ASSURANCE

TECHNOLOGIES
PRINCIPLES AND
PRACTICES
ASSURANCE
TECHNOLOGIES
PRINCIPLES AND
PRACTICES
A Product, Process, and System
Safety Perspective

Second Edition

DEV G. RAHEJA
MICHAEL ALLOCCO

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. PUBLICATION

Copyright # 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as
permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior
written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy
fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400,
fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission
should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken,
NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts
in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or
completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales
representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be
suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the
publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including
but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our
Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at
(317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print
may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site
at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Raheja, Dev.
Assurance technologies: principles and practices: a product, process, and system safety perspective/
Dev G. Raheja, Michael Allocco.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-471-74491-7 (cloth)
ISBN-10: 0-471-74491-3 (cloth)
1. Quality assurance. 2. Design, Industrial. 3. Reliability (Engineering). I. Allocco, Michael. II. Title.

TS156.6.R34 2006
658.50 .62—dc22 2005033606

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS

PREFACE xix

CHAPTER 1 ASSURANCE TECHNOLOGIES,

PROFITS, AND MANAGING
SAFETY-RELATED RISKS 1
1.1 Introduction / 1
1.2 Cheaper, Better, and Faster Products / 2
1.3 What Is System Assurance? / 5
1.4 Key Management Responsibilities / 5
1.4.1 Integration / 5
1.4.2 Budget Consistent with Objectives / 5
1.4.3 Managing Risk / 6
1.4.3.1 Managing Safety-Related Risk / 6
1.4.3.2 Risk Assessment / 7
1.4.3.3 Risk Types / 7
1.4.3.4 Risk Terms / 8
1.4.3.5 Risk Knowledge / 8
1.5 Is System Assurance a Process? / 8
1.6 System Assurance Programs / 10
References / 10
Further Reading / 10

v
vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL

CONCEPTS 11
2.1 Probabilistic Designs / 11
2.2 Probability Computations for Reliability, Safety, and Maintainability / 12
2.2.1 Construction of a Histogram and the Empirical
Distribution / 12
2.2.2 Computing Reliability / 14
2.2.3 Failure Rate and Hazard Function / 15
2.3 Normal Distribution / 16
2.4 Log Normal Distribution / 22
2.5 Exponential Distribution / 25
2.6 Weibull Distribution / 29
2.7 Data Analysis with Weibull Distribution / 32
2.8 Discrete Distributions / 36
2.8.1 Binomial Distribution / 37
2.8.2 Poisson Distribution / 38
2.9 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 39
References / 39
Further Reading / 40

CHAPTER 3 RELIABILITY ENGINEERING AND

SAFETY-RELATED APPLICATIONS 41
3.1 Reliability Principles / 41
3.2 Reliability in the Design Phase / 44
3.2.1 Writing Reliability Specifications / 45
3.2.2 Conducting Design Reviews / 45
3.2.2.1 Preliminary Design Review / 46
3.2.2.2 Lessons Learned and Checklists / 47
3.2.3 Reliability Allocation / 48
3.2.4 Reliability Modeling / 49
3.2.4.1 Series Model / 49
3.2.4.2 Parallel Model / 50
3.2.5 Reliability Prediction / 51
3.2.6 Failure-Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis / 54
3.2.7 Worst-Case Analysis / 61
3.2.8 Other Analysis Techniques / 61
3.2.9 Design Improvement Approaches / 62
3.2.9.1 Derating / 62
3.2.9.2 Fault Tolerance / 62
 CONTENTS vii

3.3 Reliability in the Manufacturing Phase / 65

3.4 Reliability in the Test Phase / 66
3.4.1 Reliability Growth Testing / 67
3.4.2 Tests for Durability / 70
3.4.3 Testing for Low Failure Rates / 75
3.4.4 Burn-in and Screening / 82
3.5 Reliability in the Use Phase / 86
3.6 Reliability and Safety Commonalities / 87
3.6.1 Common System Objective / 87
3.6.2 Unreliability and Hazards / 87
3.6.3 Complex Risks / 88
3.6.4 Potential System Accidents / 88
3.6.5 Software Reliability and Safety / 89
3.6.6 Reliability and Safety Trade-offs / 89
3.6.7 Reliability and Safety Misconceptions / 89
3.6.7.1 Redundancy / 90
3.6.7.2 Monitoring / 91
3.6.7.3 Concepts of Probability / 91
3.6.7.4 Familiarization to Automation / 92
3.6.7.5 Reliable Software and Safety Considerations / 93
3.6.7.6 Reliable Analyses and Safety
Applications / 95
3.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 100
References / 101
Further Reading / 102

CHAPTER 4 MAINTAINABILITY ENGINEERING AND

SAFETY-RELATED APPLICATIONS 103
4.1 Maintainability Engineering Principles / 103
4.2 Maintainability during the Design Phase / 106
4.2.1 Developing Maintainability Specifications / 106
4.2.2 Design Review for Maintainability / 107
4.2.3 Maintainability Analysis / 109
4.2.4 FMECA for Maintainability / 109
4.2.5 Maintainability Prediction / 110
4.2.6 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis / 111
4.2.7 Design for Accessability / 114
4.2.8 Design for Ease of Maintenance / 114
4.2.9 Design for MM of Testing / 118
viii CONTENTS

4.3 Maintainability in the Manufacturing Stage / 122

4.3.1 Maintainability for Existing Equipment / 122
4.3.2 Maintainability for New Equipment / 124
4.4 Maintainability in the Test Stage / 126
4.4.1 Prerequisites for Maintainability Tests / 127
4.4.2 Tests for Inherent Equipment Downtime / 127
4.4.3 Tests for Human Variations / 127
4.4.4 Maintenance Level Tests / 127
4.5 Maintainability in the Use Stage / 128
4.5.1 Prediction and Reduction of Limited-Life Items / 128
4.5.2 Monitoring and Predicting Operational Availability / 129
4.5.3 Minimizing Support Costs / 132
4.6 Maintainability and System Safety / 132
4.6.1 Remote Maintenance Safety and Security / 132
4.6.2 System Health Monitoring and Maintenance / 134
4.6.3 Using Models to Develop Maintenance Diagnostics
and Monitoring / 134
4.6.3.1 Stress – Strength Analysis / 134
4.6.3.2 Safety Factor and Safety Margin Variability / 135
4.6.3.3 Safety Margin and a Hazard Control / 135
4.6.3.4 Integration Considerations Between Safety-Related
Models and Hazard Analysis / 136
4.6.3.5 Real World Verification / 137
4.6.4 Hazard Analysis in Support of Maintenance / 137
4.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 144
References / 145
Further Reading / 145

CHAPTER 5 SYSTEM SAFETY ENGINEERING 147

5.1 System Safety Principles / 147
5.1.1 System Safety Process / 150
5.1.2 Risk Assessment / 150
5.1.3 Technical Risk Analysis / 150
5.1.4 Residual Risk / 153
5.1.5 Emergency Preparedness / 153
5.2 System Safety in Design / 153
5.2.1 Criteria for a Safe Design / 154
5.2.2 Safety Engineering Tasks / 156
5.2.3 Preliminary Hazard Analysis / 156
5.2.4 Subsystem Hazard Analysis / 161
 CONTENTS ix

5.2.5 Fault-Tree Analysis / 163

5.2.6 Cut Set Analysis / 167
5.2.7 Failure-Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis / 169
5.2.8 Maintenance Engineering Safety Analysis / 169
5.2.9 Event Trees / 170
5.2.10 Operating and Support Hazard Analysis / 172
5.2.11 Occupational Health Hazard Assessment / 174
5.2.12 Sneak Circuit Analysis / 174
5.2.13 System Hazard Analysis / 176
5.3 System Safety in Manufacturing / 176
5.3.1 Determining Safety-Critical Items / 176
5.3.2 Manufacturing Controls for Safety / 176
5.4 System Safety in the Test Stage / 178
5.4.1 Testing Principles / 178
5.4.2 Prerequisites for Developing Appropriate
Tests / 179
5.4.3 Product Qualification Tests / 180
5.4.4 Production Tests / 180
5.4.5 Tests for Human-Related Errors / 181
5.4.6 Testing the Safety of Design Modifications / 182
5.4.7 Testing Procedures / 182
5.4.8 Analyzing Test Data—The Right Way / 182
5.4.9 How Much Testing Is Enough? / 183
5.5 System Safety in the Use Stage / 183
5.5.1 Closed-Loop Hazard Management
(Hazard Tracking and Risk Resolution) / 183
5.5.2 Integrity of the Procedures / 183
5.5.3 Control of Changes / 184
5.5.3.1 Changes in Product Design / 184
5.5.3.2 Changes in Manufacturing Process / 184
5.5.4 Accident/Incident Investigation / 184
5.6 Analyzing System Hazards and Risks / 185
5.6.1 SDHA Process Development / 186
5.6.2 Designing Accidents / 187
5.6.2.1 SDHA-Related Concept / 187
5.6.2.2 Adverse Event Model / 187
5.6.2.3 Life Cycle of a System Accident / 188
5.6.2.4 Potential Pitfalls in Logic Development / 189
5.6.2.5 Determining Hazards (Unsafe Acts are Unsafe
Conditions) / 190
x CONTENTS

5.6.2.6 Tabular Worksheet / 190

5.6.2.7 Deductive and Inductive Approaches Toward
Scenario Development / 190
5.7 Hazard Identification / 191
5.7.1 Scenario Themes / 191
5.7.2 Primary Hazards / 192
5.7.3 Initiators / 193
5.7.4 Contributors / 194
5.7.5 Overlapping Hazards / 195
5.8 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 195
References / 196
Further Reading / 197

CHAPTER 6 QUALITY ASSURANCE ENGINEERING AND

PREVENTING LATENT SAFETY DEFECTS 199
6.1 Quality Assurance Principles / 199
6.2 Quality Assurance in the Design Phase / 201
6.2.1 Product Design Review for Quality / 202
6.2.1.1 Quality Function Deployment / 203
6.2.1.2 Benchmarking / 204
6.2.1.3 Quality Loss Function / 204
6.2.2 Process Design Review for Quality and Yield / 206
6.2.2.1 Capital Equipment Analysis / 207
6.2.3 Design Optimization for Robustness / 209
6.2.3.1 Shainin Approach / 210
6.2.3.2 Taguchi Approach / 211
6.2.4 Process FMECA / 214
6.2.5 Quality Assurance Plans for Procurement and
Process Control in the Design Phase / 217
6.2.5.1 Equipment Procurement Plans / 217
6.2.5.2 Process Control Plans / 217
6.2.5.3 Component Procurement Quality Plans / 218
6.3 Quality Assurance in the Manufacturing Phase / 220
6.3.1 Evaluation of Pilot Run / 220
6.3.2 Process Control / 221
6.3.2.1 Identifying Causes of Variation / 222
6.3.2.2 Verifying the Influence of Causes / 224
6.3.2.3 Statistical Process Control / 226
6.3.2.4 Control Charts for Variables / 228
6.3.3 PPM Control for World-Class Quality / 228
 CONTENTS xi

6.3.4 Working with Suppliers / 230

6.3.5 PPM Assessment / 231
6.4 Quality Assurance in the Test Phase / 232
6.4.1 Qualification Versus Production Testing / 233
6.4.2 Industry Standards / 233
6.5 Quality Assurance in the Use Phase / 233
6.6 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 234
References / 234
Further Reading / 235

CHAPTER 7 LOGISTICS SUPPORT ENGINEERING AND

SYSTEM SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 237
7.1 Logistics Support Principles / 237
7.2 Logistics Engineering During the Design Phase / 238
7.2.1 Logistics Specifications for Existing Products / 238
7.2.2 Logistics Specifications for New Products / 240
7.2.3 Design Reviews / 241
7.2.4 Logistics Support Analysis / 241
7.2.5 FMECA for Logistics Support Analysis / 242
7.2.6 Time-Line Analysis / 244
7.2.7 Level-of-Repair Analysis / 245
7.2.8 Logistics Support Analysis Documentation / 245
7.3 Logistics Engineering During the Manufacturing Phase / 245
7.4 Logistics Engineering During the Test Phase / 246
7.4.1 Tests for R&M Characteristics / 246
7.4.2 Tests of Operating Procedures / 246
7.4.3 Tests for Emergency Preparedness / 246
7.5 Logistics Engineering in the Use Phase / 246
7.5.1 Reliability-Centered Maintenance / 247
7.5.1.1 RCM Analysis Planning / 247
7.5.1.2 RCM Process / 247
7.5.1.3 RCM Strategies / 247
7.5.2 Measuring the Effectiveness of Logistics Engineering / 250
7.6 Logistics Support Engineering and System Safety / 251
7.6.1 Product, General, and Professional Liability / 251
7.6.2 Analysis of Changing Risks / 251
7.6.3 Life-Cycle Logistics and System Safety / 252
7.6.3.1 Production and Deployment Considerations / 252
7.6.3.2 Process Runs / 253
7.6.3.3 Production Inspection / 253
xii CONTENTS

7.6.3.4 Quality Control and Data Analysis / 254

7.6.3.5 Storage, Transportation, and Handling / 255
7.6.3.6 Construction, Installation, Assembly, Testing,
and Initial Operation / 256
7.6.3.7 Operations, Maintenance, and Upkeep / 256
7.6.3.8 Retirement and Disposal / 258
7.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 259
References / 259
Further Reading / 260

CHAPTER 8 HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING AND

SYSTEM SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 261
8.1 Human Engineering Principles / 261
8.2 Human Factors in the Design Phase / 262
8.2.1 Use of Checklists and Standards in Specifications / 262
8.2.2 Design Reviews for Human Interfaces / 265
8.2.3 Using Lessons Learned / 265
8.2.4 Review of Hazard Analyses / 266
8.3 Human Factors in the Manufacturing Phase / 268
8.3.1 Types of Manufacturing Errors and Controls / 268
8.3.1.1 Errors of Illusion / 268
8.3.1.2 Errors of Vision / 269
8.3.1.3 Errors of Insufficient Knowledge / 269
8.3.1.4 Errors of Engineering Oversight / 269
8.3.2 Preventing Inspection Errors / 269
8.4 Human Factors in the Test Phase / 270
8.4.1 Tests for Stereotype Behavior / 270
8.4.2 Tests for Emergency Preparedness / 271
8.4.3 Tests for Amelioration / 273
8.4.4 Tests for the Human –Machine Interface / 273
8.5 Human Factors in the Use Phase / 274
8.6 Additional Considerations Involving Human Factors and System Safety / 274
8.6.1 Human Variability / 274
8.6.2 Human Engineering Complexities / 275
8.6.3 The Human Machine / 275
8.6.4 Human Behavior / 275
8.6.5 Human Motivation / 275
8.6.6 Motivation and Safety Culture / 276
8.6.7 Human Error / 276
 CONTENTS xiii

8.7 Real Time and Latent Errors / 276

8.8 Analyses in Support of Human Factors and System Safety / 277
8.8.1 Human Interface Analysis / 277
8.8.2 Link Analysis / 277
8.8.3 Critical Incident Technique (CIT) / 279
8.8.4 Behavior Sampling / 279
8.8.5 Procedure Analysis / 281
8.8.6 Life Support/Life Safety Analysis / 281
8.8.7 Job Safety Analysis / 282
8.8.8 Human Reliability / 282
8.8.9 Technique for Error Rate Prediction (THERP) / 283
8.8.10 A Technique for Human Event Analysis (ATHEANA) / 284
8.8.11 Human Error Criticality Analysis (HECA) / 285
8.8.12 Workload Assessment / 286
8.9 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 286
References / 287
Further Reading / 288

CHAPTER 9 SOFTWARE PERFORMANCE ASSURANCE 289

9.1 Software Performance Principles / 289
9.1.1 Software Quality / 290
9.1.2 Software Reliability / 291
9.1.3 Software System Safety / 293
9.1.4 Software Maintainability / 294
9.1.5 Software Logistics Engineering / 294
9.1.6 Some Important Definitions / 295
9.2 Software Performance in the Design Phase / 297
9.2.1 Software Quality Assurance in Design / 297
9.2.2 Software Reliability in Design / 298
9.2.2.1 Software Design Techniques for Reliability / 299
9.2.2.2 Preventing Specification and Design Errors / 300
9.2.3 Software Maintainability in Design / 300
9.2.4 Software System Safety in Design / 301
9.2.4.1 Software Safety Risk Assessment / 302
9.2.4.2 Software Safety Tools / 303
9.2.5 Software Logistics Engineering / 305
9.2.6 Software System Failure-Modes and Effects Analysis / 306
9.2.6.1 The Objective / 306
9.2.6.2 The Methodology / 306
xiv CONTENTS

9.2.6.3 Demonstration of Methodology / 307

9.2.6.4 Software – Hardware Interface Control / 309
9.2.6.5 Other Uses of SSFMEA / 309
9.2.6.6 Implementing a SSFMEA Program / 310
9.2.7 Software Performance Specification / 310
9.2.8 Software Design Review Checklist / 310
9.3 Software Requirements During Coding and Integration / 323
9.3.1 Coding Errors / 323
9.3.2 Quantifying Software Errors / 324
9.3.3 Coding Error Prevention / 326
9.4 Software Testing / 328
9.4.1 Testing for Quality / 328
9.4.2 Testing for Reliability / 329
9.4.3 Testing for Maintainability / 329
9.4.4 Testing for Software Safety / 329
9.4.5 Testing for Overall Qualification / 330
9.5 Software Performance in the Use Stage / 331
9.6 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 332
References / 332

CHAPTER 10 SYSTEM EFFECTIVENESS 335

10.1 Introduction / 335
10.2 System Effectiveness Principles / 336
10.3 Implementing the Programs / 339
10.4 Managing by Life-Cycle Costs / 341
10.5 System Effectiveness Model / 343
10.6 Authors’ Recommendations / 343
10.7 System Risk and Effects on System Effectiveness / 344
10.7.1 System Accidents / 345
10.7.2 Complex System Risks / 345
10.7.3 Synergistic Risks / 345
10.7.4 Controlling Risks with Effective System Safety
Requirements and Standards / 346
10.7.5 Effective System Safety Requirements and Standards / 347
10.7.5.1 Standards and Federal Codes / 348
10.7.5.2 General System Safety Requirements / 348
10.7.5.3 Derived Requirements / 349
10.7.5.4 Requirements Testing / 349
10.7.5.5 Requirements Development / 350
 CONTENTS xv

10.7.5.6 Requirements Compliance / 350

10.7.5.7 Requirements Revision / 350
10.7.5.8 Requirements Traceability / 351
10.7.5.9 Requirements Documentation / 351
10.7.5.10 Requirements Language / 351
10.7.5.11 Redundant Requirements / 351
10.7.6 Additional System Effectiveness Models / 352
10.7.7 Other Indicators of System Effectiveness or Success / 352
10.8 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 353
References / 353
Further Reading / 354

CHAPTER 11 MANAGING SAFETY-RELATED RISKS 355

11.1 Establish the Appropriate Safety Program to Manage Risk / 355
11.1.1 Specific Safety Programs / 355
11.2 Programs to Address Product, Process, and System Safety / 356
11.2.1 Product Safety Management / 356
11.2.2 Process Safety Management / 358
11.2.3 System Safety Management / 362
11.3 Resource Allocation and Cost Analysis in Safety Management / 368
11.3.1 Cost of Losses Versus Cost of Control / 369
11.4 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 369
References / 370
Further Reading / 370

CHAPTER 12 STATISTICAL CONCEPTS, LOSS

ANALYSES, AND SAFETY-RELATED
APPLICATIONS 373
12.1 Use of Distributions and Statistical Applications
Associated with Safety / 373
12.2 Statistical Analysis Techniques Used Within Safety Analysis / 373
12.3 Using Statistical Control in Decision-Making for Safety / 376
12.4 Behavior Sampling / 379
12.5 Calculating Hazardous Exposures to the Human System / 380
12.6 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 383
References / 384
Further Reading / 384
xvi CONTENTS

CHAPTER 13 MODELS, CONCEPTS, AND EXAMPLES:

APPLYING SCENARIO-DRIVEN
HAZARD ANALYSIS 385
13.1 Adverse Sequences / 385
13.1.1 Scenarios Within Safety Analysis / 385
13.1.2 Modeling Within Safety Analysis / 385
13.1.2.1 Overviews and Models / 386
13.1.2.2 Visualization / 387
13.1.2.3 Scenarios, Reality, and Benefits / 387
13.1.3 Integration and Presentation of Analysis Information / 390
13.1.4 Narrative Reports Versus Tabular Formats / 390
13.2 Designing Formats for Conducting Analysis and
Reporting Results / 391
13.3 Documentation Reports / 393
13.3.1 Reporting Analysis Results / 394
13.4 Conceptual Models / 394
13.4.1 Hammer Model / 394
13.4.2 Complex Scenario Models / 395
13.4.3 Fishbone Diagrams / 396
13.5 Life Cycle of a System Accident / 397
13.5.1 Complex Interactions / 397
13.6 Operating and Support Hazard Analysis Example / 398
13.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 408
Reference / 408
Further Reading / 408

CHAPTER 14 AUTOMATION, COMPUTER, AND

SOFTWARE COMPLEXITIES 411
14.1 Complex System Analysis / 411
14.2 System Context / 412
14.3 Understanding the Adverse Sequence / 413
14.3.1 Malfunction and Failure Modes / 413
14.3.2 Understanding System Functions / 413
14.3.3 Understanding Conceptual Processes / 414
14.4 Additional Software Safety Analysis Techniques / 414
14.4.1 Software Malfunction / 414
14.4.2 Manifestation of Software-Related Risks / 417
14.4.3 Understanding Anomalies / 417
14.4.4 Complexity, Understanding Risks, and System States / 417
 CONTENTS xvii

14.4.5 System States / 418

14.4.6 Complexity of Initiators, Contributors, and
System Accidents / 418
14.4.7 Functional Abstractions and Domains / 418
14.4.8 Latent Hazards Throughout the Life Cycle / 418
14.4.9 Errors in Model Use and Development / 419
14.4.10 Understanding Safety Criticality / 419
14.4.11 Understanding Transfer and Switching
Complications / 419
14.5 True Redundancy / 420
14.5.1 System Redundancy / 420
14.6 Complexities and Hazards Within Computer Hardware / 420
14.6.1 Controls, Mitigations, and Added Complexities / 420
14.7 Initiators and Contributors: The Errors Associated with Software / 421
14.8 Other Specialized Techniques, Analysis Methods, and
Tools for Evaluating Software and Computer Systems / 426
14.8.1 Software Reliability / 426
14.8.2 Static Complexity Analysis / 426
14.8.3 Dynamic Analysis / 426
14.8.4 Test Coverage Monitoring / 426
14.9 Existing Legacy Systems, Reusable Software, Commercial
Off-the-Shelf (COTS) Software, and Nondevelopment
Items (NDIs) / 427
14.10 Topics for Student Projects and Theses / 428
References / 429
Further Reading / 429

APPENDIX A: REFERENCE TABLES 431

APPENDIX B: AN OUTSTANDING APPLICATION OF
ASSURANCE TECHNOLOGIES 441

INDEX 449
PREFACE

Over 60% of the problems in complex systems develop from the incomplete, vague,
and poorly written specifications. A good specification will mitigate at least 80% of
risks. This is the purpose of our book. One must read the entire book to validate the
quality of the specification. Each chapter reveals a different side of the specification.
If you construct a new house, it is not sufficient to describe the front side. Detailed
attention has to be paid to each side. Similarly, we must describe the product from
various sides such as system safety, reliability, maintainability, human engineering,
logistics, software integrity, and system integration to recognize the relationships of
all the sides fitting well. Otherwise, one may wind up with a house where the sides
are misaligned and the walls do not meet the floor.
We have a great passion for safety. We cannot stand the major accidents and
about 125 automotive safety recalls every year. Too many people are dying
in vain and families are suffering. That is why every chapter describes ways to
integrate safety in everything we do.
This book emphasizes that safety is an excellent investment, not a necessary cost
as most believe out of ignorance. In 2004, 1.2 million people died just in automotive
accidents at a cost of $230 billion. Preventing accidents is certainly much cheaper.
The first edition of this book was published by McGraw-Hill in 1991 under the
title Assurance Technologies: Principles and Practices. It was on the Technical
Best Seller List for two years. Later, the printing was discontinued because
McGraw-Hill stopped publishing engineering management books. The authors are

xix
xx PREFACE

thankful to John Wiley & Sons, for encouraging us to write this book with safety as a
strong foundation, and to our readers, who made the first edition a best seller.

Dev G. Raheja
Michael Allocco