Element 10: Fire

10.1 Fire principles

10.1 Syllabus Content:
• The fire triangle: sources of ignition; fuel and oxygen in a typical
workplace; oxidising materials
• Classification of fires (different local classifications will be accepted)
• Principles of heat transmission and fire spread: convection,
conduction, radiation, direct burning
• Common causes and consequences of fires in workplaces.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctT8_LiD2cU

• Bradford city fire

What is a fire?
• Fire is a chemical reaction known as combustion which occurs when
fuel and oxygen are brought together with sufficient heat to cause
ignition.
The fire triangle
The fire triangle
• The concept of fire is represented by the Triangle of Combustion and
is composed of fuel, heat, and oxygen.
• Removal of any one of these essential elements will result in the fire
being extinguished.
• The elements are oxygen to sustain combustion, sufficient heat to
raise the material to its flash point temperature, fuel in the form of
combustible material and subsequently an exothermic chemical chain
reaction in the material.
• Theoretically, fire extinguishers put out fire by taking away one or
more elements of the fire triangle.
The fire triangle

Oxygen
• Approximately 16% oxygen is required to support
combustion.
• Normal air contains 21% Oxygen - more than enough
and it is readily available.
• Some fuels contain sufficient oxygen within their
makeup to promote combustion.
The fire triangle

Heat source (source of ignition)

To reach ignition temperature:
• Open flame
• Hot surfaces
• Sparks and arcs
• Friction
• Chemical reaction
• Electrical energy
• Compression of gases
The fire triangle

Fuel
Anything that burns is considered a fuel for fire:
• Flammable liquids
• Flammable gases
• Flammable chemicals
• Wood
• Plastics, rubber and foam
• Paper
• Waste materials
• Insulating materials
Extinguishing a fire
• Cooling by applying water to the fire to remove the heat.
• Starving the fire of fuel by moving material from where the fire is or
closing off any area of combustible material from the fire for eg.
isolating a gas valve to extinguish a gas fire.
• Smothering the fire by limiting the supply of oxygen for eg. closing a
lid on a metal bin that contains a fire.
Classification of fires and principles of
heat transmission
Classification of fires (UK)
• Fuels involved in fires have been broken down into five categories:
• Class A fires - fires involving organic solids such as paper, wood, rags.
• Class B fires - fires involving flammable liquids such as oil and paint.
• Class C fires - fires involving flammable gases such as natural gas and
methane.
• Class D fires - fires involving metals such as magnesium and lithium.
• Class F fires - fires involving cooking oils.
Classification of fires (USA)
Fuels involved in fires have been broken down into five categories:
• Class A fires - fires involving organic solids.
• Class B fires - fires involving flammable liquids.
• Class C fires - fires involving energised electrical equipment.
• Class D fires - fires involving combustible metals.
• Class K fires - fires involving cooking oils.
Principles of heat transmission
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• Direct burning
Principles of heat
transmission
Conduction
• This involves the passage of heat
energy through a substance, usually
a solid.
• Metals are some of the best
conductors of heat, whereas
materials like glass, plastic, wood,
and rubber are good heat insulators.
• Normally fire spreads by conduction
through a steel door or along a steel
beam or a metal pipe.
• Conduction can transfer heat around
a structure and start fires in
unexpected areas.
 Conduction examples

Principles of
Operators doing welding work on one side
heat of a wall may start a fire on the other side
where a pipe leads through the wall.
transmission
Similarly, welding on the outside of a metal
tank can result in ignition of any flammable
vapour contained in the tank without the
need for flame contact with the vapour.
Principles of heat
transmission
Convection
• This is the movement of hot
gases up through the air.
• This process can cause hot
gases to quickly move to
other parts of a building
where the temperature of
combustible materials is
raised to the point that
combustion takes place.
Principles of heat
transmission
Radiation
• This is heat transmission by
invisible rays from a hot object.
Some materials will absorb this
heat radiation, others will reflect it.
The heating effect diminishes with
distance.
• When the heat is absorbed the
material can start to smoulder
then burn.
• For example where clothes are
close to a heater or where heat
radiation spreads fire across a road
to other buildings.
Principles of heat
transmission
Direct burning
• Combustible materials in direct
contact with a naked flame.
• The speed of advance will depend
on factors such as:
• wind and air movement.
• nature of the material.
Reasons why fire spread
Reasons why fire spread
• Failure of early detection
• Absence of compartments in building structure
• Compartments undermined
• Materials inappropriately stored
Common causes and consequences of fire
Common causes of fire
• Careless actions and accidents
• Misusing equipment
• Defective machinery or equipment
• Deliberate ignition (arson)
Common consequences of fire
• Human harm
• Economic effects
• Legal effects
• Environmental effects
 10.2 Preventing fire and fire spread
10.2 Syllabus content:
• Control measures to minimize the risk of fire starting in a workplace:
>> eliminate/reduce quantities of flammable and combustible materials
used or stored
>> control ignition sources, including suitable electrical equipment in
flammable atmospheres
>> use good systems of work
>> good housekeeping
• Storage of flammable liquids in workrooms and other locations
• Structural measures to prevent the spread of fire and smoke: properties of
common building materials (including fire doors); compartmentation;
protection of openings and voids.
Control measures to minimise the risk of fire in
the workplace
• Elimination and reduction of flammable and combustible materials
• Control of ignition sources
• Hot work
• Welding
• Smoking
• Arson
Control measures to minimise the risk of fire in
the workplace
• Systems of Work
• Implementing and using:
• Fire risk assessment
• Safe place
• Safe person
• Safe materials
• Safe equipment

• Permit to work procedures

• Hot work permits
Control measures to minimise the risk of fire in
the workplace
• Good housekeeping
• This is the general tidiness and order of the workplace.

• Housekeeping checks:
• List A Routine checks – daily at the start of business eg. unobstructed escape routes, free
access to hydrants, extinguishers and fire alarms, and no deposits on electric motors.

• List B Routine checks – daily at close down eg. inspection of whole area of responsibility, fire
doors and shutters closed, plant and equipment safely shut down, waste bins emptied, safe
waste disposal, premises left secure.

• List C – Periodic inspection during work hours (weekly, monthly or quarterly) eg. goods neatly
stored, clear spaces around stacks or stored material, smoking rules known and enforced.
Storage and use of flammable liquids
Terms used with flammable liquids
Flashpoint – The lowest temperature at which in a specific test
apparatus, sufficient vapour is produced from a liquid sample for
momentary or flash ignition to occur on the application of an ignition
source.

This is a critical aspect when determining flammability of a substance.

Terms used with flammable liquids
Flammable – The ease with which the vapours of a substance will ignite
causing fire or combustion.

• Substances with vapours that will ignite at temperatures commonly

encountered are considered flammable.

• The United Nations Globally Harmonised System of Classification and

Labelling of Chemicals has established the definition of a flammable liquid
as one having a flash point of not more than 93 degrees Celsius and defines
that there are four categories of classification for a flammable liquid.
General principles for storage and use of
flammable liquids
• V – Ventilation
• I – Ignition
• C – Containment
• E – Exchange
• S - Separation
Storage in the Workplace
• Other control measures for storage in the workplace:

• In a suitable container to prevent spills and sealed to prevent vapour loss

• In a suitable cabinet, bin or other store container
• In a designated area of the workplace
• Away from ignition sources, working or process areas
• Capable of containing any spillage
• Housed in a 30 minute fire resistant structure
• Provided with hazard warning signs to illustrate the flammability of the contents.
• Prohibition signs for smoking and naked flame
• Not contain other substances or items.
Storage in open air
• Control measures include:

• Formal storage area on a concrete pad with a sump for spills

• Bunded all around to take content of largest drum plus a 10% allowance
• Away from other buildings
• Secure fence and gate 2m high
• Marked by signs warning of flammability
• Signs prohibiting smoking or other naked flames
• Protection from sunlight
• If lighting is provided within store it must be flameproof
• Provision for spill containment materials
• Fire extinguishers located nearby
• Full and empty containers separated
• Clear identification of contents
Liquefied petroleum and other gases in
cylinders
This is a gas stored in a liquefied state under pressure
• Storage
• Clear open area outside
• Secure compound
• Safe distance from toxic, corrosive, combustible or flammable materials
• Stored a safe distance from any building
• If inside a building it should be stored away from exit routes.
• Well ventilated area
• Oxygen cylinders must be atleast 3m away from flammable gas cylinders
• Acetylene may be stored with LPG if quantity of LPG is less than 50kg
• Controlled access to stores
• Availability of more than one exits
• Protection from sunlight
• Flameproof lighting
• Empty containers stored separately from full
• Fire extinguishers located nearby
Liquefied petroleum and other gases in
cylinders
• Transport
• Upright position
• Secured to prevent falling over
• Protection in event of accident
• Transport in open vehicle
• Park in secure areas and avoid overnight parking
• Driver hazard information and warning signs
• Driver training
• Fire fighting equipment
Liquefied petroleum and other gases in
cylinders
• General requirements for use:

• Cylinder connected for use may be stored in the workplace and other cylinders stored in a
designated area
• Fixed position to prevent falling over
• Ventilation
• Away from combustibles
• Kept upright
• Handled carefully
• Allowed to settle after transport and before use
• Manual handling and injury prevention
• Check equipment before use
• Use of gas regulator
• Be aware of smells
• Use as per manufacturer’s instructions
Use in huts
• Requirements:

• Cylinders only allowed in a hut if it is part of a heater

• Piping into site huts from cylinder located outside once possible
• Use shortest hose possible once cylinder is outside of hut
• Adequate ventilation
• Heaters and cooking equipment fitted with flame failure devices
• Turn off heater and cooking equipment after use
• Danger of leaks
• Keep heaters and cooking equipment away from combustibles
Structural measures to prevent spread of fire and
smoke
 Properties of common building
materials
• Brickwork/blockwork – perform well in fires and can give a fire resistance
from 30 minutes to 2 hours.
• Steelwork – Affected by fire at relatively low temperatures so protection can
be done through casing with fire retardant materials eg. concrete, spray
coating.
• Timber – Does not fail rapidly in a fire; performs well especially if it is a
sufficient size.
• Glass – Performs poorly in a fire unless it is specially fire resistant. At high
temperatures it can melt and sag.
Structural measures to prevent spread
• Fire resisting structures
• Compartmentalisation
• Fire resisting doors
• Fire stopping of ducts, flues and holes in fire resistant structures
• Smoke seals on doors
• Early and rapid fire detection by use of fire alarm systems
• Sprinklers
• Control of smoke and toxic fumes by ventilation
Protection of openings and voids
• Use of fire barriers
• Prompt re-instatement of protection of openings and voids after
breach occurs
Use of suitable electrical equipment in
flammable atmospheres
Classification of areas where explosive
atmospheres may occur
• The UN Common Regulatory Framework for Equipment used in Environments
with an Explosive Atmosphere supports the International Electrochemical
Commission (IEC) zone concept established in IEC 60079-10.
• This zone is internationally recognised
• Concept classifies hazardous locations as high, medium and low risk zones
(based on standard risk assessment methodology).
• Classification given to a zone depends on likelihood of an explosive
atmosphere occurring and its persistence if it does occur.
Classification of areas where explosive
atmospheres may occur
• Three zones for gases and vapours:

• Zone 0 – Flammable atmosphere highly likely to be present; may be present

for long periods or continuously
• Zone 1 – Flammable atmosphere possible but unlikely to be present for long
periods
• Zone 2 – Flammable atmosphere unlikely to be present except for short
periods of time; typical as a result of a process fault condition.
Classification of areas where explosive
atmospheres may occur
• Zones for dust:

• Zone 20 – Dust cloud likely to be present continuously or for long periods

• Zone 21 – Dust cloud likely to be present occasionally in normal operation
• Zone 22 – Dust cloud unlikely to occur in normal operation, but if so will only
exist for a short period.
Selection of equipment and protective system
• Design and construction of equipment so that they would not provide
a source of ignition
• Equipment selection suitability based on zones to be used in
• Types of protection for electrical equipment (suitable for Zones 1 or
2):
• Intrinsically safe (cannot produce a spark with sufficient energy to cause
ignition). IEC symbol Ex ia or Ex ib.
• Flameproof (ingress of explosive atmosphere is controlled and any ignition is
contained in the equipment). IEC symbol Ex d.
• Increased safety (do not produce sparks or hot surfaces). IEC symbol Ex e.
10.3 Fire alarms and fire-fighting
10.3 Syllabus content:
• Common fire-detection and alarm systems
• Portable fire-fighting equipment: siting, maintenance and training
requirements
• Extinguishing media: water, foam, dry powder, carbon dioxide, wet
chemical; advantages and limitations
• Access for fire and rescue services and vehicles.
Common fire detection, fire warning and fire
fighting equipment
Common fire detection
• Heat detection – sensors operate by melting of a metal or solid, liquid or gas
expansion
• Radiation detection – Photoelectric cells detect the emission of
infrared/ultraviolet radiation from the fire
• Smoke detection – Using ionising radiation, light scatter, obscuration
• Flammable gas detection – Measures the amount of flammable gas in the
atmosphere and compares the value with a reference value
Alarm systems
• Purpose – To give an early warning of a fire in a building to:
• Increase safety of occupants by encouraging them to escape to a place of safety
• Increase possibility of early extinction of the fire thus reducing loss of or damage to
property.
Alarm systems
Types of fire alarms
• Voice
• Hand operated
• Call points with sounders
• Automatic system

Single stage alarm – Alarm sounds throughout whole building and signals
total evacuation
Two stage alarm – Evacuation signal is given in the affected area and an alert
signal is given in other areas
Nominated worker alarm – Controlled evacuation by nominated workers
Portable fire-fighting equipment
• Siting of fire fighting equipment

• On the line of escape routes

• Relatively near to danger points
• Near to room exits
• At same position in multi story buildings
• In groups forming fire points where possible
• Close enough so that no excessive distance needs to be crossed to access.
• Hung on a wall or placed on a purpose designed floor stand
• Away from excesses of heat, cold, dirt or dust
Portable fire-fighting equipment
• Maintenance and inspection
• Maintenance: Servicing of a fire extinguisher by competent personnel
through examination, refilling and re-pressurization. Usually done annually.
• Inspection: A monthly check (minimum) to ensure that extinguishers are in
the proper place, not discharged, lost pressure or damaged.
Portable fire-fighting equipment
• Fire fighting equipment training requirements

• Done by competent persons

• Provide equipment

• Provide training for those who use fire extinguishers:

• Understand principles of combustion and classification of fires
• Identify types of fire extinguishers, use and how to determine if they are ready for use
• Use and limitations of fire extinguishers
• Consider personal safety and that of others
• How to attack fires with appropriate extinguisher
• Any specific considerations relating to environment

Training clarifies general and specific rules for extinguisher use.

Extinguishing media
• Water
• Colour code: Red
• Suitable for use on Class A Fires, wood
and paper etc.
• Not suitable for combustible liquids,
cooking fats etc.
• Not safe to use on fires involving
electricity
• Extinguishes by cooling
Extinguishing media
• Foam
• Colour code: Cream.
• Used to extinguish Class B fires
(burning liquids and solids that melt
and turn to liquid as they burn); can
also be used on Class A fires
• Extinguishes by smothering the surface
of a burning liquid
Extinguishing media
• Dry powder
• Colour code: Blue.
• Best on Class B fires but safe to use on
any type of fire.
• Works by smothering the fire
Extinguishing media
• Carbon dioxide
• Colour Code: Black
• Best on small Class B fires
• Safe to use on fires involving
electricity
• Extinguishes by reducing oxygen
levels around the fire
How to use a fire extinguisher – The P.A.S.S.
method

Pull the pin

This will allow you to

squeeze the handle in
order to discharge the
extinguisher
How to use a fire extinguisher – The P.A.S.S.
method
Aim at the base of
the fire

Aiming at the middle will

do no good.
The agent will pass
through the flames.
How to use a fire extinguisher – The P.A.S.S.
method

Squeeze the
handle

This will release the

pressurized
extinguishing agent
How to use a fire extinguisher – The P.A.S.S.
method
Sweep side to side

Cover the entire area that is on

fire. Continue until fire is
extinguished. Keep an eye on
the area for
re-lighting.
Extinguishing media for specific classes of fire
• Class C fire – Except in small occurrences, this type of fire involving gas
should not be extinguished and if it is to be then isolation of the gas supply
must also take place.

• Class D fire – This is those involving combustible metals and cannot be

extinguished by the use of ordinary extinguishing media. This would be
dangerous. They can however be extinguished through the use of dry sand,
graphite, salt or talc (by smothering the fire).

• Class F fire – (Wet chemical, Portable fire extinguisher code Yellow) New
style of chemical extinguishing media to deal with fires involving cooking
oils and fats. It congeals at the top of the oil and excludes oxygen.
Summary matrix – Fire extinguishing media (Used in the
UK/Europe and Australia/Asia
Method Class A Class B Class C Class D Electric Class F
Water Cools Yes No No No No No
Spray Smothers Yes Yes No No No No
foam
Dry Smothers Yes Yes Yes and Special Yes – low No
powder and isolate powders voltage
chemical
Carbon Smothers No Yes- small No No Yes No
dioxide fires
Wet Chemical No No No No No Yes
chemical
Vaporising Chemical Special uses
liquids and
smothers
International Markings for portable fire
extinguishers
• Markings and colour codings vary in differing countries. There is no
single accepted international standard but there are several
internationally accepted categorisation methods for marking portable
fire extinguishers.
• Pictograms may also be used.
Building plans to include record of emergency
escape
• These are drawn up to record emergency escape arrangements and
aid in National emergency services
• Help identify the quickest and shortest route through a building
• Can be used in search and rescue operations
• Should clearly identify call points, siting of fire fighting equipment,
fire doors, travel distances, escape routes, refuge areas and assembly
points
10.4 Fire evacuation
10.4 Syllabus content:
• Means of escape: travel distances, stairs, passageways, doors,
emergency lighting, exit and directional signs, assembly points
• Emergency evacuation procedures
• Role and appointment of fire marshals
• The purpose of fire drills, including roll call
• Provisions for people with disabilities
• Emergency escape routes to be recorded in building plans.
Means of escape
• Travel distances
• Stairs
• Passageways
• Doors
• Emergency lighting
• Exit and directional signs
• Assembly points
Emergency evacuation procedures
• Appropriate procedures including fire drills must be prepared by the
employer
• Nominate a sufficient number of competent persons to implement
evacuation procedures
• These procedures must reflect the type of emergency, people
affected and premises involved.
Role and appointment of fire marshals
• This is a person nominated to be responsible for the coordination of
the fire evacuation plan
• Can be the same person who organises fire instruction, training, drills
and co-ordinates evacuation
• Staff must be appointed to aid the fire marshal
• They must be clearly identifiable
Fire instruction notices
• States in concise terms the action essentials to be taken upon
discovering a fire or hearing the alarm

• Placed at conspicuous positions and adjacent to fire alarm actuating

points
Fire training
• Issues to be included in a fire training program:
• Fire prevention
• Recognition of fire alarms and actions to be taken
• Understanding emergency signs
• Location of fire escape routes and assembly points
• Requirements for safe evacuation
• Location and operation of call points and other means of raising an alarm
• How to call the fire service
• Location, use and limitations of fire fighting equipment
• Consideration of persons with special needs
• Identify roles of fire marshals
Fire drills
• Intended to ensure through training and rehearsal that in the event of
a fire:
• Persons who may be in danger act calmly, orderly and in an efficient
manner
• Persons with designated duties carry them out in an organised and
effective manner
• Means of escape is used in accordance with a practised plan
• Opportunity for management leadership
Roll Call
• Checklist of names
• Cannot be used in all workplaces as this requires a static workforce
• This system may not be able to provide an absolute confirmation that
everyone has evacuated
Provisions for the disabled
• Planning of the fire evacuation system must take into consideration
the abilities of all workers
• Nominated assistants can be used
• Provision must be made so that the disabled person knows when an
emergency exists
• Refuge areas may be used – temporary safe waiting area until persons
can help them evacuate