Residues and Poles

UNIT 7 RESIDUES AND POLES

Structure Page No.
7.1 Introduction 5
Objectives
7.2 Singularities and Zeros 6
Zeros of Analytic Functions
Singularities–Poles, Essential, Removable
7.3 Residues 15
7.4 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem 20
7.5 Summary 25
7.6 Solutions/Answers 26

7.1 INTRODUCTION
You have seen in Unit 2 that a point z0 is a singular point or a singularity of a
function f if f is not analytic at z0 but every neighbourhood of z0 contains
at least one point at which f is analytic. In this unit our emphasis will be on
developing tools to evaluate contour integrals of complex functions with
singularities. We shall start with discussing in Sec. 7.2, the zeros and
singularities of complex valued functions and use the Laurent series
representation to classify these singularities as poles, isolated essential or
removable singularities. We shall also establish here a result called identity
theorem which gives the condition for two analytic functions to be identical.
When a complex valued function f is analytic at all points interior to and on a
simple closed contour C then you know from Cauchy-Goursat theorem that
the value of the complex integral of the function around the contour C is zero.
However, if f has one or more isolated singularities inside C then Cauchy’s
theorem cannot be used and the value of the integral of the function f around
C may not be zero. Each of these singular points inside C contributes to the
value of the complex integral. These contributions are called residues. In
Sec. 7.3 of the unit we shall develop the theory of residues. Finally, in Sec. 7.4
Cauchy’s residue theorem which gives the evaluation of the integrals in terms
of the sums of the residues is discussed and used for evaluating certain
integrals.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• define and obtain the zeros of analytic functions;
• use the identity theorem to establish equality of two analytic functions
when they agree on a set having a limit point;
• classify the singularities of complex valued functions as poles, essential
or removable singularities;
• obtain the residues of a complex valued function at its singular points;
and
• use the Cauchy’s residue theorem for evaluating contour integrals. 5
 Applications of
Analytic Functions 7.2 SINGULARITIES AND ZEROS
You know that a number z0 is a zero of a function f if f ( z0 ) = 0 . You have
already seen in Unit 3 on elementary functions of complex variables that their
zeros are the same as that of their real counterparts. That is, their zeros lie on
the real axis. They are isolated and countable. We shall now see whether this
be the case, in general, for the complex valued functions.

7.2.1 Zeros of Analytic Functions

Let the function f be analytic in a domain D and p ∈ D . Then the function f
has a zero of order k at z = p if
f ( p) = 0, f ′( p ) = 0, f ′′( p ) = 0, K, f ( k −1) ( p ) = 0 but f ( k ) ( p ) ≠ 0 . A zero of
order k is also referred to as a zero of multiplicity k . For example, for
f ( z ) = ( z − 2) 3 , we have f (2) = 0, f ′(2) = 0, f ′′(2) = 0 but f ′′′(2) = 6 ≠ 0 . Thus
f has a zero of order 3 at z = 2 .

Formally, consider the following definition:

Definition 1: Let f ≠ 0 be an analytic function in a domain D . Let p ∈ D ,

then the smallest integer k ≥ 0 such that f ( k ) ( p ) ≠ 0 is called the order
(multiplicity) of the zero of f at p .

A zero of order 1 of a function is called a simple zero of the function.

Consider the following example.

Example 1: Find the zeros and their order of the entire function f ( z ) = z sin z .
Solution: The zeros of f ( z ) = z sin z are given by 0, ± π , ± 2π , ± 3π , K . We
observe that f ′( z ) = sin z + z cos z ≠ 0 at ± π , ± 2π , ± 3π , K but it is zero at
z = 0 . Further, f ′′( z ) = 2 cos z − z sin z ≠ 0 at z = 0 . Therefore, z = 0 is a zero
of f of the order 2 and all other zeros are of order 1.
***

We now prove a result which gives the zeros of a function and their order
explicitly using the algebraic method, without finding the derivatives of the
function.

Theorem 1: Let a function f ≠ 0 (it means there is at least a point z0 ∈ D

such that f ( z0 ) ≠ 0) be holomorphic (analytic) in a domain D . Let p ∈ D be
a zero of f of order k . Then there is a unique holomorphic function φ in a
neighborhood of p such that φ ( p) ≠ 0 and
f ( z ) = ( z − p) k φ ( z ) , (1)
for all z ∈ D .

B ( p, r ) = { z ∈ C :| z − p | < r} Proof: Since f is analytic in D then for p ∈ D, f has a Taylor series

representation in powers of z − p throughout some neighbourhood B( p, r ) for
6 some r . We thus have
 ∞
f ( n ) ( p) Residues and Poles
f ( z) = ∑ ( z − p) n . (2)
n= 0 n!
Since p is a zero of f of order k , we have

f ( p) = f ′( p) = f ′′( p) = K = f ( k −1) ( p ) = 0 (3)

In view of Eqn. (3), Eqn. (2) reduces to
 f ( k ) ( p ) f ( k +1) ( p) f ( k + 2) ( p ) 
f ( z ) = ( z − p) k  + ( z − p) + ( z − p) 2 + L .
 k! (k + 1) ! (k + 2) ! 
Thus, there exists a function φ such that
f ( z ) = ( z − p) k φ ( z ) , where

f ( k ) ( p ) f ( k +1) ( p) f ( k + 2 ) ( p)
φ ( z) = + ( z − p) + ( z − p) 2 + L for | z − p | < r .(4)
k! (k + 1) ! (k + 2) !
The convergence of Series (4) when | z − p | < r ensures that φ is analytic in
the neighbourhood B( p, r ) and
f (k ) ( p)
φ ( p) = ≠ 0.
k!
For all points other than p , Eqn. (1) defines φ and hence φ is unique.
This completes the proof of the theorem.
– –

We now illustrate Theorem 1 through examples.

Example 2: Show that z = 0 is a zero of order 3 of the analytic function

f ( z ) = z sin z 2 .
Solution: The analytic function f ( z ) = z sin z 2 has a zero at z = 0 . We can
write the Maclaurin expansion
z 6 z 10 2
sin z 2 = z 2 − + − L. [replace z by z in Eqn. (23) of Unit 6] (5)
3! 5!
Using Eqn. (5) we can then write f ( z ) = z sin z 2 = z 3φ ( z ) , where
z4 z8
φ ( z) = 1 − + − L. (6)
3! 5!
and φ (0) = 1 ≠ 0 . Comparing Eqns. (1) and (6) it follows that z = 0 is a zero of
order 3 of f .
***

Example 3: Show that all the zeros of the polynomial p( z ) = z 3 − 27 are of

order one.
Solution: Zeros of p(z ) are the cube roots of 27 and these root are clearly
3, 3ω , 3ω 2 where ω is a cube root of unity. We can thus write
p( z ) = ( z − 3) ( z − 3ω ) ( z − 3ω 2 ) .
Let us put φ1 ( z ) = ( z − 3ω ) ( z − 3ω 2 ), φ2 ( z ) = ( z − 3) ( z − 3ω 2 ) and
φ3 ( z) = ( z − 3) ( z − 3ω ) . We observe that φ1 , φ2 and φ3 are analytic and
7
Applications of i) p( z ) = ( z − 3)φ1 ( z ) implies that 3 is the zero of order one because
Analytic Functions
φ1 (3) ≠ 0 .
ii) p( z ) = ( z − 3ω )φ2 ( z ) implies that 3ω is the zero of order one because
φ2 (3ω ) ≠ 0 .
iii) p( z ) = ( z − 3ω 2 )φ3 ( z ) implies that 3ω 2 is the zero of order one because
φ3 (3ω 2 ) ≠ 0 .

Thus all the three zeros of p(z) are the simple zeros (zeros of order one). You
may also observe that p′(3) = 27 ≠ 0, p′(3ω ) = 27ω 2 ≠ 0 and
p′(3ω 2 ) = 27ω ≠ 0 .
***

If you look at the zeros of analytic functions in Examples 1-3, you would
notice that all these zeros are isolated. That is, if z0 is a zero of an analytic
function f (which is not identically zero) then in some neighbourhood of this
point z0 , f is non-zero at every point of that neighbourhood other than z0 .
That is, there is no other zero of f in this neighbourhood other than z0 . We
give the following theorem as a consequence to this result.

Theorem 2: Let f ≠ 0 be analytic in a domain D . Then the zero set Z f of f

is an isolated subset of D .

Proof: Clearly, Z f is a closed subset of D . Let p be a zero of f then

f ( z ) = ( z − p ) k φ ( z ) , for some k , such that φ ( p) ≠ 0 . By the continuity of φ
there exists a neighborhood U of p such that φ (z ) does not vanish in U and
the only zero of ( z − p )k is p . Therefore, p is the only zero of f in U . Thus
p ∈ Z f is an isolated zero of f and hence Z f is an isolated subset of D .
– –

Before moving on further, you may try the following exercises.

E1) Show that the polynomial p( z ) = z 3 − 64 has a zero of order 1 at z0 = 4 .

E2) Find all the zeros of the entire function f ( z ) = z 2 (e z − 1) and show that it
has a zero of order 3 at z0 = 0 .

E3) Locate the zeros of the following functions and determine their order
i) z 3e z −1 ii) z 2 cosh z .

We now consider a theorem which gives the condition for two analytic
functions to be identical.

Theorem 3 (Identity Theorem): Let f and g be analytic functions on a

domain D . Suppose K ⊂ D is such that for every z ∈ K , f ( z ) = g ( z ) and K
8 has a limit point in D . Then f = g on D .
Proof: Let us assume that h : D → C be a non-zero function such that Residues and Poles
h = f − g . Then the set K is a subset of the set of all the zeros of h . By
Theorem 2, K is then isolated subset of D . But since K has a limit point, it
follows that the zero set of h is not isolated, which is a contradiction. Thus
h = 0 and hence f = g on D .
– –

Consider the following example.

1 n
Example 4: Does there exist a function f : D → C such that f   = for
 n  n +1
all n ∈ N , where D is the unit disk in C ?
Solution: We have
1 n
f =
 n  n +1
1
=
1
1+
n
1
= g  ,
n
1
where g is a function defined on D as g ( z ) = . Since the set
1+ z
1 
K =  : n ∈ N  has a limit point in D , it follows from the identity theorem
n 
that f = g on D .
***

You may now try the following exercises.

1 1
E4) Does there exist a function f : D → C such that f   = for n even
n n
1 1
and f   = − for n odd?
n n

E5) Does there exist a non-constant analytic function f on unit disk D such
1
that f   = 0 for all n ∈ N ?
n

E6) Does there exist a non-constant analytic function which is zero on an

open interval on the real axis?

You know that, a point z = z0 is called a singular point or singularity of the

complex function f if f is not analytic at z = z0 , but every neighbourhood of
z0 contains a point where f is analytic. Function f ( z ) = 1 / z is an example of
a function analytic everywhere except at z = 0 . Another example is the
function f ( z ) = Log z , which is analytic everywhere except on the negative Fig. 1
real axis including the point z = 0 (see Fig. 1). 9
 Applications of Further, a point z = z0 is called an isolated singularity of the complex function
Analytic Functions
f if f is not analytic at z = z0 and ∃ a real number R > 0 so that f is analytic
everywhere in the deleted neighbourhood 0 < | z − z0 | < R (see Fig. 2).
If you look at the above examples f ( z ) = 1 / z and g ( z ) = Log z , then you will
notice that z = 0 is an isolated singularity of 1 / z , but z = 0 (in fact any point
of the negative real axis) is not an isolated singularity of Log z .

In the next sub-section, we shall discuss isolated singularities of the complex

valued functions and classify them into various types.

Fig. 2 7.2.2 Singularities–Poles, Essential, Removable

We now discuss different types of isolated singularities associated to a
complex valued function.

Consider the following definitions.

Definition 2 (Removable Singularity): An isolated singularity z = z0 of a

function f is called a removable singularity if
lim ( z − z0 ) f ( z ) = 0 .
z → z0

Remark: If z = z0 is a removable singularity of f in a domain D then the

function f need not be defined at z0 , but lim f ( z ) exists. If lim f ( z ) = a0
z →z0 z → z0

(say), then we can make f ( z ) an analytic function by redefining f ( z ) at

z = z0 as f ( z0 ) = a0 .

As an illustration, consider the following example.

sin z
Example 5: Consider the function f ( z ) = , z ≠ 0 . Clearly, z = 0 is an
z
isolated singularity of f . Also we see that lim z f ( z ) = 0 . Hence z = 0 is a
z →0

removable singularity. Since lim f ( z ) = 1 , we can define f (0) = 1 and make f

z →0

analytic at z = 0 .
***

Definition 3 (Pole): An isolated singularity z = z0 of a function f is called a

pole if
lim f ( z ) = ∞ .
z → z0

Since f (z ) → ∞ as z → z0 , there exists a δ > 0 such that B( z0 , δ ) ⊂ D and

B ( z0 , δ ) = { z ∈ C : | z − z0 | < δ }
f ( z ) ≠ 0 in B( z0 , δ ) . Consider g = 1 / f on B( z0 , δ ) \ {z0 } = D′ . Then g is
analytic in D′ and is bounded. Hence z = z0 is a removable singularity of g .
Notice that g ( z ) → 0 as z → z0 and therefore we define g ( z0 ) = 0 in order to
make g analytic in B( z0 , δ ) . Further, if z0 is a zero of g of order k , then z0
is a pole of order k of f . In this case, we have
f ( z ) = ( z − z0 ) − k φ ( z )
10
for all z in a neighborhood of z0 where φ is analytic and φ ( z0 ) ≠ 0 . Residues and Poles

For instance, z = 0 is a pole of function f ( z ) = 1 / z k of order k . The function

ez
f ( z) = has a pole of order 4 at z = 1 . More precisely, we say that if f
( z − 1)4
is a function such that for some positive integer k , lim ( z − z0 )k f ( z ) is a non-
z →z0

zero finite complex number, then f has pole of order k at z = z0 . Pole of

order one is called a simple pole.

Let us consider the following example.

Example 6: Determine the order of the poles of the function

2z + 5
f ( z) = .
( z − 1) ( z + 5) ( z − 2)4
Solution: The denominator of the given function has the zeros of order 1 at
z = 1 and z = −5 , and a zero of order 4 at z = 2 . Also note that the numerator
of the given function is not zero at any of these points z = 1, − 5 and 2. Thus,
f has the simple poles at z = 1 and z = −5 , and a pole of order 4 at z = 2 .
***

In the case of isolated singularity of f at z = z0 , the function f can be

expanded as a Laurent series in the deleted neighbourhood 0 < | z − z0 | < R of
the point z0 where f is analytic. Thus, we have
∞ ∞
bn
f ( z ) = ∑ an ( z − z0 ) n + ∑ n
. (7)
n =0 n =1 ( z − z0 )

Here the sum

∞

∑ a (z − z )
n=0
n 0
n
= a0 + a1 ( z − z0 ) + L + an ( z − z0 )n + L (8)

is called the analytic part of the Laurent series, whereas the sum
∞
b b b2 bn
∑ ( z − nz ) n = z −1z +
( z − z0 ) 2
+L+
( z − z0 ) n
+L (9)
n =1 0 0

involving negative powers of z − z0 is called the principal part of the Laurent

series. We shall now use Laurent series expansion of the function f to classify
the isolated singularities of f .

Consider the following definition.

Definition 4: If the principal part of f at z = z0 consists of no terms, then z0

is called a removable singularity of f .
In the case of removable singularity at the point z0 all the bn′ s in Eqn. (7) are
zero and we have
∞
f ( z ) = ∑ an ( z − z0 ) n = a0 + a1 ( z − z0 ) + a2 ( z − z0 )2 + L(0 < | z − z0 | < R)
n =0

For instance, z0 = 0 is a removable singular point of the function 11

Applications of
1 − cos z 1   z 2 z 4 z 6 
Analytic Functions f ( z) = 2
= 2 1 − 1 − + − + L
z z   2! 4! 6! 
2 4
1 z z
= − + − L (0 < | z | < ∞ )
2! 4! 6!
1
and on assigning the value f (0) = , f becomes analytic.
2
If the principal part of the Laurent series Expansion (7) of the function f has
only a finite number of terms, i.e., it is of the form
b1 b2 bk
+ 2
+L+
( z − z0 ) ( z − z0 ) ( z − z0 ) k
where k is a finite integer and bk +1, bk + 2 , K are all zero, then z = z0 is a pole
of order k . If k = 1 , then z = z0 is a simple pole.
Thus, a point z = z0 is a pole if
lim f ( z ) = ∞ and lim [( z − z0 ) k f ( z )] exists for some k ≥ 1 .
z → z0 z → z0

The smallest value of k for which the second limit above exists defines the
order of the pole. For instance, the function
sin z 1  z 3 z5  1 z z3
f ( z ) = 2 = 2  z − + − L = − + − L (0 < | z | < ∞ )

z z  3! 5!  2 3! 5!
has simple pole at z = 0 . Similarly z = 0 is a pole of order 3 of the function
sin z
f ( z) = 4 .
z

Formally, we have the following definition.

Definition 5: If the principal part of a function f at an isolated singular point

z0 consists of a finite number of terms, say k , then an isolated singularity z0
of f is called a pole of order k .

Definition 6: An isolated singularity z = z0 of f is called an essential

singularity if it is neither removable nor a pole.

In other words, if the principal part of f at z = z0 contains infinite number of

terms, then z = z0 is an isolated essential singularity of f .

We know that the Laurent series of f ( z ) = e1 / z about z = 0 is given by

1 1
e1 / z = 1 + + + L.
z 2! z 2
This shows that z = 0 is an isolated essential singularity of e1 / z .

Let us consider the following examples.

Example 7: Locate the singularities of the function f ( z ) = z −2 ( z − sin z ) .

 ∞
z 2n+1 
Solution: f ( z ) = z ( z − sin z ) = z  z − ∑ (−1)
−2 −2 n
, (0 < | z | ∞)
 n =0 (2n + 1) ! 
12
 Residues and Poles
1  z 3 z5 
⇒ f ( z ) = 2  z −  z − + − L 
z   3! 5! 
z z3
= − +L
3! 5!
⇒ f (z ) has a removable singularity at z = 0 .
Alternatively, we see that
z − sin z 1 − cos z
lim 2
= lim [Using L′ Hospital rule]
z →0 z z → 0 2z
sin z
= lim = 0.
z →0 2
Therefore, lim f ( z ) exists and is a finite complex number. Hence, f ( z ) has a
z →∞

removable singularity at z = 0 .
***

Example 8: Determine and classify the singularities of the function

z − 3 − 2i
f (z) = 2 .
z − (4 + 3i) z + (1 + 5i)
Solution: The values of z for which the denominator of the function f is zero
are given by
z 2 − (4 + 3i) z + (1 + 5i ) = 0
⇒ 2 z = 4 + 3i ± α j where α 2j = 3 + 4i
⇒ 2 z = 4 + 3i ± (2 + i)
⇒ z = 3 + 2i, (1 + i )
z−a
Therefore, we have f ( z ) = where a = 3 + 2i, b = 1 + i .
( z − a) ( z − b)
Thus, f has a simple pole at z = b and a removable singularity at z = a .
***

Example 9: Show that the function e z has an isolated essential singularity at

z = ∞.
Solution: Let f ( z ) = e z . The singularity of f ( z ) at z = ∞ is same as
singularity of f (1 / w) at w = 0 . We have already seen above that e1 / w has an
isolated essential singularity at w = 0 . Hence z = ∞ is an isolated essential
singularity of e z .
***

Note: In the case of non-isolated singularities any neighbourhood of a

non-isolated singular point of f contains other singularities and hence a
non-isolated singular point of f is a limit point of its singular points. For
1 1
example, the function f ( z ) = is singular at z = (k = ±1, ± 2, K)
sin(1 / z ) kπ
because sin(1 / z ) = 0 at these points. The limit point of these singularities is
the point z = 0 . Hence z = 0 is non-isolated singularity of f ( z ) . Each of the
1
singularity z = is isolated, but the singular point z = 0 is not isolated
kπ 13
Applications of because however small ε we may choose, every annulus 0 < | z | < ε , contains
Analytic Functions
at least one singular point (in fact, an infinite number of them). Thus z = 0 is
1
non-isolated essential singularity of f ( z ) = .
1
sin  
z
The classification of the singularities, we have discussed so far, is shown
pictorially in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Remark:
• The limit point of a sequence of poles of a function f is a non-isolated
essential singularity of f .
• The limit point of a sequence of zeros of a function f is an isolated
essential singularity of f .

You may now try the following exercises.

E7) Find the nature of the singularities of the following functions.

z − sin z 1
i) f ( z) = ii) f ( z ) = sin
z4 1− z
1 − ez
iii) f (z) = iv) f ( z ) = tan z .
1 + ez

E8) Locate the poles and determine their order for the following functions
i) z −1 cosec z ii) ( z 2 sin z ) −1 .

E9) Locate the singularities of the following functions and determine their
types
i) ze1 / z ii) (cos z − cos 2 z ) / z 4 .

8a 3 z 2 φ (z)
E10) Write the function f ( z ) = 2 2 3
(a > 0) as f ( z ) = where
(z + a ) ( z − ai )2
8a 3 z 2
φ (z) = .
( z + ai)3
Point out why φ ( z ) has a Taylor series representation about z = ai and
14
 then use it to show that the principal part of f at that point is Residues and Poles

φ ′′(ai) / 2 φ ′(ai ) φ (ai) i/2 −a/2 a 2i

+ + = − − − .
( z − ai) ( z − ai )2 ( z − ai)3 ( z − ai) ( z − ai) 2 ( z − ai )3

As we mentioned in the introduction, if a function f has one or more isolated

singularities inside a contour C then each of these singularities contribute to
the value of the integral of f around C . In the next section, we shall compute
these contributions called the residues of a complex valued function.

7.3 RESIDUES
We know that a function f having an isolated singularity at the point z0 has
the Laurent series representation as given by Eqn. (7), viz,
∞ ∞
f ( z ) = ∑ an ( z − z0 ) n + ∑ bn ( z − z 0 ) − n
n =0 n =1

valid for 0 < | z − z0 | < r , for some positive number r . Further, the coefficients
an and bn have certain integral representations (ref. Sec. 6.4, Unit 6) and we
can write
1 f ( z )dz
bn = ∫
2π i C ( z − z0 )− n +1
, (n = 1, 2, K) (10)

where C is a positively oriented simple closed contour enclosing the point z0

and lying in the domain 0 < | z − z0 | < r (see Fig. 4). When n = 1 , the
Fig. 4
expression for bn as given by Eqn. (10) takes the form
1
2π i C∫
b1 = f ( z )dz .

1
This number b1 , which is the coefficient of in Expansion (7), is called
( z − z0 )
the residue of f at z0 . It is usually represented as
Res f ( z ) = b1 or Res [ z0 , f ] = b1 .
z = z0

Thus, we have
1
2π i C∫
Res [ z0 , f ] = b1 = f ( z )dz (11)

where C (t ) = z0 + ε e 2π i t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 , for any 0 < ε < r .

There are methods available for finding the residues of a given function f
having singularities of the types discussed above. We now discuss these
methods.

Residue at removable singularity: If z = z0 is a removable singularity of a

function f then we know that its Laurent series expansion around z = z0
contains no negative powers of ( z − z0 ) . Thus the coefficient of ( z − z0 ) −1 in
the expansion is equal to zero and consequently, Res [ z0 , f ] = 0 .

We illustrate this situation through an example. 15

Applications of sin π z
Analytic Functions Example 10: Find the residues of the function at its singular points.
z2 −1
Solution: Here z 2 − 1 = ( z − 1) ( z + 1) = 0 at z = ±1 .
Moreover,
sin π z sin π z
lim ( z − 1) 2 , and lim ( z + 1) 2 = 0.
z →1 z −1 z → −1 z −1
Therefore, z = ±1 are removable singularities of the function. Hence by the
result above
 sin π z   sin π z 
Res 1, 2  = 0 , and Res − 1, 2 = 0.
 z −1   z − 1 
***

You may now try to do the following exercise.

sin z 2
E11) Find the singularities of f ( z ) = which lie interior to the contour
z 2 ( z − 1)
| z | = 1 . Compute the residues at those singularities.

Residue at poles: Here we are giving some results for computing the residues
at the poles.

If f has a simple pole at z0 , then

Res [ z0 , f ] = lim ( z − z0 ) f ( z ) . (12)
z → z0

If f has a double pole at z0 , then

d
Res [ z0 , f ] = lim ( z − z0 ) 2 f ( z ) . (13)
z → z 0 dz

If f has a pole of order m at z0 , where m is a finite integer, then

1 d ( m −1)
Res [ z0 , f ] = lim ( m −1) ( z − z0 )m f ( z ) . (14)
(m − 1)! z → z 0 dz

Let f and g be two functions analytic at the point z0 satisfying

f ( z0 ) ≠ 0, g ( z0 ) = 0 , and g ′( z0 ) ≠ 0 ,
f (z)
then z0 is a simple pole of the quotient and
g (z)
 f  f ( z0 )
Res  z 0 ,  = . (15)
 g  g ′( z 0 )
If z0 is an isolated essential singular point of f then we need to expand
f ( z ) in the Laurent series about the point z = z0 and obtain the residue
(coefficient b1 of ( z − z0 ) −1 ) directly. In this case, this is the only way of
computing the residue at z0 .

Result (12)-(15) can be proved easily. We are leaving it for you to do it

16 yourself.
 Residues and Poles
E12) Prove Result (12)-(15).

We shall now illustrate these results through examples.

Example 11: Find the residue at the singular points of the function
z2
f (z) = 2 .
z − 2z + 2
Solution: The singular points of f ( z ) are the roots of the equation
z 2 − 2 z + 2 = 0 . We get the roots z1 = 1 + i and z 2 = 1 − i , which are simple
poles. We write
z2 z
f (z) = 2 =
( z − 2 z + 2) ( z − z1 ) ( z − z 2 )
Using the result given in Eqn. (12), we get
z 22 (1 + i )2
Res [ z1 , f ] = lim ( z − z1 ) f ( z ) = = = 1.
z → z1 z1 − z2 2i
z 22 (1 − i) 2
Res [ z 2 , f ] = lim ( z − z 2 ) f ( z ) = = = 1.
z →z2 z2 − z1 − 2i
Alternatively, z1 and z2 are simple poles of f ( z ) which is a rational function
of the form p( z ) / q ( z ) , with p( z ) = z 2 and q( z) = z 2 − 2 z + 2 and
q′( z ) = 2 z − 2 . Using the result given by Eqn. (15), we get
p(1 + i ) 2i p (1 − i ) − 2i
Res [ z1, f ] = = = 1 and Res [ z 2 , f ] = = = 1.
q′(1 + i ) 2i q′(1 − i ) − 2i
***
Example 12: Use the Laurent series representation to find the residue of the
z 2 + 4z + 5
function f ( z ) = at z = 0 . Also find ∫ f ( z )dz where
z2 + z C
Cr = {z :| z | = r , 0 < r < 1} (see Fig. 5).
Solution: We have
z 2 + 4z + 5
f (z) = Fig. 5
z (1 + z )
z 2 + 4z + 5
= (1 + z ) −1
z
2
z + 4z + 5
= [1 − z + z 2 − z 3 + L] (0 < | z | < 1)
z
1 
= ( z 2 + 4 z + 5)  − 1 + z − z 2 + L
z 
5 
=  − 1 + 2 z − L .
z 
Thus
Res [0, f ] = coefficient of z −1 = 5 .
Hence, from Eqn. (11), we get
∫ f ( z ) = dz = 2π ibi = 2π i × 10π i .
Ce
*** 17
Applications of sin z
Analytic Functions Example 13: Find the residue at z = 0 of the function f ( z ) = .
z4
sin z
Solution: You know that z = 0 is a pole of order 3 of the function 4 .
z
Applying the result given by Eqn. (14), we get
1 d 2  sin z 
Res [0, f ] = lim 2  z 3 4 
2! z → 0 dz  z 
1 d2  sin z 
= lim 2  z  . (16)
2 z → 0 dz
We have
d 2  sin z  ( z 2 − 2) sin z + 2 z cos z
 =− ( z ≠ 0) .
dz 2  z  z3
You can see that the limit of the expression above as z tends to zero is an
0
indeterminate form   . Therefore, applying the L’Hospitals rule, we get
0
2
( z − 2) sin z + 2 z cos z cos z 1
lim − 3
= − lim =− .
z →0 z z →0 3 3
Putting the above limiting value in Eqn. (16), we get the required residue as
1
Res [0, f ] = − .
6
Alternatively, we can use the following result which is more general than the
one given by Eqn. (14) and helps in simplifying the computations involved.
If z0 is a pole of order m of the function f then for any n ≥ m ,
1 d ( n −1)
Res [ z0 , f ] = lim ( n −1) ( z − z 0 ) n f ( z ) , (17)
(n − 1)! z → z 0 dz
where n and m are both integers.
If we apply the result given by Eqn. (17) to Example (13) with n = 4 > 3 = m ,
we can easily compute the residue as
1 d ( 4−1) 4
Res [ z0 , f ] = lim z f ( z)
(4 − 1) ! z →0 dz ( 4−1)
1 d3 sin z 1
= lim 3 z 4 4 = − .
3! z → 0 dz z 6
***
We now take up an example where the singularities of the functions involved
are essential singularities.

Example 14: Find the residues at the singular points of the following
functions:
1 1
i) f ( z ) = z sin ii) f ( z ) = z cos .
z z
Solution: The singularities of both the given functions is the point z = 0 which
is an isolated essential singular point of f ( z ) in both the cases. We write the
Laurent series expansion of f ( z ) about z = 0 to compute the residue in each
case
1 1 1  1
i) f ( z ) = z sin = z  − 3
+ L = 1 − +L
z  z 3! z  3! z 3
18
  1 1 Residues and Poles
∴ Res 0, z sin  = coefficient of in the Laurent series = 0
 z z
1  1 1  1 1
ii) f ( z ) = z cos = z 1 − 2
− 4
− L = z − + −L
z  2! z 4! z  2! z 4! z 3
 1 1 1
∴ Res 0, z cos  = coefficient of in the Laurent series = − .
 2 z 2
***

Before we ask you to try a few exercises to check your understanding of

finding the residues, we give you a result as a theorem, which you may find
useful while solving the problems.

Theorem 4: Suppose that 0 is an isolated singularity of an even function f

analytic on the punctured plane C* = C \ {0} . Then Res [0, f ] = 0 .

∞
Proof: Let f ( z ) = ∑a z
n = −∞
n
n
be the Laurent series expansion of f around 0 in

C* . We then need to show that the coefficient a−1 in the expansion is 0. If we

replace z by − z in this expansion and use the fact that f is an even function
∞ ∞
i.e., f (− z ) = f ( z ) , we get ∑ (−1)n an z n =
n = −∞
∑a z
n = −∞
n
n
. Now using the uniqueness

of Laurent expansion, we have (−1) n an = an . If n is odd then an = 0 . In

particular, a−1 = 0 . Hence Res [0, f ] = a−1 = 0 .
– –

Consider the following example.

 − z12 1
Example 15: Compute the Res 0, e cos  .
 z 
1
1
−
z2
Solution: Let f ( z ) = e then f (− z ) = f ( z ) for all z ∈ C* . Also z = 0
cos
z
is an isolated essential singularity of f ( z ) . Then by Theorem (4)
 − z12 1
Res 0, e cos  = 0 .
 z 
***

You may now try the following exercises.

E13) Consider the function in Example 12. Find its residue at z = −1 by using
the Laurent series expansion. Also find

∫ f ( z )dz where Cr = {z :| z + 1 | = r , 0 < r < 1} (see Fig. 6). Fig. 6

Cr

E14) Compute each of the following residues:

19
Applications of
 z2 +1   ez 
Analytic Functions i) Res − 3, ii) Res i + 1, .
 z ( z + 3) 2  
3
( z − i − 1) 

E15) Find the residues of the given functions at the given points:
 sin z   (e 4z − 1) 
i) Res 0, 3  ii) Res 0, 2 .
 z ( z − 2) ( z + 1)   sin z 

E16) Show that the singular point of each of the following functions is a pole.
Determine the order of the pole and the corresponding residue
1 − cosh z exp( 2 z )
i) ii) .
z3 ( z − 1)2

E17) Show that

 Log z  π + 2i
i) Res i, 2 2
=
 (z + 1)  8

 z 1/2  1 − i
ii) Res i, 2 2
= (| z | > 0, 0 < arg z < 2π ) .
 ( z + 1)  8 2

E18) Show that

π
i) Res [ z n , z sec z ] = (−1) n +1 z n , where z n = + n π , (n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,K)
2
π 
ii) Res [ z n , tanh z ] = 1 where z n =  + nπ  i, (n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, K) .
2 

Now that you have learnt the methods of finding the residues of a complex
function f at its isolated singularities which may be removable, pole or an
essential singularity, we move on to discuss a theorem known as Cauchy’s
residue theorem. The theorem states that under some circumstances we can
evaluate complex integrals ∫ f ( z )dz by summing the residues at the isolated
C
singularities of f within the closed contour C .

7.4 CAUCHY’S RESIDUE THEOREM

The Cauchy’s residue theorem shows that if the function is analytic except for
the finite number of points, inside and on a positively oriented, simple closed
contour C , then the value of the integral of f around C is 2π i times the sum
of the residues of f at the singular points inside C . We now state and prove
the theorem.

Theorem 5: Let C be a simple closed contour described in the positive sense.

If a function f is analytic inside and on C except for a finite number of
singular points z k (k = 1, 2, K, n) inside C , then
n

∫ f ( z )dz = 2π i ∑ Res [ z k , f ( z )] . (18)

C k =1
20
Proof: It is given that f is analytic inside and on C except for finite number Residues and Poles
of singular points zk′ s which must be isolated. It means we can always
construct positively oriented circles Ck , centered at zk , such that they lie inside
C and are disjoint (see Fig. 7). The circles Ck , together with the simple closed
contour C , form the boundary of a closed region throughout which f is
analytic and whose interior is a multiply connected domain. Let us now
construct a polygonal path L1 connecting the outer contour C to the inner
circle C1 . Construct another polygonal path L2 connecting C1 to C2 and
continue in this manner constructing polygonal path Ln +1 connecting inner
circle Cn back to contour C . Finally, we end up with two positively oriented
simple closed contours Γ1 and Γ2 consisting of polygonal paths Lk or − Lk and Fig. 7
parts of C and − Ck as shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

In order to distinguish between the two circles we have denoted the parts of Ck
by Ck1 and Ck 2 and of C by C 1 and C 2 in Fig. 8. Note that in this
construction, the inner circles are clockwise (negatively oriented) and this is
the reason for putting minus sign. The Cauchy-Goursat theorem can now be
applied to the contours Γ1 and Γ2 to obtain
∫ f ( z )dz = 0 (19)
Γ1

∫ f ( z )dz = 0 (20)
Γ2
which can be combined to give
∫ f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz = 0 . (21)
Γ1 Γ2
We break the integrals on the left hand sides of the Eqns. (19) and (20) and
write
∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz + L + ∫ f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz
Γ1 C1 L1 − C11 − C n1 Ln +1

= ∫ f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz − ∫ f ( z )dz − L − ∫

1
f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz (22)
C L1 C11 Cn1 Ln+1

∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ 2
f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz + L + ∫ f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz
Γ2 C − L1 − C12 −Cn 2 − Ln+1
21
Applications of
Analytic Functions
= ∫ f ( z )dz − ∫ f ( z )dz − ∫ f ( z )dz − L − ∫ f ( z )dz − ∫ f ( z)dz . (23)
C2 L1 C12 Cn 2 Ln+1
Substituting from Eqns. (22) and (23) into Eqn. (21), we have
∫ f ( z )dz + ∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ f ( z )dz − ∫ f ( z )dz − L − ∫ f ( z )dz (24)
Γ1 Γ2 C C1 Cn
n
= ∫ f ( z )dz − ∑ ∫ f ( z)dz = 0 .
C k =1 Ck
n
⇒ ∫ f ( z )dz = ∑
k =1
∫ f ( z )dz . (25)
C Ck
Observe that in writing Eqn. (24) the integrals along polygonal paths cancelled
out and those along parts of inner circles and contours have been combined.
We have already seen from Laurent series representation in Eqn. (11) that
∫ f ( z)dz = 2π i Res [ zk , f ] (k = 1, 2, K, n).
Ck
Thus we get from Eqn. (25) the desired result
n

∫ f ( z )dz = 2π i ∑ Res [ z k , f ] .
C k =1
– –

We now evaluate some integrals using the Cauchy’s residue theorem.

Example 16: Use the Cauchy’s residue theorem to evaluate the integrals of the
following functions around the circle C : | z | = 3 , drawn in positive sense.
e− z
i) f (z) =
( z − 1) 2
1
2 z
ii) f ( z) = z e .
Solution: i) It can be seen easily that z = 1 is the singular point of f which
lies inside the circle C : | z | = 3 . It is a pole of order m = 2 . Therefore

 e− z  1  d −z 
Res 1, 2
=  e  = −e −1 .
 ( z − 1)  (2 − 1)!  dz  z =1
Using the Cauchy’s residue theorem, we get
e − z dz  e− z  2π i
∫ ( z − 1)2 = 2π i Res 1, ( z − 1)2  = 2π i(−e ) = − e .
−1

C
1
ii) We know that z = 0 is an essential singularity of e z therefore it is an
1
2
essential singularity of z e . Also, z = 0 lies inside the contour C . The
z

1
2 z
Laurent series expansion of z e gives
1
 1 1 1 1 
z 2e z = z 2 1 + + 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ L
 z 2! z 3! z 4! z 
1 1 1
= z2 + z + + + + L.
2! 3! z 4! z 2
 1
 1
Thus Res 0, z 2e z  = .
22   3!
 The Cauchy’s residue theorem then gives Residues and Poles
1
 2 1 1 πi
∫ z e dz = 2π i Res 0, z e 2  = 2π i 3! = 3 .
2 z

C  
***
Example 17: Use the residue theorem to evaluate
1
2π i C∫
f ( z )dz

eiz
where f ( z ) = and C is a positively oriented (counterclockwise)
(sin z ) (cos z )
quadrilateral with vertices ± 4 ± 5i .
π 3π
Solution: The poles of f (z ) are given by z = 0, ± , ± π , ± , ± 2π , K .
2 2
π
Only the points 0, , ± π lie in the interior of the quadrilateral (see Fig. 9).
2 Fig. 9
They are all simple poles. The residues at these points are
ei .o
Res [0, f ( z )] = =1
d 
 (sin z ) (cos z ) 
 dz z =0
π
±i
± π  e 2
Res  , f ( z) = = ±i
 2  −1
e±i π
Res [±π , f ( z )] = = −1 .
1
Now applying the residue’s theorem, we get
∫ f ( z )dz = 2π i [1 + i − i − 1 − 1] = −2π i .
C
***
Example 18: Evaluate the integral
dz
∫ z 2 tan z .
 π
C  0, 
 4
1
Solution: The integrand f ( z ) = has singular points at z 2 tan z = 0 , that
2
z tan z
is , z = 0, ± π , ± 2π , K . Here z = 0 is a pole of order three of f (z ) as can be
seen from the Laurent series representation of f (z ) , i.e.,
1 1
=
2
z tan z  z3 
z 2  z + + L
 3 
−1
1 z2 
= 3 1 + + L
z  3 
1  z2 
= 1 − + L
3 
z  3 
1 1 
=  3 − + L .
z 3z  23
Applications of 1
Analytic Functions Thus z = 0 is a pole of order three with Res [0, f ( z )] = − .
3
To check the nature of singularities at points z = ± n π , n ∈ Z \ {0} you may
observe that
1
lim f ( z ) = lim 2 = ∞ and
z →± n π z → ± n π z tan z

lim ( z ± n π ) f ( z ) = lim w f ( w ± n π )
z →± n π w→ 0
w 1
= lim 2
= 2 2 (for n ≠ 0 ).
w→ 0 ( w ± n π ) tan( w ± n π ) nπ
Thus z = ± n π , n ∈ Z \ {0} are the simple poles.
Fig. 10
 π
Only the singularity at the point z = 0 lies inside the circle C  0,  (see Fig. 10).
 4
Using the Cauchy’s residue theorem, we get
dz 1 2π i
∫ z 4 tan z = 2π i Res [0, f ( z)] = 2π i × − 3 = − 3 .
 π
C  0, 
 4
***

You may now try the following exercises.

E19) Evaluate the following integral using the Cauchy’s residue theorem:
dz
∫ z 4 + 1 where C is the circle x + y = 2 x .
2 2

E20) Compute the following integral using the Cauchy’s residue theorem.
1 ez   1 
∫
2π i C ( z + 1) sin z
dz  c =  z : | z | =   .
  2 

cosh π z
E21) Evaluate the integral ∫ z ( z 2 + 1) dz .
C

E22) Let C N denote the positively oriented boundary of the square whose edges
lie along the lines
 1  1
x = ±  N +  π and y = ±  N +  π
 2  2
where N is positive integer. Further, taking the limit N → ∞ in the above
equation, show that
∞
(−1) n +1 π 2
∑ n2 = 12 .
n =1

1
E23) Consider the function f ( z ) = , where q is analytic at z0 , q( z0 ) = 0
[q( z )]2
and q′( z0 ) ≠ 0 . Show that z 0 is a pole of order 2 of the function f , with
q′′( z0 )
residue B0 = − .
[q′( z0 )]3
24
We now end the unit by giving a summary of what we have covered in it. Residues and Poles

7.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we have covered the following:
1) Zero set of an analytic function is an isolated set.
2) Identity theorem provides condition under which two analytic functions
defined on a domain are identical.
3) A point z 0 is called a singular point of a function f if f fails to be
analytic at z 0 but is analytic at some point in every neighbourhood of z 0 .

4) A point z0 ∈ D is said to be an isolated singularity of f if f is defined

and holomorphic in a neighbourhood of z 0 except possibly at z 0 .

5) Laurent series can be used to classify the isolated singular point z = z0 of

the function as follows:
• If the function is not defined at z = z0 but lim f ( z ) exists, then the
z → z0

point is called a removable singular point. In this case the principal

part of the Laurent series is zero.
• If the principal part of the Laurent series expansion of the function f
about a point has only a finite number of terms then the singularity is
called a pole.
• If the principal part of the Laurent series expansion of the function f
about a point has infinite number of terms then the singularity is
called an essential singularity.
6) If a function f has one or more isolated singularities inside a simple
closed contour C then each of these singularities contributes to the value
of the integral ∫ f ( z )dz . These contributions come from the residues
C
evaluated at these isolated singularities.
7) If z = z0 is a simple pole of f , then
Res [ z0 , f ( z )] = lim ( z − z0 ) f ( z ) .
z → z0

8) If z = z0 is a pole of order m of f , then

1 d ( m −1)
Res [ z0 , f ( z )] = lim ( m −1) ( z − z0 ) m f ( z ) .
(m − 1)! z → z0 dz

9) If z = z0 is an essential singularity of f then the coefficient of ( z − z0 ) −1

in the Laurent series expansion of f gives the residue of f at z = z0 .

10) Cauchy’s Residue Theorem: Let C be a simple closed contour, described

in the positive sense. If a function f is analytic inside and on C except for
a finite number of singular points z k (k = 1, 2, K, n) inside C , then
n

∫ f ( z )dz = 2π i ∑ Res [ zk , f ( z )] .
C k =1 25
Applications of
Analytic Functions 7.6 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS

E1) It can be seen that f ( z ) = z 3 − 64 = ( z − 4) ( z 2 + 4 z + 16) = ( z − 4)φ ( z )

where φ ( z ) = z 2 + 4 z + 16 . Now we find that
f (4) = 0, φ (4) = 16 + 16 + 16 = 48 ≠ 0 .
Thus z = 4 is the zero of order 1 (simple zero).

E2) It is known that e z = 1 if and only if z = 2n π i, n ∈ Z . Therefore, all the

zeros of the entire function f are precisely 2n π i, n ∈ Z (it should be
noted here that z 2 = 0 if and only if z = 0 ). Note that f (0) = 0 and

f ′( z ) = 2 z (e z − 1) + z 2e z ⇒ f ′(0) = 0 .

f ′′( z ) = 2(e z − 1) + 4 ze z + z 2e z ⇒ f ′′(0) = 0 .

f ′′′( z ) = 6e z + 6 ze z + z 2e z ⇒ f ′′′(0) = 6 ≠ 0 .
Therefore z0 = 0 is the zero of order 3 of f . All other zeros are simple
zeros.

E3) i) Let f ( z ) = z 3e z −1 . Now f ( z ) = 0 ⇒ z 3 = 0 , thus z = 0 is a zero of

f . We write the Taylor series expansion of f as

z3 z z3  z2 
f ( z ) = z 3e z −1 = e = 1 + z + + L = z 3φ ( z ) .
e e  2! 
Therefore, z = 0 is a zero of order 3.

ii) f ( z ) = z 2 cosh z . Zeros of f are given by

π 
z = 0,  + n π  i (n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, K) . Further, check that
2 
f (0) = 0, f ′(0) = 0, f ′′(0) ≠ 0 .
 π   π 
f   + n π i  = 0, f ′   + n π i  ≠ 0 (n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, K) .
 2  2 
Thus, z = 0 is a zero of order 2 and the remaining zeros are simple
zeroes (that is, of order one).

E4) Consider a function g defined as g ( z ) = z and a function h defined as

h( z ) = − z . On similar lines as in Example 4 we can observe that f = g
1   1 
on a set A =  : n ∈ N  and f = h on a set B =  : n ∈ N  . Both
 2n   2n + 1 
the sets have limit point 0 inside the domain. Thus we arrive at a
contradiction by the identity theorem.

E5) Assume that such a function exists, then proceeding as in E4) prove that
such a function will be a constant function.

E6) Since an open interval has a limit point therefore by the identity theorem
an analytic function on an open interval will be identically zero. That is,
26 it is a constant function. Thus no such non constant function exists.
 z − sin z Residues and Poles
E7) i) Since lim z f ( z ) = z = 1 / 6 . Therefore z = 0 is a pole of
z →0 z4
order 1.
1
ii) Zeros of f are z = 1 − n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, K and 1 is the limit point
nπ
of the zero set of f . Therefore z = 1 is an isolated essential
singularity.
iii) Poles of f are given by the zeros of 1 + e z i.e., z = (2n + 1)π i .
Since the zeros of 1 + e z are of order 1, therefore the poles of f are
of order 1. Also, z = ∞ is the limit point of poles, therefore z = ∞
is a non-isolated essential singularity.
iv) Hint: Poles of f are the zeros of cos z .

1
E8) i) Let f ( z ) = z −1 cosec z = . It can be seen that
z sin z
z = 0, ± π , ± 2π , K are the isolated singularities of f . Since
z2
lim f ( z ) = ∞ (n ∈ Z ) and lim =1
z →n π z → 0 z sin z

z − nπ w
lim = lim ≠ 0 (for n ≠ 0 ), these
z → n π z sin z w → 0 ( w + n π ) sin( w + n π )

points are poles. z = 0 is the pole of order 2 and

z = nπ , n ∈ Z \ {0} are the simple poles.

1
ii) Let f ( z ) = ( z 2 sin z )−1 = . Here f is analytic everywhere
2
z sin z
except at z = 0 and at the zeros of sin z , given by z = n π , n ∈ Z .
The Laurent’s expansion of f at z = 0 is given by
1 1
=
2 
2 3
z sin z z z5
z  z − + − L

 3! 5! 
−1
1  z2 z4 
= 3 1 − + − L
z  3! 5! 
1  z 2 5z 4  1 1 5z
= 1 + −
3
+ L = 3 + − +L.
z  3! 36  z 6 z 36
Thus z = 0 is a pole of order three. To check the nature of
singularities at the points z = n π , n ∈ Z \ {0} , we observe that
lim f ( z ) = ∞ and
z →n π

 1
 2 2 , if n is even
lim ( z − n π ) f ( z ) = lim w f (w + n π ) =  n π
z →n π w →0 1
− 2 2 , if n is odd
 nπ
Therefore, z = n π, n ∈ Z \ {0} are the simple poles.

1
E9) i) f ( z ) = z e z is analytic everywhere except at the point z = 0 . The
27
Applications of Laurent’s expansion about z = 0 is given by
Analytic Functions 1
 1 1  1 1
z e z = z 1 + + 2
+ L = z + 1 + + 2
+L.
 z 2 ! z  2 ! z 3! z
Thus at z = 0, f has an isolated essential singularity.

ii) Obviously, z = 0 is the singularity of f ( z ) = (cos z − cos 2 z ) / z 4 .

Further,
cos z − cos 2 z 1  z 2 z 4 z 6 
=  1 − + − + L 
z4 z 4  2 ! 4 ! 6 ! 

 4 z 2 16 z 4 64 z 5  
− 1 − + − + L 
 2! 4! 6!  
1  3z 2 5z 4 7 z 6  3 5 7z2
= 4  − + − L = 2 − + −L.
z  2 8 80  2z 8 80
Thus, z = 0 is the pole of order 2.

8a 3 z 2
E10) Clearly, φ ( z ) = is analytic at z = ai and its Taylor series is
( z + ai )3
given by
φ ′(ai) φ ′′(ai )
φ ( z ) = φ (ai ) + ( z − ai) + ( z − ai )2 + L .
1! 2!
Now
φ ( z) 1  φ ′ (ai) φ ′′ (ai) 
f ( z) = 3
= 3 
φ (ai) + ( z − ai) + ( z − ai)2 + L
( z − ai) ( z − ai)  1! 2! 
φ (ai) φ ′(ai) φ ′′(ai )
⇒ f ( z) = 3
+ 2
+ +L
( z − ai) ( z − ai ) 2 !( z − ai)
The principal part of f is given by:
φ (ai φ ′(ai ) φ ′′(ai )
3
+ 2
+
( z − ai ) ( z − ai ) 2 !( z − ai )
8a3 (−a 2 ) a 2
φ (ai ) = 3
= = − a 2i
− 8a i i
 2 z ( z + ai)3 − 3 z 2 ( z + ai) 2  3  2( z + ai ) = 3 z 
φ ′( z) = 8a 3  6  = 8a z 4 
 ( z + ai )   ( z + ai) 
8a 3 z
= (2ai − z )
( z + ai)4
8a3 (ai) 8a3 (ai ) (ai − 8a 5 a
Now φ ′(ai ) = 4
( 2 ai − ai ) = 4
= 4
=− .
(2ai ) 16a 16a 2
16a3
Similarly, φ ′′(ai) = 5
{− a 2 + z 2 − 4aiz} ,
( z + ai )
16a 3 2 2 2 32a 5 1
and φ ′′(ai) = {− a − a + 4 a } = = = −i .
32a5i 32a 5i i
Thus, the principal part of f is
a 2i a/2 i/2
− 3
− 2
− .
28 ( z − ai ) ( z − ai) ( z − ai )
E11) You can easily see that the singularities of the given function are at 0 and Residues and Poles
sin z 2
1. Only 0 lies inside the given contour. Since lim 2 = 1 , therefore,
z →0 z
2
sin z
lim z 2 = 0 . Thus 0 is a removable singularity and
z → 0 z ( z − 1)

 sin z 2 
Res 0, 2  =0.
 z ( z − 1) 

E12) Let us Prove Result (14).

Since f has a pole of order m at z = z0 , its Laurent series expansion
convergent on the disk 0 < | z − z0 | < R , for some positive number R , is
of the form
f ( z ) = a0 + a1 ( z − z0 ) + a2 ( z − z0 )2 + L
b b2 bm
+ 1 + 2
+L+ (26)
z − z0 ( z − z0 ) ( z − z0 ) m
where bm ≠ 0 . Multiplying Eqn. (26) by ( z − z0 ) m we obtain
( z − z0 ) m f ( z ) = a0 ( z − z0 )m + a1 ( z − z0 )m +1 + L
+ b1 ( z − z0 ) m −1 + b2 ( z − z0 )m − 2 + L + bm (27)
Differentiating (m − 1) times both the side of Eqn. (27), we get
d m −1
m −1
[( z − z0 )m f ( z )] = m !a0 ( z − z0 ) + L + b1 (m − 1) ! . (28)
dz
Since all the terms on the right hand side of Eqn. (28) except the last term
involve positive integral powers of ( z − z0 ) . The limit of (28) as z → z0 is
d m −1
lim [( z − z0 )m f ( z )] = b1 (m − 1)!
z → z 0 dz m −1
or
1 d m −1
b1 = Res[ z0 , f ] = lim [( z − z0 ) m f ( z )]
(m − 1)! z → z0 dz m −1
which proves Result (14). Result (12) and (13) can be proved on the
similar lines.
In order to prove Result (15), you may note that since g ( z0 ) = 0 and
g ′( z0 ) ≠ 0, g has a zero of order 1 at z0 . From the definition of derivative
(ref. Definition 1, Unit 2), we get
g ( z ) − g ( z0 ) g ( z)
g ′( z0 ) = lim = lim (29)
z → z0 z − z0 z → z 0 z − z0

Using Result (12) in Eqn. (29), we obtain

f ( z) f ( z) f ( z0 )
Res [ z0 , f ] = lim ( z − z0 ) = lim =
z → z0 g ( z) z → z 0 g ( z ) g ′( z0 )
( z − z0 )
which proves Result (15).

E13) We have
z2 + 4z + 5
f ( z) =
z (1 + z )
29
Applications of 5 2
Analytic Functions = 1+ −
z z +1
Thus, Res [ z = −1, f ( z )] = the coefficient of ( z + 1) −1 = −2 .
Hence
∫ f ( z )dz = 2π ib1 = 2π i × −2 = −4π i .
Cr

E14) i) As − 3 is the double pole of the function, so

 z2 + 1  1 d  2 z +1 
2
Res − 3,  = lim ( z + 3) 
 z ( z + 3)2  1! z → −3 dz  z ( z + 3) 2 
d  z2 +1 8
= lim  = .
z → −3 dz  
 z  9
ii) Here z = i + 1 is a pole of order 3, we get
 ez  1 d (3−1) 3 ez
Res i + 1, = lim ( z − (i + 1))
 ( z − i − 1)3  (3 − 1)! z →i +1 dz (3−1) ( z − i − 1)3

1 d 2 z ei +1
= lim e = .
2! z →i +1 dz 2 2

E15) i) Observe that z = 0 is a pole of the given function of order 2. Hence

 sin z  1 d  sin z 
Res 0, 3  = lim  
 z ( z − 2) ( z + 1)  1! z →0 dz  z ( z − 2) ( z + 1) 
−1
=
2
ii) We see that z = 0 is a simple pole of the given function.
 (e 4 z − 1)  (e 4 z − 1)
Res 0,  = lim z .
 sin 2 z  z →0 sin 2 z
0
This is an indeterminate form   therefore applying L’Hospitals
0
rule, we obtain the residue to be 4.

∞
z 2n
1− ∑
1 − cosh z n = 0 ( 2n ) !
E16) i) 3
=
z z3
1 z
=− − − L.
2 z 24
−1
Thus, z = 0 is a pole of order 1 and the residue = .
2
e2 z e2+ 2 z − 2 2 e
2 ( z −1)
ii) = =e
( z − 1) 2 ( z − 1) 2 ( z − 1)2

 1 2 
= e2  2
+ + 2 + L
 ( z − 1) ( z − 1) 
Thus z = 1 is pole of order 2 and the residue = 2e 2 .
30
 Residues and Poles
 Log ( z )   Log ( z ) 
E17) i) Res i, 2 2
= Res i, 2 2
.
 ( z + 1)   ( z + i) ( z − i ) 
Log ( z)
Let φ ( z ) = . We know that
( z + i )2
d 1
Log ( z ) = (| z | > 0, − π < arg z < π ) . We have
dz z
1
( z + i )2 − 2( z + i ) Log ( z )
φ ′( z ) = z
( z + i )4
4i − (Log (i))4i
φ ′(i) =
16
i i  π  π + 2i
= [1 − (ln 1) + i Arg i] = 1 −  0 + i  =
4 4  2  8
 Log z  π + 2i
⇒ Res i, 2 2
= .
 ( z + 1)  8
1
z2
ii) Obviously z = i is a double pole. φ ( z ) = is analytic at
( z + i) 2
z = i.
 1   2

 z2   d   ( z + i) − 4 z( z + i) 
∴ Res i 2 = φ ( z ) = 
( z + 1)2   dz  z =i
1 
  
 2 z 2 ( z + i )4 
  z =i
1− i  1 
=  i= (1 + i) .
8 2  2 

E18) i) Put p( z ) = z and q( z ) = cos z .

π
For n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, K, p( zn ) = zn = + nπ ≠ 0 ,
2
q( z n ) = cos( z n ) = − sin( n π ) = 0
and q′( zn ) = − sin( z n ) = − cos (n π ) = (−1) n +1 . Therefore
p ( zn ) zn
Res [ z n , z sec z ] = = = (−1)n +1 z n .
q′( zn ) − cos (n π )
ii) Consider p( z ) = sinh z and q( z ) = cosh z and proceed as in i)
above.

1+ i 1− i −1 + i
E19) It can be seen by factorising that z1 = , z2 = , z3 = and
2 2 2
−1− i 1
z4 = are the simple poles of the function f ( z ) = 4 . The poles
2 z +1
z1 and z 2 lie inside the contour C which is a circle ( x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1
Fig. 11
centred at (1, 0) of radius 1 (see Fig. 11).
Now we compute the residues at z1 and z 2 :
 1  (z − z )
Res  z1, 4  = lim 4 1
 z + 1 z → z1 z + 1 31
Applications of ( z − z1 )
Analytic Functions = lim
z → z1 ( z − z ) ( z − z ) ( z − z ) ( z − z )
1 2 3 4
1 1
= =
( z1 − z2 ) ( z1 − z3 ) ( z1 − z4 ) 2 2 (i − 1)

 1  (z − z )
Res  z2 , 4  = lim 4 2
 z + 1 z → z 2 z + 1
( z − z2 )
= lim
z → z2 ( z − z ) ( z − z ) ( z − z ) ( z − z )
1 2 3 4

1 1
= =−
( z2 − z1 ) ( z 2 − z3 ) ( z2 − z 4 ) 2 2 (i + 1)
By the residue theorem
dz   1   1 
∫ z 4 + 1 = 2π i Res  z1 , z 4 +! + Res  z2 , z 4 + 1 
C

 1 1  πi
= 2π i  − =− .
 2 2 (i − 1) 2 2 (i + 1)  2
Note that you can also solve this problem by using the partial fractions
and the Cauchy integral formula.

ez
E20) Given f ( z ) = . The poles of f are 0 and − 1 . Only the pole
( z + 1) sin z
0 lies inside the simple closed contour C . Also it is a simple pole.
 ez  ze z
Res 0,  = lim = 1.
 ( z + 1) sin z  z →0 ( z + 1) sin z
Using the residue theorem, we get
1 ez   1 
∫ dz  C =  z : | z | =  
2π i C ( z + 1) sin z   2 
 ez 
= Res 0,  = 1.
 ( z + 1) sin z 

cosh (π z )
E21) Here f ( z ) = . Point 0 is a pole of order one and
z ( z 2 + 1)
cosh (π z )
φ ( z) = is analytic at z = 0 (see Fig. 12). Thus
( z 2 + 1)
Fig. 12 cosh (0)
Res [0, f ] = φ (0) = = 1.
1
cosh (π z )
Point z = i is a pole of order one and φ ( z ) = is analytic at
z( z + i)
z = i . Thus
cosh (π i) 1
Res [i, f ] = φ (i ) = = .
i.2.i 2
cosh (−π i ) 1
Similarly, Res [−i, f ] = φ (−i) = = .
(−i ) (−i − i ) 2
32 Then by the Cauchy’s residue theorem
 cosh (π z )  1 1 Residues and Poles
∫ 2
z ( z + 1)
dz = 2π i × 1 + +  = 4π i .
 2 2
| z| = 2

1
E22) We have f ( z ) = . Let p( z ) = 1, q( z ) = z 2 sin z .
2
z sin z
Clearly, q( z ) = 0 ⇔ z 2 sin z = 0 ⇔ z = n π , (n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, K) .
Now p(n π ) = 1 ≠ 0 and q(n π ) = 0, q′( z ) = 2 z sin z + z 2 cos z .
Thus, q′(n π ) = n 2π 2 cos n π ≠ 0 . (n ≠ 0) . Clearly, each singular point
z = n π is a simple pole (n ≠ 0)
1
Res [n π , f ] = 2 2 = (−1) n / n 2π 2 if n ≠ 0 .
n π cos n π

Fig. 13

1 1 1 z
Further, = 3+2
+ +L.
z sin z z 3! z 5!
Thus z = 0 is a pole of f of order 3 and Res [0, f ] = 1 / 6 .

dz 1  N
(−1) n  No. of singular points (see Fig. 13) are
∴ ∫ z 2 sin z
= 2π i × + 
6 
2π i ∑ n2π 2  × 2 symmetric with respecto to the origin.
CN n =1 

1 N
(−1) n 
= 2π i  + 2∑ 2 2  .
6 n =1 n π 
dz
We know that ∫ 2 → 0 as N → ∞ .
C
z sin z
N

1 N
(−1) n 
⇒ 2π i  + 2∑ 2 2  → 0 as N → ∞
6 n =1 n π 

1 2 N
(−1) n N
(−1) n π2
⇒ +
6 π2
∑ n2 → 0 as N → ∞ ⇒ ∑ n 2 12 as N → ∞ .
→
n =1 n =1
33
Applications of E23) Since q( z0 ) = 0 and q′( z0 ) ≠ 0 ⇒ z = z0 is a zero of order m = 1 of the
Analytic Functions
function and therefore q( z ) = ( z − z 0 ) g ( z ) , where g (z ) is analytic at z0
and g ′( z 0 ) ≠ 0 .
1 1
Now f ( z ) = 2 2
. Put φ ( z ) = .
( z − z0 ) [ g ( z )] [ g ( z )]2
φ ( z)
Therefore, f ( z ) = ⇒ z = z0 is a pole of order m = 2 for the
( z − z0 ) 2
function f . We have
φ ′( z0 )
Res [ z0 , f ] = B0 = = φ ′( z0 ) .
1!
− 2 g ′( z )
Now φ ′( z ) = −2 [ g ( z )]− 3 g ′( z ) =
[ g ( z )]3
2 g ′( z0 )
⇒ φ ′( z 0 ) = − , where q′( z 0 ) = g ( z0 ) and q′′( z0 ) = 2 g ′( z0 ) .
[ g ( z0 )]− 3
2.q′′( z 0 ) / 2 q′′( z 0 )
∴ B0 = φ ′( z 0 ) = − 3
=− .
[q′( z0 )] [q′( z 0 )]3
–x–

34