector is defined only at points where T⃗ ′ (𝑡) ≠ 
0.

There are many vectors at a given point on a smooth curve 𝐶 that are orthogonal to the unit
⃗
tangent vector T(𝑡).

The unit normal vector N(𝑡)⃗ is point in the direction of T⃗ ′ (𝑡) and this vector tells us the
direction the curve is turning at each point (i.e. points inward toward the concave side of
the curve) as shown in figure below.

⃗
Assume that 𝑠 is an arc length parameter for a smooth vector-valued function r(𝑠), it follows
that
⃗′
⃗ = T (𝑠) .
T⃗ ′ (𝑠)
N(𝑠)

26
 Vector Functions

𝑑 T⃗
Since the curvature 𝜅(𝑠) =  , so we have another formula for unit normal vector as
𝑑𝑠
⃗′
⃗ = T (𝑠) = 1 T⃗ ′ (𝑠)
T⃗ ′ (𝑠) 𝜅
N(𝑠)

Binormal Vector
⃗ the vector defined by
If 𝐶 is the graph of a vector-valued function r(𝑡),

B(𝑡) ⃗ × N(𝑡)
⃗ = T(𝑡) ⃗

is called the infinitely many unit vectors orthogonal to 𝐶 at 𝑡. It is perpendicular to both T⃗

and N⃗ and is also a unit vector.

The three unit vectors T,⃗ N⃗ and B⃗ form a right-handed set of mutually orthogonal vectors
called T⃗ N⃗ B-frame
⃗ (or Frenet frame) that moves along the curve as 𝑡 varies.

• The plane of T⃗ and N⃗ (or T⃗ N-plane)

⃗ is called the osculating plane (It is the plane that
contains the curve).

• The plane of N⃗ and B⃗ (or N⃗ B-plane)

⃗ is called the normal plane.

• The plane of T⃗ and B⃗ (or N⃗ B-plane)

⃗ is called the rectifying plane.

27
 Vector Functions

Example 25. The position of a moving particle is given by

⃗ = 2 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ + 2 sin 𝑡 j ⃗ + 3𝑡 k⃗
r(𝑡)

Find the vectors T,⃗ N⃗ and B,⃗ the curvature and an equation of the osculating plane at
2𝜋
𝑡=
3
.

Solution: We compute the ingredients needed for the three unit vectors.
r′⃗ (𝑡) = −2 sin 𝑡 i ⃗ + 2 cos 𝑡 j ⃗ + 3k⃗
r′⃗ (𝑡) = (−2 sin 𝑡)2 + (2 cos 𝑡)2 + 32 = √13
r′⃗ (𝑡) 1
⃗
Unit tangent vector: T(𝑡) = ′ = (−2 sin 𝑡 i ⃗ + 2 cos 𝑡 j ⃗ + 3k)⃗
r ⃗ (𝑡) √13
1
T⃗ ′ (𝑡) = (−2 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ − 2 sin 𝑡 j)⃗
√13
 2 2
′⃗ −2 cos 𝑡 −2 sin 𝑡 2
T (𝑡) = ⎷⒧ ⒭ +⒧ ⒭ =
√13 √13 √13

⃗′
⃗ = T (𝑡) = − cos 𝑡 i ⃗ − sin 𝑡 j ⃗
T⃗ ′ (𝑡)
Unit normal vector : N(𝑡)

 
Binormal vector:

 i⃗ k⃗ j⃗ 
2  2 3  1
⃗ × N(𝑡)
⃗ = T(𝑡) ⃗ = − sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡 = (3 sin 𝑡 i ⃗ − 3 cos 𝑡 j ⃗ + 2k)⃗
 √13 √13 √13  √13
B(𝑡)
− cos 𝑡 − sin 𝑡 0

2𝜋
An equation of the osculating plane at 𝑡 =
3
:

2𝜋 1 2𝜋 ⃗ 2𝜋 ⃗ 1
T⃗ ⒧ ⒭ = ⒧−2 sin i + 2 cos j + 3k⒭⃗ = (−√3i ⃗ − j ⃗ + 3k)⃗
3 √13 3 3 √13
2𝜋 2𝜋 ⃗ 2𝜋 ⃗ 1 ⃗ √3 ⃗
N⃗ ⒧ ⒭ = − cos i − sin j= i−
3 3 3 2 2
j

2𝜋 1 2𝜋 ⃗ 2𝜋 ⃗ 1 3√3 ⃗ 3 ⃗
B⃗ ⒧ ⒭ = ⒧3 sin i − 3 cos j + 2k⒭⃗ = ⒧ i + j + 2k⒭⃗
3 √13 3 3 √13 2 2

2𝜋 T⃗ ′ ⒧ 2𝜋
3 ⒭
𝜅 ⒧ ⒭ = ′ 2𝜋 =2
3 r ⃗ ⒧ 3 ⒭
An equation of the plane through the point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) with normal vector ⟨𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐⟩ is
𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑏 (𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0
2𝜋
The osculating plane at 𝑡 = contains the point (−1, √3, 2𝜋) and the vectors T⃗ and N,⃗ so
3
its normal vector is

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 Vector Functions

2𝜋 1 3√3 ⃗ 3 ⃗ ⃗
B⃗ ⒧ ⒭ = ⒧ i + j + 2k⒭.
3 √13 2 2

Therefore, an equation of the osculating plane is

3√3 3 2
(𝑥 + 1) + (𝑦 − √3) + (𝑧 − 2𝜋) = 0
2√13 2√13 √13

3√3𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 8𝜋
or

𝑧
8

7 2𝜋
𝑡=
3
6

4
𝜋
3 𝑡=
3

1
−2
𝑥 𝑡=0 1 𝑦
2 3
2 −1 4

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 Vector Functions

Example 26. The position of a moving particle is given by the circular helix

⃗ = cos 𝑡 i ⃗ + sin 𝑡 j ⃗ + 𝑡 k⃗
r(𝑡)

𝜋
Find the binormal vectors, the equations of normal plane and osculating plant at the
point ⒧0, 1, ⒭.
2
Solution:

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 Vector Functions

6 Torsion

⃗
How does 𝑑 B/𝑑𝑠 behave in relation to T,⃗ N,⃗ and B⃗ ? From the rule for differentiating a cross
product, we have

𝑑 B⃗ 𝑑
= (T⃗ × N)⃗
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑 N⃗ 𝑑 T⃗
= T⃗ × + × N⃗
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑 N⃗
= T⃗ × + 𝜅 N⃗ × N⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑑 N⃗
= T⃗ ×
𝑑𝑠

𝑑 T⃗ 𝑑 T⃗
Since N⃗ is the direction of , ⒧ ⒭ × N⃗ = 0 and
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

𝑑 B⃗ 𝑑 N⃗ 𝑑 N⃗
= 0 + T⃗ × = T⃗ × .
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

𝑑 B⃗
is orthogonal to T,⃗ since a cross product is orthogonal to its factors.
𝑑𝑠
From this we see that
𝑑 B⃗ 𝑑 B⃗
is also orthogonal to B⃗ (the latter has constant length), it follows that
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Since is orthog-
𝑑 B⃗ 𝑑 B⃗
onal to the plane of B⃗ and T.⃗ In other words, is parallel to N,⃗ so
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
is a scalar multiple
of N.⃗ In symbols,

𝑑 B⃗
= −𝜏N.⃗
𝑑𝑠

The negative sign in this equation is traditional. The scalar 𝜏 is called the torsion along the
curve. Notice that

𝑑 B⃗
⋅ N⃗ = −𝜏N⃗ ⋅ N⃗ = −𝜏(1) = −𝜏.
𝑑𝑠

We use this equation for our next definition.

Definition 10. Let B⃗ = T⃗ × N.⃗ The torsion function of a smooth curve is

𝑑 B⃗
𝜏=− ⋅ N⃗
𝑑𝑠

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 Vector Functions

𝑑 B⃗ 𝑑 B⃗
⋅ N⃗ = −𝜏N⃗ ⋅ N⃗ = −𝜏 or 𝜏=− ⋅ N⃗
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Note:.
𝑑 B⃗ 𝑑 B⃗ 𝑑𝑠
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡
Since , we have that

𝑑 B⃗ 𝑑 B⃗
B⃗ ′ (𝑡)
= 𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡 r′⃗ (𝑡)

Therefore,
1
𝜏(𝑡) = − B⃗ ′ (𝑡) ⋅ N(𝑡)
⃗
r′⃗ (𝑡)

⃗ = 𝑥(𝑡)i ⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡)j ⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡)k.⃗ It can be shown (”in more advanced

Consider a position function r(𝑡)
texts”) that torsion can be computed as
 𝑥̇ 𝑦 ̇ 𝑧 ̇ 
 𝑥̈ 𝑦 ̈ 𝑧 ̈ 
𝑥 ⃛ 𝑦 ⃛ 𝑧̈ r′⃗ (𝑡) ⋅ ⒧r′′⃗ (𝑡) × r′′′
⃗ (𝑡)⒭
𝜏= =
⃗ r′⃗ (𝑡) × r′′⃗ (𝑡)
2 2
v⃗ × a

where v⃗ × a⃗ ≠ 0 and the dots indicate (as is tradition in physics) derivatives with respect
to time 𝑡 ∶ 𝑥̇ = 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡. So the first row of the matrix consists of the components of velocity
r′⃗ (𝑡) = v,⃗ the second row consists of components of acceleration r′′⃗ (𝑡) = a⃗ and the third row
consists of components of jerk r′′′ ⃗ (𝑡).

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 Vector Functions

⃗ = r⃗
Note:. In summary, we have the following formulae:
Position: r(𝑡)

r′⃗ (𝑡) v⃗
Unit tangent vector:
T⃗ = ′ =
r ⃗ (𝑡) v
⃗

⃗
Principal unit normal vector:
𝑑 T/𝑑𝑡
𝑁⃗ =
⃗
𝑑 T/𝑑𝑡

B⃗ = T⃗ × N⃗
Binormal vector:

𝑑 T⃗ v⃗ × a ⃗ r′⃗ (𝑡) × r′′⃗ (𝑡)

Curvature:
𝜅= = =
𝑑𝑠 v ⃗
3
r′⃗ (𝑡)
3

 𝑥̇ 𝑦 ̇ 𝑧 ̇ 
Torsion:

 𝑥̈ 𝑦 ̈ 𝑧 ̈ 
𝑑 B⃗ 𝑥̈ 𝑦 ̈ 𝑧 ̈ 1 𝑑 B⃗
𝜏=− ⋅N= = − ⒧ ⋅ N⒭
𝑑𝑠 ⃗
v⃗ × a
2
⃗ 𝑑𝑡
v

⃗ = 3 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ + 3 sin 𝑡 j ⃗ + 4𝑡 k⃗
Example 27. Determine the torsion of r(𝑡)
Solution:

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 Vector Functions

Exercises
1. Find the domain of the vector function.

⃗ = √4 − 𝑡 2 , 𝑒 −3𝑡 , ln(𝑡 + 1)

(a) r(𝑡)
𝑡−2 ⃗
⃗ = i + sin 𝑡 j ⃗ + ln ⒧9 − 𝑡 2 ⒭ k⃗
𝑡+2
(b) r(𝑡)

⃗ = sin(𝑡) + 2𝑡 + 2, 𝑒 −9𝑡 − 4 cos(𝑡), 𝑡 3 + 6𝑡 × 1 + arctan(𝑡), 7𝑡 4 + 𝑡 − 3, 2 cos(5𝑡).

Find h⃗ ′ (0).
2. Let h(𝑡)

3. Find the velocity, acceleration, and speed of a particle with the given position function.

⃗ = √2𝑡 i ⃗ + 𝑒 𝑡 j ⃗ + 𝑒 −𝑡 k⃗
(a) r(𝑡)
⃗ = 𝑡 2 i ⃗ + 2𝑡 j ⃗ + ln 𝑡 k⃗
(b) r(𝑡)
⃗ = sin 2𝑡 i ⃗ + cos 2𝑡 j ⃗ + √3𝑡 k⃗
(c) r(𝑡)
⃗ = sin 𝑡 i ⃗ + cos 𝑡 j ⃗ + 𝑒 𝑡 k⃗
(d) r(𝑡)
⃗ = (2 + 𝑒 2𝑡 )i ⃗ + (3𝑒 𝑡 )j ⃗ + (1 + 𝑡 2 )k⃗
(e) r(𝑡)
⃗ = (sin2 𝑡)i ⃗ + (cos2 𝑡)j ⃗ + (𝑡)k⃗
(f) r(𝑡)
√2 √7 7
⃗ =( 𝑒 3𝑡 )i ⃗ + ( 𝑒 3𝑡 )j ⃗ + ( )k⃗
9 9 5
(g) r(𝑡)

⃗ = (√3 sin 𝑡)i ⃗ + (√3 cos 𝑡)j ⃗ + (𝑡)k⃗

(h) r(𝑡)

4. Find the unit tangent T,⃗ unit normal N,⃗ binormal vectors B,⃗ curvature 𝜅 and radius of
curvature 𝜌, and torsion 𝜏 of the curve.

⃗ = ⒧𝑒 𝑡 cos 𝑡⒭ i ⃗ + ⒧𝑒 𝑡 sin 𝑡⒭ j ⃗ + k⃗
(a) r(𝑡) at 𝑡 = 0
⃗ = ⒧𝑒 𝑡 cos 𝑡⒭ i ⃗ + ⒧𝑒 𝑡 sin 𝑡⒭ j ⃗ + 𝑒 𝑡 k⃗
(b) r(𝑡) for 𝑡 > 0

⃗ 𝑡2 ⃗ 𝑡3 ⃗
⃗ = 𝑡i + j + k for 𝑡 > 0
2 3
(c) r(𝑡)

⃗ = 𝑡 i ⃗ + 𝑡 j ⃗ + 𝑡 k⃗
(d) r(𝑡) 2 4
at 𝑡 = 1
⃗ = 𝑒 𝑡 i ⃗ + 𝑒 −𝑡 j ⃗ + √2𝑡 k⃗
(e) r(𝑡) at 𝑡 = 1
⃗ = sin(3𝑡)i ⃗ + cos(3𝑡)j ⃗ + 4𝑡 k⃗
(f) r(𝑡) for 𝑡 > 0

5. For 𝑡 ⩾ 0, find a unit vector, as a function of 𝑡, which points in the direction of acceler-
ation given that position is given by

4√2 5/2
⃗ = 𝑡 sin 𝑡 + cos 𝑡, 𝑡 cos 𝑡 − sin 𝑡, 𝑡 
15
r(𝑡)

⃗ = 𝑒 2𝑡 − 3𝑡, sin(2𝑡) − cos(𝑡), 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 + 4 at 𝑡 = 0. Give your

6. Find the tangent line to r(𝑡)
answer in parametric form.

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 Vector Functions

⃗ = sec2 𝑡, 2 sec 𝑡 tan 𝑡, tan2 𝑡

as its velocity function. If at 𝑡 = 0 the particle is at ⟨0, 1, 2⟩ find the position of the par-
7. A particle moving through three dimensional space has r(𝑡)

𝜋
ticle at 𝑡 = .
4
8. Find the arc length of the curve

1
⃗ = 𝑒 2𝑡 , 2𝑡e𝑡 − 2𝑒 𝑡 + 17, 𝑡 3 
3
r(𝑡)

for 0 ⩽ 𝑡 ⩽ 3.

9. Consider a particle traveling along the space curve

⃗ = ⒧𝑒 𝑡 cos(𝑡)⒭ i ⃗ + ⒧𝑒 𝑡 sin(𝑡)⒭ j ⃗ + 2k⃗

r(𝑡)
𝜋
⃗ at 𝑡 =
2
Find a unit tangent vector in the direction of travel of r(𝑡) .

1
⃗ = sin 𝑡, cos 𝑡, 𝑡 2 . Simplify your answer.
10. Find curvature 𝜅(𝑡) for r(𝑡)
2
𝑒𝜋
⃗ = 71 + ln(𝑡 + 1), tan 𝑡 + 2𝑡 + √𝜋, 𝑒 cos 𝑡 − .
11. Find the curvature at time 𝑡 = 0 for r(𝑡) 2 𝑡
6

12. Find the unit tangent, principal unit normal, and binormal vectors for the helix

⃗ = 4 cos 𝑡 i ⃗ + 4 sin 𝑡 j ⃗ + 3𝑡 k⃗
r(𝑡)

at 𝑡 = 𝜋/2. Sketch the helix together with these three mutually orthogonal unit vectors.

35