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 Secondary memory technologies

● Electro-magnetic storage
● Existing for over 50 years
● Excellent performance for sequential work load
● Solid state storage
● Upcoming & gaining popularity
● Gives excellent performance for random read
workload
 Storage Devices

● Disk storage :
● Solid State storage
● Tape storage
IBM RAMAC 350 disk

● Developed in 1956
● Height 66 inches
● 50 platters of size 24 inches
● Weight : around 1 ton
● Storage capacity : 4MB
 Modern Disk Drives

● Mechanism
● Recording Components
4 Rotating Disk
4 Heads
● Positioning Components
4 Arm Assembly
4 Track-following System

● Controller
● Microprocessor
● Buffer Memory
● Interface to SCSI bus/SATA
 Magnetic Tape
● Relatively permanent and holds large quantities of data
● 1000 times slower than disk
● Mainly used for backup, storage of infrequently-used data, transfer medium
between systems
● 20GB-1.5TB typical storage
● Common technologies are 4mm, 8mm, 19mm, LTO-2 and SDLT
● the original version of which was released in 2000 and can hold 100 GB of data
● The seventh generation of LTO Ultrium was released in 2015 and can hold
6.0 TB
I/O path from CPU to storage
 Disk Attachment

● Drives are attached to computer via I/O bus

● USB
● SATA (replacing ATA, PATA, EIDE)
● SCSI
4 itself is a bus, up to 16 devices on one
cable, SCSI initiator requests operation
and SCSI targets perform tasks
● FC (Fiber Channel) is high-speed serial
architecture
 Anatomy of Disk

● Major components of disk

drives
● Platters
● Read write head
● Actuator assembly
● Spindle motor
Moving-head Disk Mechanism
 Platter
● Are made up of glass or aluminum substrate
● Is coated with magnetic material
● It is rigid, thin, flat , smooth
● All platters are attached to common shaft (spindle)
● Rigidity & smoothness is very important . Any defect could result in head crash
Read Write head
● Head flies above the platter surface
● Attached to actuator assembly
● OS does not know any thing about read write head
● Flying height is measured in micrometers
Head crash
● Read /write head never touch platter. If they touch , it is known as head
crash.
● Head crash would always result in complete loss of data .
● Each platter surface has its own read/write head
● Concept of head and recording surface gave rise to CSH addressing
 Tracks & Sectors
● Surface of every platter is microscopically divided
into tracks & sectors
● Sector is the smallest addressable unit of a disk
drive
● Sector size is typically 512 bytes or 520 bytes
● SATA (Serial Advance Technology Attachment) have
fixed sector size of 512 bytes
● FC ( Fiber channel ) and serial attached SCSI ( SAS)
drives can be arbitrarily formatted to different size
● This is important for implementation of data
integrity technology for End to end data
protection EDP
● 8 bytes of data added to end of every 512 byte
sector
● This allows errors to be detected
 Tracks & Sectors
● Size of each sector is getting smaller and smaller
towards the center .
● The recording density being same , outer sectors
waste space
● Most modern disk implement Zoned Data Recording
( ZDR)
● The outer track store and retrieve more data per
spin
● If data is read or written to contiguous sector of
same or adjacent track we get better performance
● Short stroking to achieve performance
● Data could be stored only on outermost tracks
● Reduced capacity , reduced load
Larger sector size trend
● 512 byte sector requires 320 bytes for ECC
● 4K byte requires only 100 byte
● Type of disk where size of sector is fixed and can not be changed is known
as Fixed Block Architecture ( FBA)
Logical block addressing
● OS treats disk as array of blocks
● Hides complexity of CSH based addressing
● Is complex due to ZDR
● Bad sector handling mechanism
● LBA is implemented in drive controller
● LBA to PBA mapping is required
● OS or volume managers never know the precise location of the data on
disk
 Controller

● Each disk drive comes with its own controller

● Controller has a processor, memory and it runs firmware
● Controller hides the disk operation complexities
● It maps Physical address to logical address and
exposes LBA to OS/ Bios
● Controller also monitors the health of disk
● It also maintains the bad block map
● Each drive has a number of hidden / spare block
which are used to remap bad blocks
 Common protocol & interfaces

● Serial advance technology attachment (SATA)

● Serial attached SCSI (SAS)
● Nearline SAS ( NLSAS)
● Fibre channel ( FC)
 HDD Form factor

Form factor Hight Width Depth

3.5 inch 1 inch 4 inch 5.75 inch

2.5 inch 0.6 inch 2.75 inch 3.94 inch

 Drive speed

● 5400 RPM
● 7200 RPM
● 10000RPM
● 15000 RPM ( 240 KM / hr)
● Higher RPM better performance
● Higher RPM lower the capacity
● 2.5 inch , 900Gb 10K
● 3.5 inch , 4 TB 7500RPM
 Disk Scheduling

• The operating system is responsible for using hardware

efficiently — for the disk drives, this means having a fast
access time and disk bandwidth.
• Access time has two major components
● Seek time is the time for the disk arm to move the
heads to the cylinder containing the desired sector.
● Rotational latency is the additional time waiting for
the disk to rotate the desired sector to the disk head.
• Minimize seek time
• Seek time ≈ seek distance
• Disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred,
divided by the total time between the first request for
service and the completion of the last transfer.
 Disk performance

● Seek time (15k 3.4 to 3.9ms) (7.2K 8.5 to 9.5 ms)

● Rotational latency 15k 2ms 7.2k 4.16ms
● Transfer time
● Access time = seek time+ rot delay + transfer time
● IOPS = 1 /(AST+ART) *1000
● eg. 1/( 3.2+2)* 1000 = 181
 Disk Scheduling (Cont.)
● Several algorithms exist to schedule the servicing of disk I/O requests.
● Example: request queue (0-199).

98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67

Head pointer 53
 FCFS
Illustration shows total head movement of 640
cylinders.
 SSTF
● Selects the request with the minimum seek time
from the current head position.
● SSTF scheduling is a form of SJF scheduling;
may cause starvation of some requests.
● Illustration shows total head movement of 236
cylinders.
SSTF (Cont.)
 SCAN
● The disk arm starts at one end of the disk, and
moves toward the other end, servicing requests
until it gets to the other end of the disk, where
the head movement is reversed and servicing
continues.
● Sometimes called the elevator algorithm.
● Illustration shows total head movement of 208
cylinders.
SCAN (Cont.)
 C-SCAN

• Provides a more uniform wait time than SCAN.

• The head moves from one end of the disk to the
other servicing requests.
• When it reaches the other end, it immediately
returns to the beginning of the disk, without
servicing any requests on the return trip.
• Treats the cylinders as a circular list that wraps
around from the last cylinder to the first one.
C-SCAN (Cont.)
 C-LOOK

● Version of C-SCAN
● Arm only goes as far as the last request in each
direction, then reverses direction immediately.
C-LOOK (Cont.)
 Selecting a Disk-Scheduling Algorithm
• SSTF is common and has a natural appeal
• SCAN and C-SCAN perform better for systems that place a
heavy load on the disk.
• Performance depends on the number and types of requests.
• Requests for disk service can be influenced by the
file-allocation method.
• Either SSTF or LOOK is a reasonable choice for the default
algorithm.
 RAID Structure

• RAID – multiple disk drives provides reliability via

redundancy

• RAID is arranged into seven different levels.

 Reliablity
● It is the measure of continuous service accomplishment Or time to fail
● MTTF ; mean time to failure ( specified in no of hours0 is a measure of
reliability
● Service interruption is measured as Mean time to repair ( MTTR)
● Mean time between failure(MTBF)
● MtbF = MTTF+ MTTR
● Availability = MTTF / (MTTF + MTTR)
 RAID (cont)

• Several improvements in disk-use techniques involve

the use of multiple disks working cooperatively.

• Disk striping uses a group of disks as one storage unit.

• RAID schemes improve performance and improve the

reliability of the storage system by storing redundant
data.
• RAID is a set of physical drives viewed by OS as
a single Logical drive
• Data is distributed across the physical drives of
a array
• Redundant disk capacity is used for parity for
data recovery
• increase I/O handling capacity
• increase data handling capacity
 RAID 0

• Does not include any redundancy

• Two different I/O requests can be issued in
parallel
• The logical disk is divided into strips
• These strips may be physical blocks, sectors or
some other unit
• Increases I/O handling capacity
• Increases data handling capacity
RAID 0
 RAID 1

• Uses Mirroring
• A read request can be serviced by either of two
disks whichever has lesser service time
• A write request requires that both
corresponding strips be updated. This can be
done in parallel.
• Recovery from failure is simple.
• High data transfer and I/O handling rate.
Composite RAID (0+1)
RAID 10
 RAID 2
• RAID 2 and 3 make use of parallel accessing
technique.
• All member disks participate in every I/O request
• The disk heads are synchronized
• In RAID 2 and 3 the strips are very small (byte or
word)
• Multi bit parity is calculated using Hamming code
• Number of disks used is less than RAID 1 but still
costly
• All disks are simultaneously accessed
• RAID 2 is not used
 RAID 3

• Require only 1 redundant disk

• Simple parity bit is used
• High data transfer rate
• Only 1 I/O request can be handled at a time
X4(i) = X3(i)⊕ X2(i) ⊕ X1(i) ⊕ X0(i)
Suppose Disk X1 fails
By adding X4(i)⊕ X1(i) on both sides we get
X1(i) = X4(i)⊕ X3(i) ⊕ X2(i) ⊕ X0(i)
RAID 4

4 Each member disk operates independently

4 Can handle high I/O request rates
4 Each WRITE requires two READS and 2
WRITES, which is a bottleneck
X4(i) = X3(i)⊕ X2(i) ⊕ X1(i) ⊕ X0(i)
Suppose a write is performed which only involves
a strip on disk X1.
Thus
X4’(i) = X3(i)⊕ X2(i) ⊕ X1’(i) ⊕ X0(i)
= X3(i)⊕ X2(i) ⊕ X1’(i) ⊕ X0(i) ⊕ X1(i) ⊕ X1(i)
= X4(i) ⊕ X1(i) ⊕ X1’(i)
 RAID 5

• Data distribution similar to RAID 4

• Parity is Distributed on all disk
• I/O bottleneck of single parity disk is avoided
 RAID 6

• Two different parity calculations are carried

out and stored in separate blocks on
different disks
• N+2 disks are required
• Can take care of two disk failures
• Provides extremely high data availability
• Incurs a substantial write penalty
RAID DP
Recovery from failure
Hamming Code
 How much code redundancy?
● How many check bits needed, i.e., given m data bits, how many more bits
(r) are needed to allow all single-bit errors to be corrected?
● Log (m) +1

71
Positions of redundancy bits in Hamming code
Redundancy bits calculation
Example of redundancy bit calculation
Error detection using Hamming code