SYLLABUS

LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT

Course Code: 19MSPSY3OD04 Semester- III

Credits: 4 Total No of Hours: 60

Objectives:
• To explore how we change and grow from conception to death.
• To understand that development is a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across
three developmental domains: physical, cognitive development and psychosocial.

MODULE I- INTRODUCTION AND BEGINNING OF LIFE 12 Hours

Characteristics of life span perspective; Process of birth (stages of birth, transition from foetus
to new born); Strategies for child birth (child birth setting and attendants, methods of
delivery); Developmental issues; theories of development (psychoanalytic, cognitive,
behavioral, socio cognitive, ethological & ecological).

MODULE II- INFANCY, EARLY, MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD 12 Hours

Characteristics of Infancy, Babyhood and Early and Late Childhood; Motor and sensory
development, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development in Infancy, Babyhood and
childhood; Physical development in Infancy, Babyhood and Early and Late Childhood; Speech
development, social context of development in childhood: friendships, role of family, play and
leisure, role of disciplining.

MODULE III- PUBERTY AND ADOLESCENCE 12 Hours

Characteristics of Puberty and Adolescence; Physical development, cognitive, social, emotional
and moral development; emergence of sexuality; Social context: adolescent peer relationships,
role of family, friendships during adolescent, play and leisure, attraction towards members of
the other sex, academic pressures and career choices.

MODULE IV- EARLY, MIDDLE AND LATE ADULTHOOD 12 Hours

Characteristics of adulthood; Issues in adulthood-marriage, family, career, life styles and
parenting; Preparation for old age and retirement; Cognitive, emotional and moral
development; Challenges in Middle age- physical changes and its impact.

MODULE V- OLD AGE 12 Hours

Introduction; Characteristics of old age; Developmental tasks; Physical changes; Psychological
changes; Adjustment to self; Adjustment to retirement; Adjustment to family; Adjustment to
singleness; Hazards of old age; Biological and social theories of aging; Defining death and issues
related to it, death anxiety.

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 Books for References:

1. Diane E. Papalia, Sally Wendkos Olds Ruth Duskin Feldman (Human Development) 9 th Edition
2. Baltes, P B & Brim O G (1978). Life Span Development and Behaviour. NY: Academic Press.
3. Cavanaugh, J C (1993). Adult Development and Aging: CA: Brooks/Cole Pub. Co.
4. Hoffman, Lois, Paris, Scott, & Hall Elizabeth. (1994). Developmental Psychology Today. Ed.
McGraw-Hill-International Ed.
5. Newman, G. (1998). Development through life: A psychological approach, 7ed.Prentice Hall
6. Santrock, John W. (1999). Life Span Development, 7 th Edition, McGraw Hill.

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 MODULE-I
INTRODUCTION AND BEGINNING OF LIFE
STRUCTURE

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Early Approaches
1.3 Study of Life Span
1.4 Characteristics of life span perspective
1.5 What is Development?
1.5.1 What causes to develop?
1.5.2 What goals do developmentalists purse?
1.5.3 Development process change and stability
1.5.4 Domains of development
1.5.5 Periods of Life Span
1.5.6 Influences on development
1.6 Heredity, Environment and Maturation
1.7 Conceiving new life
1.8 How fertilization takes place
1.9 What causes multiple birth?
1.10Mechanisms of heredity
1.11Prenatal development
1.12 Developmental issues theories of development (Psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioural,
sociocognitive and Ethological and Ecological
1.13 The role of conflict
1.14 Theories of development-Cognitive
1.14.1 Behavioral
1.14.2 Socio Cognitive
1.14.3 Ethological and Ecological
1.15 Process of birth (Stages of birth Transition from foetus to new born)
1.16 Strategies for child birth
1.17 Methods of delivery
1.18 Research methods in child & Adolescent development
1.19 Summary
1.20 Suggested Questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To understand the life span perspective,

• To know the process and stages of a new born.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Lifespan development involves the exploration of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial changes
and constancies that occur throughout the entire course of life. It has been presented as a theoretical
perspective, proposing several fundamental, theoretical, and methodological principles about the
nature of human development. An attempt by researchers has been made to examine whether
research on the nature of development suggests a specific metatheoretical worldview. Several beliefs,
taken together, form the “family of perspectives” that contribute to this particular view.

From the moment of conception, human beings undergo processes of development. The field of
human development is the scientific study of those processes. Developmental scientists-
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 professionals who study human development are interested in the ways in which people change
throughout life, as well as in characteristics that remain fairly stable. The formal study of human
development is a relatively new field of scientific inquiry. Since the early nineteenth century, when
Itard studied Victor, efforts to understand children’s development have gradually expanded to include
the whole life span.

1.2 EARLY APPROACHES

Early forerunners of the scientific study of development were baby biographies, journals kept to
record the early development of a child. One early journal, published in 1787 in Germany, contained
Dietrich Tidemann’s (1897/1787) observations of his son’s sensory, moto, language and cognitive
behaviour during the first 2 and half years. Typical of the speculative nature of such observations was
Tiedemann’s erroneous conclusion, after watching the infant suck more on a cloth tied around
something sweet than on a nurse’s finger, that sucking appeared to be “not instinctive, but acquired’.

It was Charles Darwin, originator of the theory of evolution, who first emphasized the development
nature of infant behaviour. In 1877 Darwin published notes on his son Doody’s sensory, cognitive
and emotional development during the first twelve months. Darwin journal gave “baby biographies”
scientific respectability; about thirty more were published during the next three decades.

By the end of the nineteenth century, several important trends in the western world were preparing
the way for the scientific study of development. Scientific study of development. Scientists had
unlocked the mystery of conception and (as in the case of the wild boy of Averyron) were arguing
about the relative importance of “nature” and “nuture” (inborn characteristics and experiential
influences). The discovery of germs and immunization made it possible for many children to survive
infancy. Laws protecting children from long workdays let them spend more time in school, and
parents and teachers became more concerned with identifying and meeting children’s developmental
needs. The new science of psychology taught that people could understand themselves by learning
what had influenced them as children. Still, this new discipline had far to go.

1.3 STUDYING THE LIFE SPAN

Today most developmental scientists recognize that development goes on throughout life. This
concept of a lifelong process of development that can be studied scientifically known as life-span
development.

Life span studies in the United States grew out of research designed to follow children through
adulthood. The Stanford studies of Gifted Children (begun in 1921 under the direction of Lewis M.
Terman) trace the development of people (now in oldage) who were identified as unusually
intelligent in childhood. Other major studies that began around 1930 the Fels Research Institute
Study, the Berkeley Growth and Guidance Studies, and the Oakland (Adolescent) Growth study have
given us much information on long-term development.

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE

German psychologist Paul Baltes, a leading expert on lifespan development and aging, developed one
of the approaches to studying development called the lifespan perspective. This approach is based
on several key principles:
 Development occurs across one’s entire life or is lifelong.
 Development is multidimensional, meaning it involves the dynamic interaction of factors like
physical, emotional, and psychosocial development

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 Development is multidirectional and results in gains and losses throughout life
 Development is plastic, meaning that characteristics are malleable or changeable. 
 Development is influenced by contextual and socio-cultural influences.
 Development is multidisciplinary. 

Development is lifelong
Lifelong development means that development is not completed in infancy or childhood or at any
specific age; it encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to death. The study of development
traditionally focused almost exclusively on the changes occurring from conception to adolescence
and the gradual decline in old age; it was believed that the five or six decades after adolescence
yielded little to no developmental change at all. The current view reflects the possibility that specific
changes in development can occur later in life, without having been established at birth. The early
events of one’s childhood can be transformed by later events in one’s life. This belief clearly
emphasizes that all stages of the lifespan contribute to the regulation of the nature of human
development.

Many diverse patterns of change, such as direction, timing, and order, can vary among individuals
and affect the ways in which they develop. For example, the developmental timing of events can
affect individuals in different ways because of their current level of maturity and understanding. As
individuals move through life, they are faced with many challenges, opportunities, and situations that
impact their development. Remembering that development is a lifelong process helps us gain a wider
perspective on the meaning and impact of each event.

Development is multidimensional
By multidimensionality, Baltes is referring to the fact that a complex interplay of factors influence
development across the lifespan, including biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes. Baltes
argues that a dynamic interaction of these factors is what influences an individual’s development.

For example, in adolescence, puberty consists of physiological and physical changes with changes in
hormone levels, the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics, alterations in height
and weight, and several other bodily changes. But these are not the only types of changes taking
place; there are also cognitive changes, including the development of advanced cognitive faculties
such as the ability to think abstractly.

There are also emotional and social changes involving regulating emotions, interacting with peers,
and possibly dating. The fact that the term puberty encompasses such a broad range of domains
illustrates the multidimensionality component of development (think back to the physical, cognitive,
and psychosocial domains of human development we discussed earlier in this module).

Development is multidirectional
Baltes states that the development of a particular domain does not occur in a strictly linear fashion,
but that development of certain traits can be characterized as having the capacity for both an increase
and decrease in efficacy over the course of an individual’s life.

If we use the example of puberty again, we can see that certain domains may improve or decline in
effectiveness during this time. For example, self-regulation is one domain of puberty which
undergoes profound multidirectional changes during the adolescent period. During childhood,
individuals have difficulty effectively regulating their actions and impulsive behaviours. Scholars
have noted that this lack of effective regulation often results in children engaging in behaviours
without fully considering the consequences of their actions. Over the course of puberty, neuronal

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changes modify this unregulated behaviour by increasing the ability to regulate emotions and
impulses.

Inversely, the ability for adolescents to engage in spontaneous activity and creativity, both domains
commonly associated with impulse behaviour, decrease over the adolescent period in response to
changes in cognition. Neuronal changes to the limbic system and prefrontal cortex of the brain,
which begin in puberty lead to the development of self-regulation, and the ability to consider the
consequences of one’s actions (though recent brain research reveals that this connection will continue
to develop into early adulthood).

Extending on the premise of multidirectionality, Baltes also argued that development is influenced by
the “joint expression of features of growth (gain) and decline (loss)”This relation between
developmental gains and losses occurs in a direction to selectively optimize particular capacities.
This requires the sacrificing of other functions, a process known as selective optimization with
compensation. According to the process of selective optimization, individuals prioritize particular
functions above others, reducing the adaptive capacity of particulars for specialization and improved
efficacy of other modalities.

The acquisition of effective self-regulation in adolescents illustrates this gain/loss concept. As

adolescents gain the ability to effectively regulate their actions, they may be forced to sacrifice other
features to selectively optimize their reactions. For example, individuals may sacrifice their capacity
to be spontaneous or creative if they are constantly required to make thoughtful decisions and
regulate their emotions. Adolescents may also be forced to sacrifice their fast reaction times toward
processing stimuli in favour of being able to fully consider the consequences of their actions.

Development is plastic
Plasticity denotes intrapersonal variability and focuses heavily on the potentials and limits of the
nature of human development. The notion of plasticity emphasizes that there are many possible
developmental outcomes and that the nature of human development is much more open and
pluralistic than originally implied by traditional views; there is no single pathway that must be taken
in an individual’s development across the lifespan. Plasticity is imperative to current research
because the potential for intervention is derived from the notion of plasticity in development.
Undesired development or behaviours could potentially be prevented or changed.
As an example, recently researchers have been analysing how other senses compensate for the loss of
vision in blind individuals. Without visual input, blind humans have demonstrated that tactile and
auditory functions still fully develop, and they can use tactile and auditory cues to perceive the world
around them.

One experiment designed by Röder and colleagues (1999) compared the auditory localization skills
of people who are blind with people who are sighted by having participants locate sounds presented
either centrally or peripherally (lateral) to them. Both congenitally blind adults and sighted adults
could locate a sound presented in front of them with precision but people who are blind were clearly
superior in locating sounds presented laterally. Currently, brain-imaging studies have revealed that
the sensory cortices in the brain are reorganized after visual deprivation. These findings suggest that
when vision is absent in development, the auditory cortices in the brain recruit areas that are normally
devoted to vision, thus becoming further refined.

A significant aspect of the aging process is cognitive decline. The dimensions of cognitive decline
are partially reversible, however, because the brain retains the lifelong capacity for plasticity and
reorganization of cortical tissue. Mahncke and colleagues developed a brain plasticity-based training
program that induced learning in mature adults experiencing age-related decline. This training

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program focused intensively on aural language reception accuracy and cognitively demanding
exercises that have been proven to partially reverse the age-related losses in memory.

It included highly rewarding novel tasks that required attention control and became progressively
more difficult to perform. In comparison to the control group, who received no training and showed
no significant change in memory function, the experimental training group displayed a marked
enhancement in memory that was sustained at the 3-month follow-up period. These findings suggest
that cognitive function, particularly memory, can be significantly improved in mature adults with
age-related cognitive decline by using brain plasticity-based training methods.

Development is contextual
In Baltes’ theory, the paradigm of contextualism refers to the idea that three systems of biological
and environmental influences work together to influence development. Development occurs in
context and varies from person to person, depending on factors such as a person’s biology, family,
school, church, profession, nationality, and ethnicity. Baltes identified three types of influences that
operate throughout the life course: normative age-graded influences, normative history-graded
influences, and nonnormative influences. Baltes wrote that these three influences operate throughout
the life course, their effects accumulate with time, and, as a dynamic package, they are responsible
for how lives develop.

Normative age-graded influences are those biological and environmental factors that have a strong
correlation with chronological age, such as puberty or menopause, or age-based social practices such
as beginning school or entering retirement. Normative history-graded influences are associated
with a specific time period that defines the broader environmental and cultural context in which an
individual develops. For example, development and identity are influenced by historical events of the
people who experience them, such as the Great Depression, WWII, Vietnam, the Cold War, the War
on Terror, or advances in technology.

This has been exemplified in numerous studies, including Nesselroade and Baltes’, showing that the
level and direction of change in adolescent personality development was influenced as strongly by
the socio-cultural settings at the time (in this case, the Vietnam War) as age-related factors. The study
involved individuals of four different adolescent age groups who all showed significant personality
development in the same direction (a tendency to occupy themselves with ethical, moral, and
political issues rather than cognitive achievement). Similarly, Elder showed that the Great Depression
was a setting that significantly affected the development of adolescents and their corresponding adult
personalities, by showing a similar common personality development across age groups. Baltes’
theory also states that the historical socio-cultural setting had an effect on the development of an
individual’s intelligence.

The areas of influence that Baltes thought most important to the development of intelligence were
health, education, and work. The first two areas, health and education significantly affect adolescent
development because healthy children who are educated effectively will tend to develop a higher
level of intelligence. The environmental factors, health and education, have been suggested by Neiss
and Rowe to have as much effect on intelligence as inherited intelligence.

Nonnormative influences are unpredictable and not tied to a certain developmental time in a
person’s development or to a historical period. They are the unique experiences of an individual,
whether biological or environmental, that shape the development process. These could include
milestones like earning a master’s degree or getting a certain job offer or other events like going
through a divorce or coping with the death of a child.

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The most important aspect of contextualism as a paradigm is that the three systems of influence work
together to affect development. Concerning adolescent development, the age-graded influences
would help to explain the similarities within a cohort, the history-graded influences would help to
explain the differences between cohorts, and the nonnormative influences would explain the
idiosyncrasies of each adolescent’s individual development. When all influences are considered
together, it provides a broader explanation of an adolescent’s development.

Other Contextual Influences on Development: Cohort, Socioeconomic Status, and Culture

What is meant by the word “context”? It means that we are influenced by when and where we live.
Our actions, beliefs, and values are a response to the circumstances surrounding us. Sternberg
describes contextual intelligence as the ability to understand what is called for in a situation
(Sternberg, 1996). The key here is to understand that behaviours, motivations, emotions, and choices
are all part of a bigger picture. Our concerns are such because of who we are socially, where we live,
and when we live; they are part of a social climate and set of realities that surround us. Important
social factors include cohort, social class, gender, race, ethnicity, and age. Let’s begin by exploring
two of these: cohort and social class.

A cohort is a group of people who are born at roughly the same time period in a particular
society. Cohorts share histories and contexts for living. Members of a cohort have experienced the
same historical events and cultural climates which have an impact on the values, priorities, and goals
that may guide their lives.

Another context that influences our lives is our social standing, socioeconomic status, or social
class. Socioeconomic status is a way to identify families and households based on their shared levels
of education, income, and occupation. While there is certainly individual variation, members of a
social class tend to share similar lifestyles, patterns of consumption, parenting styles, stressors,
religious preferences, and other aspects of daily life.

Culture is often referred to as a blueprint or guideline shared by a group of people that specifies how
to live. It includes ideas about what is right and wrong, what to strive for, what to eat, how to speak,
what is valued, as well as what kinds of emotions are called for in certain situations. Culture teaches
us how to live in a society and allows us to advance because each new generation can benefit from
the solutions found and passed down from previous generations.

Culture is learned from parents, schools, churches, media, friends, and others throughout
a lifetime. The kinds of traditions and values that evolve in a particular culture serve to help members
function in their own society and to value their own society. We tend to believe that our own
culture’s practices and expectations are the right ones. This belief that our own culture is superior is
called ethnocentrism and is a normal by-product of growing up in a culture. It becomes a road
MODULE, however, when it inhibits understanding of cultural practices from other societies.
Cultural relativity is an appreciation for cultural differences and the understanding that cultural
practices are best understood from the standpoint of that particular culture.

Culture is an extremely important context for human development and understanding development
requires being able to identify which features of development are culturally based. This
understanding is somewhat new and still being explored. So much of what developmental theorists
have described in the past has been culturally bound and difficult to apply to various cultural
contexts. For example, Erikson’s theory that teenagers struggle with identity assumes that all
teenagers live in a society in which they have many options and must make an individual
choice about their future. In many parts of the world, one’s identity is determined by family status or
society’s dictates. In other words, there is no choice to make.

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Even the most biological events can be viewed in cultural contexts that are extremely
varied. Consider two very different cultural responses to menstruation in young girls. In the United
States, girls in public school often receive information on menstruation around 5th grade, get a kit
containing feminine hygiene products, and receive some sort of education about sexual
health. Contrast this with some developing countries where menstruation is not publicly addressed, or
where girls on their period are forced to miss school due to limited access to feminine products or
unjust attitudes about menstruation.

Development is Multidisciplinary
Any single discipline’s account of development across the lifespan would not be able to express all
aspects of this theoretical framework. That is why it is suggested explicitly by lifespan researchers
that a combination of disciplines is necessary to understand development. Psychologists, sociologists,
neuroscientists, anthropologists, educators, economists, historians, medical researchers, and others
may all be interested and involved in research related to the normative age-graded, normative history-
graded, and no normative influences that help shape development. Many disciplines are able to
contribute important concepts that integrate knowledge, which may ultimately result in the formation
of a new and enriched understanding of development across the lifespan.

1.5 WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?

Development refers to systematic continuities and changes in the individual that occur between
conception (when the father’s sperm penetrates the mother’s ovum, creating a new organism) and
death. By describing changes as “systematic” we imply that they are orderly, patterned, and relatively
enduring, so that temporary mood swings and other transitory changes in our appearances, thoughts,
and behaviors are therefore excluded. We are also interested in “continuities” in development, or
ways in which we remain the same or continue to reflect our past. If development represents the
continuities and changes an individual experiences from “womb to tomb,” the developmental
sciences refer to the study of these phenomena and are a multidisciplinary enterprise. Although
developmental psychology is the largest of these disciplines, many biologists, sociologists,
anthropologists, educators, physicians, and even historians share an interest in developmental
continuity and change and have contributed in important ways to our understanding of both human
and animal development. Because the science of development is multidisciplinary, we use the term
developmentalist to refer to any scholar regardless of discipline who seeks to understand the
developmental process.

1.5.1 WHAT CAUSES US TO DEVELOP?

To grasp the meaning of development, we must understand two important processes that underlie
developmental change: maturation and learning. Maturation refers to the biological unfolding of the
individual according to species-typical biological inheritance and an individual person’s biological
inheritance. Just as seeds become mature plants, assuming that they receive adequate moisture and
nourishment, human beings grow within the womb. The human maturational (or species-typical)
biological program calls for us to become capable of walking and uttering our first meaningful words
at about 1 year of age, to reach sexual maturity between ages 11 and 15, and then to age and die on
roughly similar schedules. Maturation is partly responsible for psychological changes such as our
increasing ability to concentrate, solve problems, and understand another person’s thoughts or
feelings. So one reason that we humans are so similar in many important respects is that our common
species heredity guides all of us through many of the same developmental changes at about the same
points in our lives. The second critical developmental process is learning the process through which
our experiences produce relatively permanent changes in our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Let’s

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consider a very simple example. Although a certain degree of physical maturation is necessary before
a grade-school child can become reasonably proficient at dribbling a basketball, careful instruction
and many, many hours of practice are essential if this child is ever to approximate the ball-handling
skills of a professional basketball player. Many of our abilities and habits do not simply unfold as
part of maturation; we often learn to feel, think, and behave in new ways from our observations of
and interactions with parents, teachers, and other important people in our lives, as well as from events
that we experience. This means that we change in response to our environments particularly in
response to the actions and reactions of the people around us. Of course, most developmental changes
are the product of both maturation and learning. And as we will see throughout this book, some of the
more lively debates about human development are arguments about which of these processes
contributes most to particular developmental changes.

1.5.2 WHAT GOALS DO DEVELOPMENTALISTS PURSUE?

Three major goals of the developmental sciences are to describe, to explain, and to optimize
development (Baltes, Reese, & Lipsitt, 1980). In pursuing the goal of description, human
developmentalists carefully observe the behavior of people of different ages, seeking to specify how
people change over time. Although there are typical pathways of development that virtually all
people follow, no two persons are exactly alike. Even when raised in the same home, children often
display very different interests, values, abilities, and behaviors. Thus, to adequately describe
development, it is necessary to focus both on typical patterns of change (or normative development)
and on individual variations in patterns of change (or ideographic development).

So, developmentalists seek to understand the important ways that developing humans resemble each
other and how they are likely to differ as they proceed through life. Adequate description provides us
with the “facts” about development, but it is only the starting point. Developmentalists next seek to
explain the changes they have observed. In pursuing this goal of explanation, developmentalists hope
to determine why people develop as they typically do and why some people develop differently than
others. Explanation centers both on normative changes within individuals and variations in
development between individuals. As we will see throughout the text, it is often easier to describe
development than to conclusively explain how it occurs. Finally, developmentalists hope to optimize
development by applying what they have learned in attempts to help people develop in positive
directions.

This is a practical side to the study of human development that has led to such breakthroughs as ways
to: ■ promote strong affectional ties between fussy, unresponsive infants and their frustrated parents;
■ assist children with learning difficulties to succeed at school; and ■ help socially unskilled children
and adolescents to prevent the emotional difficulties that could result from having no close friends
and being rejected by peers. Many believe that such optimization goals will increasingly influence
research agendas in the 21st century (Fabes et al., 2000; Lerner, Fisher, & Weinberg, 2000) as
developmentalists show greater interest in solving real problems and communicating the practical
implications of their findings to the public and policymakers (APA Presidential Task Force on
Evidence-Based Practice, 2006; Kratochwill, 2007; McCall & Groark, 2000; Schoenwald, Chapman,
Kelleher, Hoagwood, Landsverk, & Stevens et al., 2008). Yet, this heavier focus on applied issues in
no way implies that traditional descriptive and explanatory goals are any less important, because
optimization goals often cannot be achieved until researchers have adequately described and
explained normal and idiopathic pathways of development (Schwebel, Plumert, & Pick, 2000).
Some Basic Observations about the Character of Development Now that we have defined
development and talked very briefly about the goals that developmentalists pursue, let’s consider
some of the conclusions they have drawn about the character of development.

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A Continual and Cumulative Process. Although no one can specify precisely what adulthood holds in
store from even the most meticulous examination of a person’s childhood, developmentalists have
learned that the first 12 years are extremely important years that sets the stage for adolescence and
adulthood. Who we are as adolescents and adults also depends on the experiences we have later in
life. Obviously, you are not the same person you were at age 10 or at age 15. You have probably
grown somewhat, acquired new academic skills, and developed very different interests and
aspirations from those you had as a fifth-grader or a high-school sophomore. And the path of such
developmental change stretches ever onward, through middle age and beyond, culminating in the
final change that occurs when we die. In sum, human development is best described as a continual
and cumulative process.

The one constant is change, and the changes that occur at each major phase of life can have important
implications for the future. Table 1.1 presents a chronological overview of the life span as
developmentalists see it. Our focus in this text is on development during the first five periods of life
prenatal development, infancy and toddlerhood, preschool, middle childhood, and adolescence. By
examining how children develop from the moment they are conceived until they reach young
adulthood, we will learn about ourselves and the determinants of our behavior. Our survey will also
provide some insight as to why no two individuals are ever exactly alike. Our survey won’t provide
answers to every important question you may have about developing children and adolescent.

A CHRONOLOGICAL OVERVIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Period of life Approximate age range

Prenatal period Conception to birth

Infancy Birth to 18 months old

Toddlerhood 18 months old to 3 years old

Preschool period 3 to 5 years of age

Middle childhood 5 to 12 or so years of age (until the onset of puberty)

Adolescence 12 or so to 20 years of age (many developmentalists define the end of adolescence

as the point at which the individual begins to work and is reasonably independent
of parental sanctions)
Young adulthood 20 to 40 years of age

Middle age 40 to 65 years of age

Old age 65 years of age or older

TABLE1.1

The study of human development is still a relatively young discipline with many unresolved issues.
But as we proceed, it should become quite clear that developmentalists have provided an enormous
amount of very practical information about young people that can help us to become better educators,
child/adolescent practitioners, and parents.

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A Holistic Process: It was once fashionable to divide developmentalists into three camps: (1) those
who studied physical growth and development, including bodily changes and the sequencing of
motor skills; (2) those who studied cognitive aspects of development, including perception, language,
learning, and thinking; and (3) those who concentrated on psychosocial aspects of development,
including emotions, personality, and the growth of interpersonal relationships. Today we know that
this classification is misleading, for researchers who work in any of these areas have found that
changes in one aspect of development have important implications for other aspects. Let’s consider
an example. What determines a person’s popularity with peers? If you were to say that social skills
are important, you would be right. Social skills such as warmth, friendliness, and willingness to
cooperate are characteristics that popular children typically display. Yet there is much more to
popularity than meets the eye.

We now have some indication that the age at which a child reaches puberty, an important milestone
in physical development, has an effect on social life. For example, boys who reach puberty early
enjoy better relations with their peers than do boys who reach puberty later (Livson & Peskin, 1980).
Children who do well in school also tend to be more popular with their peers than children who
perform somewhat less well in school. We see, then, that popularity depends not only on the growth
of social skills but also on various aspects of both cognitive and physical development. As this
example illustrates, development is not piecemeal but holistic humans are physical, cognitive, and
social beings, and each of these components of self depends, in part, on changes taking place in other
areas of development. Many researchers now incorporate this holistic theme into their theories and
research. For example, in reviewing the literature on sex differences in science and mathematics,
Halpern and her colleagues adopted a biopsychosocial approach in which they considered all aspects
of the child in understanding sex differences and similarities (Halpern, Benbow, Geary, Cur, Hyde, &
Gernsbacher, 2007). This holistic perspective is one of the dominant themes of human development
today, around which this book is organized.

Plasticity. Plasticity refers to a capacity for change in response to positive or negative life
experiences. Although we have described development as a continual and cumulative process and
noted that past events often have implications for the future, developmentalists know that the course
of development can change abruptly if important aspects of one’s life change. For example, somber
babies living in barren, understaffed orphanages often become quite cheerful and affectionate when
placed in socially stimulating adoptive homes (Rutter, 1981). Highly aggressive children who are
intensely disliked by peers often improve their social status after learning and practicing the social
skills that popular children display (Mize & Ladd, 1990; Shure, 1989). It is indeed fortunate that
human development is so plastic, for children who have horrible starts can often be helped to
overcome their deficiencies.

Historical/Cultural Context: No single portrait of development is accurate for all cultures, social
classes, or racial and ethnic groups. Each culture, subculture, and social class transmits a particular
pattern of beliefs, values, customs, and skills to its younger generations, and the content of this
cultural socialization has a strong influence on the attributes and competencies that individuals
display. Development is also influenced by societal changes: historical events such as wars,
technological breakthroughs such as the development of the Internet, and social causes such as the
gay and lesbian rights movement. Each generation develops in its own way, and each generation
changes the world for succeeding generations.

1.5.3 DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES: CHANGE AND STABILITY

Development scientists are interested in two kinds of developmental change; quantitative and
qualitative. Quantitative change is a change in number or amount, such as growth in height, weight,

12
vocabulary, aggressive behavior or frequency of communication. Qualitative change is a change in
kind, structure, or organization. It is marked by the emergency of new phenomena that cannot easily
be anticipated on the basis of earlier functioning, such as the change from an embryo to a baby, or
from a nonverbal child to one who understands words and can communicate verbally.

Developmental scientists also are interested in the underlying stability, or constancy, of personality
and behavior. For example, about 10 to 15% of children are consistently shy, and another 10 to 15%
are very bold. Although various influences can modify these traits somewhat, they seem to persist to
a moderate degree, especially in children at one extreme or the other. Broad dimensions of
personality, such as conscientiousness and openness to new experiences, seem to stabilize before or
during young adulthood. Which characteristics are most likely to endure? Which are likely to
change, and why? These are among the basic questions that the study of human development seeks to
answer. They are questions we address repeatedly throughout this book.

1.5.4 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT

Change and stability occur in various domains, or dimensions of the self. Developmental scientists
talk separately about physical development, cognitive development, and psychosocial development.
Actually, though, these domains are interwined. Throughout life, each affetcs the others, and each
domain is important throughtout life.

Growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills, and health are part of physical
development and may influence other domains of development. For example, a child with frequent
ear infections may develop language more slowly than a child without this problem. During puberty,
dramatic physical and hormonal changes affect the developing sense of self. And, in some older
adults, physical changes in the brain may lead to intellectual and personality deterioration.

Change and stability in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking,
reasoning and creativity constitute cognitive development. Cognitive advances are closely related to
physical and emotional growth. The ability to speak depends on the physical development of the
mouth and brain. A child who has difficult expressing herself in words may evoke negative reactions
in others, influencing her popularity and sense of self-worth.

Change and stability in emotions, personality and social relationships together constitute
psychosocial development, and this can affect cognitive and physical functioning. For example,
anxiety about taking a test can impair performance. Social support can help people cope with the
potentially negative effects of stress on physical and mental health.

1.5.5 PERIODS OF THE LIFE SPAN

The concept of a division of the life span into periods is a social construction: an idea about the
nature of reality that is widely accepted by members of a society at a particular time, on the basis of
shared of shared subjective perceptions or assumptions. In reality, days flow into years without any
demarcation expect one that people impose. There is no objectively definable moment when a child
becomes an adult, or young person becomes old.

The concept of childhood can be viewed as a social construction. Some controversial evidence
suggests that children in earlier times were regarded and treated much like small adults. Even now, in
many developing countries, children labor alongside their elders, doing the same kinds of work for
equally long hours.

13
1.5.6 INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT

Students of development are interested in universal processes of development, but they also want to
know about individual differences, both in influences on development and in its outcome. People
differ in sex, height, weight, and body build; in constitutional factors such as health and energy level;
in intelligence; and in personality characteristics and emotional reactions. The contexts of their lives
and lifestyles differ, too; the homes, communities, and societies they live in, the relationships they
have, the kinds of schools they go to and how they spend their free time.

14
1.6 HEREDITY, ENIVRONMENT AND MATURATION

Some influences on development originate primarily with heredity: the genetic endownment inherited
from a person’s biological parents at conception. Other influences come largely from the inner and
outer environment: the world outside the self-beginning in the womb, and the learning that comes
from experience. Individual differences increase as people grow older. Many typical changes of
infancy and early childhood seem to be tied to maturation of the body and brain the unfolding of a
natural sequence of physical changes and behaviour patterns, including readiness to master new
abilities such as walking and talking. As children grow into adolescents and then into adults,
differences in innate characteristics and life experience play a greater role.

15
Even in processes that all people go through, rates and timing of development vary. Throughout this
book, we talk about certain milestones, or landmarks of development average ages for the occurrence
of certain events, such as the first word, the first step, the first menstruation or wet dream, the
development of logical thought, and menopause. But these ages are merely averages. Only when
deviation from the average is extreme should we consider development exceptionally advanced or
delayed.

In trying to understand the similarities and differences in development, then, we need to look at the
inherited characteristics that give each person a special start in life. We also need to consider the
many environmental, or experiential, factors that affect people, especially such major contexts s
family, neighborhood, socioeconomics status, ethnicity, and culture. We need to look at influences
that affect many or most people at a certain age or a certain time in history, and also at those that
affect only certain individuals. Finally, we need to look at how timing can affect the impact of certain
influences.

1.7 CONCEIVING NEW LIFE

Most adults and even most children in developed countries, have a reasonably accurate idea of where
babies come from. Yet only a generation or two ago, many parents told their children that a stork had
brought them. The folk belief that children came from well, springs or rocks was common in north
and central Europe as late as the beginning of the twentieth century. Conception was believed to be
influenced by cosmic forces. A baby conceived under a new moon would be a boy; during the moon
last quarter, a girl.

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a debate raged between two schools of biological
thought. The animalculists (so named because the male sperm were then called animalcules) claimed
that fully formed “little people” were contained in the heads of sperm, ready to grow when deposited
in the nurturing environment of the womb. The ovists, inspired by the influential work of the English
Physician William Harvey, held an opposite but equally incorrect view: that a female’s ovaries
contained tiny, already formed humans whose growth was activated by the male’s sperm. Finally, in
the late eighteenth century, the German-born anatomist Kaspar Friedrich Wolff demonstrated that
embroys are not performed in either parent and that both contribute equally to the formation of a new
being.

1.8 HOW FERTILIZATION TAKES PLACE

Fertilization, or conception, is the process by which sperm and ovum the male and female gametes,
or sex cells combine to create a single cell called a zygote, which then duplicates itself again and
again by cell division to become a baby. At birth, a girl has all the ova (plural of ovum) she will ever
have about 400,000. These immature ova are in her two ovaries. Each ovum in its own small sac, or
follicle. In a sexually mature woman, ovulation rupture of a mature follicle in either ovary and
expulsion of its own occurs about once every 28 days until menopause. The ovum is swept along
through the fallopian tube by tiny hair cells, called cilia, toward the uterus, or womb. Fertilization
normally occurs during the brief time the ovum is passing through the fallopian tube. Sperm
produced in the testicles (testes), or reproductive glands of a mature male at a rate of several hundred
million a day and are ejaculated in the semen at sexual climax. They enter the vagina and try to swim
through the cervix (the opening of the uterus) and into the fallopian tubes, but only a tiny fraction
make it that far.

16
Fertilization is most likely if intercourse occurs on the day of ovulation or during the five days
before. If fertilization does not occur, the ovum and any sperm cells in the woman’s body die. The
sperm are absorbed by the woman’s white blood cells, and the ovum passes through the uterus and
exits through the vagina.

1.9 WHAT CAUSES MUTIPLE BIRTHS?

Multiple births occur in two ways. Most commonly, the mother’s body releases two ova within a
short time (or sometimes, perhaps, a single unfertilized ovum splits) and then both are fertilized. The
resulting babies are dizygotic (two-egg) twins, commonly called fraternal twins. The second way is
for a single fertilized ovum to split into two. The babies that result from this cell division are
monozygotic (one-egg) twins, commonly called identical twins. Triplets, quadruplets, and other
multiple births can result from either of these processes or a combination of both.

17
Monozygotic twins have the same hereditary makeup and are the same, sex but in part because of
differences in prenatal as well as postnatal experience they differ in some respects. They may not be
identical in temperament (disposition, or style of approaching and reacting to situations). In some
physical caharteristics, such as hair whorls, dental patterns, and handedness, they may be mirror
images of each other; one may be left-handed and the other right-handed. Dizygotic twins, who are
created from different sperms cells and usually from different ova, are no more alike in hereditary
makeup than any other siblings and may be the same sex or different sexes.

1.10 MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY

The science of genetics is the study of heredity the inborn factors, inherited from the biological
parents, that affect development. When ovum and sperm unite, they endow the baby-to-be with a
genetic makeup that influences a wide range of characteristics from color of eyes and hair to health,
intellect and personality.

The Genetic Code

The basis of heredity is a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains all the
inherited material passed from biological parents to children. DNA carries the biochemical
instructions that direct the formation of each cell in the body and tell the cells how to make the
proteins that enable them to carry out specific bogy functions.

The structure of DNA resembles a long, spiraling ladder made of four chemical units called bases.
The bases adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine are known by their initials: A, T, C and G. They
pair up in four combinations AT, TA, CG and GC and coil around each other. The sequences of 3
billion base pairs constitutes the genetic code, which determines all inherited characteristics.

Within each cell nucleus are chromosomes, coils of DNA that contain smaller segments called genes,
the functional units of heredity. Each gene is a small unit of DNA, located in a definite position on its

18
chromosomes, and each gene contains the “instructions” for building a specific protein. A typical
gene contains thousands of base pairs.

The complete sequence of genes in human body constitutes the human genome. The genome
specifies the order in which genes are expressed, or activated. In 2001, two teams of scientists
completed the mapping of the human genome, which is estimated to contain between 30,000 and
40,000 genes, far fewer than the 80,000 to 100,000 previously estimated. Most human genes seem to
be similar to those of other animals; all but 300 human genes have counterparts in mice.

Every cell in the normal human body except the sex cells has 23 pairs of chromosomes-46 in all.
Through a type of cell division called meiosis, each sex cell, or gamete (sperm or ovum), ends up
with only 23 chromosomes one from each pair. Thus, when sperm and ovum fuse at conception, they
produce a zygote with 46 chromosomes, 23 from the father and 23 from the mother.

At conception, then, the single-celled zygote has all the biological information needed to guide its
development into a human baby. This happens through mitosis, a process by which the cells divide in
half over and over again. When a cell divides, the DNA spirals replicate themselves, so that each
newly formed cell has the same DNA structures as all the others. Thus, each cell division creates a
duplicate of the original cell, with the same hereditary information. When development normal, each
cell (expect the gametes) continues to have 46 chromosomes identical to those in the original zygote.

As the cells divide and the child grows and develops, the cells differentiate, specializing in a variety
of complex bodily functions. Genes do not do their work automatically. They spring into action
when conditions call for the information they can provide. Genetic action that growth of body and
brain is often regulated by hormonal levels, which are affected by such environmental conditions as
nutrition and stress. Thus, from the start, heredity and environment are interrelated.

19
1.11 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

If you mention pregnancy in a room full of women, each one who has borne a child will have a story
to tell. There will be laughter about food cravings, body shape, and balance issues. There will be tales
of babies who arrived early and attended their own showers, as well as recollections of induced
labors that jettisoned infants who were reluctant to leave the womb. There will be complaints about
advice from the medical world that was later discovered to be prenatally hazardous. Young, healthy
women who had never smoked or ingested alcohol, who carefully consumed a nutrient-rich variety of
fruits, vegetables, and other foods, who made sure they were well rested, and who enjoyed the
support of spouse, friends, and family may talk about miscarriage, premature births, or other life-
threatening complications that accompanied their pregnancies.

Older mothers, or those who inadvertently or intentionally drank alcohol, smoked cigarettes or
marijuana, and paid little heed to their diets, will boast about plump, Gerber-baby newborns are now
at the top of their high-school classes. While these women express relief that their offspring seem to
have dodged the bullets that they themselves fi red, others speak of how they deal with consequences
they might have avoided. A few of the women in the room may sit quietly and reflect upon what it

20
was like to be pregnant as a teenager, a single parent, or a widow. As an observer, you will note that
nearly every woman in the room was, or has become, keenly aware that a mother’s behavioral
choices during pregnancy may affect the outcome for her child.

From Conception to Birth

The development begins in the fallopian tube when a sperm penetrates the wall of an ovum, forming
a zygote. From the moment of conception, it will take approximately 266 days for this tiny, one-
celled zygote to become a fetus of some 200 billion cells that is ready to be born. Prenatal
development is often divided into three major phases. The first phase, called the period of the zygote,
lasts from conception through implantation, when the developing zygote becomes firmly attached to
the wall of the uterus. The period of the zygote normally lasts about 10 to 14 days (Leese, 1994). The
second phase of prenatal development, the period of the embryo, lasts from the beginning of the third
week through the end of the eighth. This is the time when virtually all the major organs are formed
and the heart begins to beat (Corsini, 1994). The third phase, the period of the fetus, lasts from the
ninth week of pregnancy until the baby is born. During this phase, all the major organ systems begin
to function, and the developing organism grows rapidly (Malas et al., 2004).

The Period of the Zygote

As the fertilized ovum, or zygote, moves down the fallopian tube toward the uterus, it divides by
mitosis into two cells. These two cells and all the resulting cells continue to divide, forming a ball-
like structure, or blastocyst, that will contain 60 to 80 cells within 4 days of conception. Cell
differentiation has already begun. The inner layer of the blastocyst will become the embryo, and the
outer layer of cells will develop into tissues that protect and nourish the embryo.

Implantation As the blastocyst approaches the uterus 6 to 10 days after conception, small, burrlike
tendrils emerge from its outer surface. When the blastocyst reaches the uterine wall, these tendrils
burrow inward, tapping the pregnant woman’s blood supply. This is implantation. Implantation is
quite a development in itself. There is a specific “window of implantation” during which the
blastocyst must communicate (biologically) with the uterine wall, position itself, attach, and invade.
This implantation choreography takes about 48 hours and occurs 7 to 10 days after ovulation, with
the entire process being completed about 10 to 14 days after ovulation (Hoozemans et al., 2004).
Once the blastocyst is implanted it looks like a small translucent blister on the wall of the uterus.

Development of Support Systems: Once implanted, the blastocyst’s outer layer rapidly forms four
major support structures that protect and nourish the developing organism (Sadler, 1996). One
membrane, the amnion, is a watertight sac that fills with fluid from the pregnant woman’s tissues.
The purposes of this sac and its amniotic fluid are to cushion the developing organism against blows,
regulate its temperature, and provide a weightless environment that will make it easier for the embryo
to move. Floating in this watery environment is a balloon-shaped yolk sac that produces blood cells
until the embryo is capable of producing its own. This yolk sac is attached to a third membrane, the
chorion, which surrounds the amnion and eventually becomes the lining of the placenta—a
multipurpose organ that we will discuss in detail. A fourth membrane, the allantois, forms the
embryo’s umbilical cord.

Purpose of the Placenta: Once developed, the placenta is fed by blood vessels from the pregnant
woman and the embryo, although its hairlike villi act as a barrier that prevents these two
bloodstreams from mixing. This placental barrier is semipermeable, meaning that it allows some
substances to pass through but not others. Gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, salts, and
various nutrients such as sugars, proteins, and fats are small enough to cross the placental barrier.
However, blood cells are too large (Gude et al., 2004). Maternal blood fl owing into the placenta
delivers oxygen and nutrients into the embryo’s bloodstream by means of the umbilical cord, which

21
connects the embryo to the placenta. The umbilical cord also transports carbon dioxide and metabolic
wastes from the embryo. These waste products then cross the placental barrier, enter the pregnant
woman’s bloodstream, and are eventually expelled from the pregnant woman’s body along with her
own metabolic wastes. Thus, the placenta plays a crucial role in prenatal development because this
organ is the site of all metabolic transactions that sustain the embryo.

The Period of the Embryo

The period of the embryo lasts from implantation (roughly the third week) through the eighth week
of pregnancy (see Figure 4.3). By the third week, the embryonic disk is rapidly differentiating into
three cell layers. The outer layer, or ectoderm, will become the nervous system, skin, and hair. The
middle layer, or mesoderm, will become the muscles, bones, and circulatory system. The inner layer,
or endoderm, will become the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and other vital organs such as
the pancreas and liver. Development proceeds at a breath taking pace during the period of the
embryo. In the third week after conception, a portion of the ectoderm folds into a neural tube that
soon becomes the brain and spinal cord. By the end of the fourth week, the heart has not only formed
but has already begun to beat. The eyes, ears, nose, and mouth are also beginning to form, and buds
that will become arms and legs suddenly appear. At this point, the embryo is only about 1/4th of an
inch long, but already 10,000 times the size of the zygote from which it developed. At no time in the
future will this organism ever grow as rapidly or change as much as it has during the first prenatal
month.

The Second Month During the second month, the embryo becomes much more human in
appearance as it grows about 1/30th of an inch per day. A primitive tail appears, but it is soon
enclosed by protective tissue and becomes the tip of the backbone, the coccyx. By the middle of the
fifth week, the eyes have corneas and lenses. By the seventh week, the ears are well formed, and the
embryo has a rudimentary skeleton. Limbs are now developing from the body outward; that is, the
upper arms appear first, followed by the forearms, hands, and then fingers. The legs follow a similar
pattern a few days later. The brain develops rapidly during the second month, and it directs the
organism’s first muscular contractions by the end of the embryonic period.

During the seventh and eighth prenatal weeks, the embryo’s sexual development begins with the
appearance of a genital ridge called the indifferent gonad. If the embryo is a male, a gene on its Y
chromosome triggers a biochemical reaction that instructs the indifferent gonad to produce testes. If
the embryo is a female, the indifferent gonad receives no such instructions and will produce ovaries.
The embryo’s circulatory system now functions on its own, for the liver and spleen have assumed the
task of producing blood cells.

By the end of the second month, the embryo is slightly more than an inch long and weighs less than
1/4th of an ounce. Yet it is already a marvelously complex being. At this point, all the major
structures of the human are formed and the organism is beginning to be recognizable as a human.

The Period of the Fetus

The last seven months of pregnancy, or period of the fetus, is a period of rapid growth (see Figure
4.4) and refinement of all organ systems. This is the time during which all major organ systems begin
to function and the fetus begins to move, sense, and behave (although not intentionally). This is also
a time when individuality emerges as different fetuses develop unique characteristics, such as
different patterns of movement and different facial expressions.

The Third Month

During the third prenatal month, organ systems that were formed earlier continue their rapid growth
and become interconnected. For example, coordination between the nervous and muscular systems

22
allows the fetus to perform many interesting maneuvers in its watery environment kicking its legs,
making fists, twisting its body although these activities are far too subtle to be felt by the pregnant
woman. The digestive and excretory systems are also working together, allowing the fetus to
swallow, digest nutrients, and urinate (El-Haddad et al., 2004; Ross & Nijland, 1998). Sexual
differentiation is progressing rapidly. The male testes secrete testosteronethe male sex hormone
responsible for the development of a penis and scrotum. In the absence of testosterone, female
genitalia form. By the end of the third month, the sex of a fetus can be detected by ultrasound and its
reproductive system already contains immature ova or sperm cells. All these detailed developments
are present after 12 weeks even though the fetus is a mere 3 inches long and still weighs less than an
ounce.

The Fourth through Sixth Months

Development continues at a rapid pace during the 13th through 24th weeks of pregnancy. At age 16
weeks, the fetus is 8 to 10 inches long and weighs about 6 ounces. From 15 or 16 weeks through
about 24 or 25 weeks, simple movements of the tongue, lips, pharynx, and larynx increase in
complexity and coordination, so that the fetus begins to suck, swallow, munch, hiccup, breathe,
cough, and snort, thus preparing itself for extrauterine life (Miller, Sonies, & Macedonia, 2003). In
fact, infants born prematurely may have difficulty breathing and suckling because they exit the womb
at an early stage in the development of these skills simply put, they haven’t had enough time to
practice (Miller, Sonies, & Macedonia, 2003). During this period the fetus also begins kicking that
may be strong enough to be felt by the pregnant woman. The fetal heartbeat can easily be heard with
a stethoscope, and as the amount of bone and cartilage increases as the skeleton hardens (Salle et al.,
2002) the skeleton can be detected by ultrasound.

By the end of the 16th week, the fetus has assumed a distinctly human appearance, although it stands
virtually no chance of surviving outside the womb. During the fifth and sixth months, the nails
harden, the skin thickens, and eyebrows, eyelashes, and scalp hair suddenly appear. At 20 weeks, the
sweat glands are functioning, and the fetal heartbeat is often strong enough to be heard by placing an
ear on the pregnant woman’s abdomen. The fetus is now covered by a white, cheesy substance called
vernix and a fi ne layer of body hair called lanugo. Vernix protects fetal skin against chapping during
its long exposure to amniotic fluid and lanugo helps vernix stick to the skin. By the end of the sixth
month, the fetus’s visual and auditory senses are clearly functional. We know this because preterm
infants born only 25 weeks after conception become alert at the sound of a loud bell and blink in
response to a bright light (Allen & Capute, 1986).

Also, magnetoencephalography (MEG) has been used to document changes in the magnetic fields
generated by the fetal brain in response to auditory stimuli. In fact, the use of MEG has revealed that
the human fetus has some ability to discriminate between sounds. This ability may indicate the
presence of a rudimentary fetal short-term memory system (Huotilainen et al., 2005). These abilities
are present 6 months after conception, when the fetus is approximately 14 to 15 inches long and
weighs about 2 pounds.

The Seventh through Ninth Months

The last 3 months of pregnancy comprise a “finishing phase” during which all organ systems mature
rapidly, preparing the fetus for birth. Indeed, somewhere between 22 and 28 weeks after conception
(usually in the seventh month), fetuses reach the age of viability the point at which survival outside
the uterus is possible (Moore & Persund, 1993). Research using fetal monitoring techniques reveals
that 28- to 32-week-old fetuses suddenly begin to show better organized and more predictable cycles
of heart rate activity, gross motor activity, and sleepiness/waking activity, findings that indicate that
their developing nervous systems are now sufficiently well organized to allow them to survive should
their birth be premature (DiPietro et al., 1996; Groome et al., 1997).

23
Nevertheless, many fetuses born this young will still require oxygen assistance because the tiny
pulmonary alveoli (air sacs) in their lungs are too immature to inflate and exchange oxygen for
carbon dioxide on their own (Moore & Persaud, 1993). By the end of the seventh month, the fetus
weighs nearly 4 pounds and is about 16 to 17 inches long. One month later, it has grown to 18 inches
and put on another 1 to 2 pounds. Much of this weight comes from a padding of fat deposited just
beneath the skin that later helps to insulate the newborn infant from changes in temperature. By the
middle of the ninth month, fetal activity slows and sleep increases (DiPietro et al., 1996; Sahni et al.,
1995).

The fetus is now so large that the most comfortable position within a restricted, pear-shaped uterus is
likely to be a head-down posture at the base of the uterus, with the limbs curled up in the so-called
fetal position. At irregular intervals over the last month of pregnancy, the pregnant woman’s uterus
contracts and then relaxes a process that tones the uterine muscles, dilates the cervix, and helps to
position the head of the fetus into the gap between the pelvic bones through which it will soon be
pushed. As the uterine contractions become stronger, more frequent, and regular, the prenatal period
draws to a close. The pregnant woman is now in the fi rst stage of labor, and within a matter of hours
she will give birth.

24
25
Potential Problems in Prenatal Development
Although the vast majority of newborn infants follow the “normal” pattern of prenatal development
just described, some encounter environmental obstacles that may channel their development along an
abnormal path. In the following sections, we will consider a number of environmental factors that can

26
 harm developing embryos and fetuses. We will also consider interventions used to prevent abnormal
outcomes.

Teratogens
The term teratogen refers to any disease, drug, or other environmental agent that can harm a
developing embryo or fetus by causing physical deformities, severely retarded growth, blindness,
brain damage, or even death. The list of known and suspected teratogens has grown frighteningly
long over the years, making many of today’s parents quite concerned about the hazards their
developing embryos and fetuses could face (FriedmanBefore considering the effects of some of the
major teratogens, let’s emphasize that about 95 percent of newborn babies are perfectly normal and
that many of those born with defects have mild, temporary, or reversible problems (Gosden,
Nicolaides, & Whitling, 1994; Heinonen, Slone, & Shapiro, 1977).

Let’s also lay out a few principles about the effects of teratogens that will aid us in interpreting the
research that follows:
■ The effects of a teratogen on a body part or organ system are worst during the period when that
structure is forming and growing most rapidly.
■ Not all embryos or fetuses are equally affected by a teratogen; susceptibility to harm is influenced
by the embryo’s or fetus’s and the pregnant woman’s genetic makeup and the quality of the prenatal
environment.
■ The same defect can be caused by different teratogens.
■ A variety of defects can result from a single teratogen.
■ The longer the exposure to or higher the “dose” of a teratogen, the more likely it is that serious
harm will be done.
■ Embryos and fetuses can be affected by fathers’ as well as by mothers’ exposure to some
teratogens.
■ The long-term effects of a teratogen often depend on the quality of the postnatal environment.
■ Some teratogens cause “sleeper effects” that may not be apparent until later in the child’s life.

1.12 DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT (PSYCHOANALYTIC,

COGNITIVE, BEHAVIOURAL, SOCIO COGNITIVE, ETHOLOGICAL & ECOLOGICAL)

Developmental psychology, a broad area of study exploring the development of humans over
time, involves the examination of the ways people develop over the course of their lifespan as
well as the evolution of cultures as a whole. Those who work in the field of developmental
psychology seek to better understand how people learn and adapt to changes over time.

Developmental psychologists might work in schools, hospitals, or assisted living facilities, and they
might also conduct research or teach in higher education or government institutes. People seeking
therapy for issues related to development may also encounter helping professionals who have a
background in developmental psychology.

There are a number of important issues that have been debated throughout the history of
developmental psychology. The major questions include the following:
 Is development due more to genetics or environment?
 Does development occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes happen in stages?
 Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development or are later events equally
important?

27
 Nature and Nuture
The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment usually referred to as
the nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in both philosophy and psychology.
Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas are inborn. On the other
hand, thinkers such as John Locke argued for the concept of tabula rasa—a belief that the mind is a
blank slate at birth, with experience determining our knowledge.
Some aspects of development are distinctly biological, such as puberty. However, the onset of
puberty can be affected by environmental factors such as diet and nutrition.

Early Experience and Later Experience

A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the relative importance of
early experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are we more affected by events that occur in
early childhood, or do later events play an equally important role?
Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that occur in early childhood. According to Freud,
much of a child's personality is completely established by the age of five. If this is indeed the case,
those who have experienced deprived or abusive childhoods might never adjust or develop normally.
In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood events does not
necessarily have a dominating effect over behaviour throughout life. Many people with less-than-
perfect childhoods go on to develop normally into well-adjusted adults.

Continuity and Discontinuity

A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity. Does change occur smoothly
over time, or through a series of predetermined steps?
Some theories of development argue that changes are simply a matter of quantity; children
display more of certain skills as they grow older. Other theories outline a series of sequential stages
in which skills emerge at certain points of development.
Most theories of development fall under three broad areas:
1. Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the
importance of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud's contribution to
developmental theory was his proposal that development occurs through a series of psychosexual
stages.
Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by proposing a stage theory of psychosocial
development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts that arise at different stages of development and,
unlike Freud's theory, Erikson described development throughout the lifespan.
2. Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behaviour. Important learning processes
include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. In each case, behaviour
is shaped by the interaction between the individual and the environment.
3. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities. Examples of
cognitive theories include Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
Abnormal Behaviour and Individual Differences
One of the biggest concerns of many parents is whether or not their child is developing normally.
Developmental milestones offer guidelines for the ages at which certain skills and abilities typically
emerge but can create concern when a child falls slightly behind the norm. While developmental
theories have historically focused upon deficits in behaviour, focus on individual differences in
development is becoming more common.

Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally focused upon abnormal behaviour, so developmental

theories in this area tend to describe deficits in behaviour. Learning theories rely more on the
environment's unique impact on an individual, so individual differences are an important component
of these theories. Today, psychologists look at both norms and individual differences when
describing child development.

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 Theories of development (psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioural, socio cognitive, ethological &
ecological)
Development is the series of age-related changes that happen over the course of a life span. Several
famous psychologists, including Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, and Lawrence Kohlberg,
describe development as a series of stages. A Stage is a period in development in which people
exhibit typical behaviour patterns and establish particular capacities. The various stage theories share
three assumptions:
1. People pass through stages in a specific order, with each stage building on capacities developed in the
previous stage.
2. Stages are related to age.
3. Development is discontinuous, with qualitatively different capacities emerging in each stage.

Theories of development - Psychoanalytic

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behaviour is the result of
the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. This theory,
known as Freud’s structural theory of personality, places great emphasis on the role of unconscious
psychological conflicts in shaping behaviour and personality. Dynamic interactions among these
fundamental parts of the mind are thought to progress through five distinct psychosexual stages of
development. Over the last century, however, Freud’s ideas have since been met with criticism, in
part because of his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human personality development.

Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind

According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he proposed as the
three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego. Conflicts among these
three structures, and our efforts to find balance among what each of them “desires,” determines how
we behave and approach the world. What balance we strike in any given situation determines how we
will resolve the conflict between two overarching behavioural tendencies: our biological aggressive
and pleasure-seeking drives vs. our socialized internal control over those drives.

Freud’s psychosexual theory of development

Freud’s psychosexual theory of development suggests that children develop through a series of stages
related to erogenous zones.

Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was a Viennese physician who developed his psychosexual theory of development
through his work with emotionally troubled adults. Now considered controversial and largely
outdated, his theory is based on the idea that parents play a crucial role in managing their children’s
sexual and aggressive drives during the first few years of life in order to foster their proper
development.

Freud’s Structural Model

Freud believed that the human personality consisted of three interworking parts: the id, the ego, and
the superego. According to his theory, these parts become unified as a child works through the five
stages of psychosexual development. The id, the largest part of the mind, is related to desires and
impulses and is the main source of basic biological needs. The ego is related to reasoning and is the
conscious, rational part of the personality; it monitors behaviour in order to satisfy basic desires
without suffering negative consequences. The superego, or conscience, develops through interactions
with others (mainly parents) who want the child to conform to the norms of society. The superego
restricts the desires of the id by applying morals and values from society. Freud believed that a

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struggle existed between these levels of consciousness, influencing personality development and
psychopathology.

The id, ego, and superego: Freud believed that we are only aware of a small amount of our mind’s
activities and that most of it remains hidden from us in our unconscious. The information in our
unconscious affects our behaviour, although we are unaware of it.

1.13 THE ROLE OF CONFLICT

Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved before
the individual can successfully advance to the next stage.
The resolution of each of these conflicts requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more
energy that is expended at a particular stage, the more the important characteristics of that stage
remain with the individual as he/she matures psychologically.

To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the march. As the troops advance,
they are met by opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful in winning the battle (resolving
the conflict), then most of the troops (libido) will be able to move on to the next battle (stage).
But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the greater the need for troops to
remain behind to fight and thus the fewer that will be able to go on to the next confrontation.

Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation

Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason for
this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have been
adequately met in which case there is frustration.

Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the
psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.
Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what
psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage.

Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been permanently
'invested' in a particular stage of his development.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-
seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is
characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation. During the five

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 psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital stages, the erogenous zone
associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early
experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behaviour later in
life.

Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle development,
depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a
healthy personality is the result.
If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a
persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will
remain "stuck" in this stage.

A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may
seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

 The Oral Stage (Age Range: Birth to 1 Year)

Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the
rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant
derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child),
the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon
caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with
dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or
nail-biting.

The Anal Stage (Age Range: 1 to 3 years)

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder
and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to
control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and
independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet
training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage
positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that positive
experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to become competent, productive,
and creative adults.

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 However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage.
Some parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents. According to Freud,
inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is
too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual
has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too
early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent,
orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The Phallic Stage (Age Range: 3 to 6 Years)

Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At
this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The
Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace
the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a
fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young
girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing
the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that
all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this
theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men
experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to
as womb envy.

The Latent Period (Age Range: 6 to Puberty)

Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children
develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family.
The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around
the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies,
and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or dormant. This
energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social
interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-
confidence.
As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to become
fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form
fulfilling relationships as an adult.

 The Genital Stage (Age Range: Puberty to Death)

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of
psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This
stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others
grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.

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 Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego were
fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands
immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants. Teens in the genital stage of development
are able to balance their most basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and
social norms.

1.14 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT – COGNITIVE

Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development

The Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget is one of the most influential figures in the study of child
development. He developed his cognitive-developmental theory based on the idea that children
actively construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the world around them. Piaget was
interested in the development of “thinking” and how it relates to development throughout childhood.
His theory of four stages of cognitive development, first presented in the mid-20th century, is one of
the most famous and widely-accepted theories in child cognitive development to this day.

Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of
the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait and regarded cognitive
development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the
environment.

Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French
versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reason’s children
gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these
incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.

Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His
contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of
cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems
as a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental
concepts like the very idea of number, time, quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged.
Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less
competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways
compared to adults.

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and
evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based.
The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the
child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of
biological maturation and environmental experience.

Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies
between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.
There are three basic components to Piaget's Cognitive Theory:
1. Schemas (Building blocks of knowledge).
2. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium, assimilation
and accommodation)
3. Stages of Cognitive Development:
 Sensorimotor,

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 Preoperational, 
 Concrete operational, 
 Formal operational. 

SCHEMAS

Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world. It would mean that
you would not be able to make so much use of information from your past experience or to plan
future actions.

Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models and enable us to form a mental
representation of the world. Piaget defined a schema as:
"a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected
and governed by a core meaning."

In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building MODULE of intelligent behaviour.
A way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of knowledge,
each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical)
concepts.

Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as 'index cards' filed
in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information.
When Piaget talked about the development of a person's mental processes, he was referring to
increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learned.
When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to
be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e., mental) balance.
Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development and described how they were
developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the
world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store
these mental representations and apply them when needed.

For example, a person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a
stored form of the pattern of behaviour which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and
paying the bill. This is an example of a type of schema called a 'script.' Whenever they are in a
restaurant, they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation.

The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this - especially those used by infants. He
described how - as a child gets older - his or her schemas become more numerous and elaborate.
Piaget believed that newborn babies have a small number of innate schemas - even before they have
had many opportunities to experience the world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures
underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes are genetically programmed into us.
For example, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips.
A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that
the baby has a 'sucking schema.'
Similarly, the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a baby's hand, or
the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, are
innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas, grasping and shaking.

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 Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process
of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through:
 Assimilation 
– Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
 Accommodation
– This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work and needs to be changed to
deal with a new object or situation.
 Equilibration
– This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive
development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.

Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation.
However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into
existing schemas (assimilation).
Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will
seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information
is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time, we
need to make an adjustment to it.

Example of Assimilation
A 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To
his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown” (Siegler et al., 2003).
Example of Accommodation
In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that
even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly
things to make people laugh.
With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit
better to a standard concept of “clown”.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget believed that as children grow and their brains develop, they move through four distinct stages
that are characterized by differences in thought processing. In his research, he carefully observed
children and presented them with problems to solve that were related to object permanence,
reversibility, deductive reasoning, transitivity, and assimilation (described below). Each stage builds
upon knowledge learned in the previous stage. Piaget’s four stages correspond with the age of the

35
children and are the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal
operational stages.

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 years)

The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to age 2. It is characterized by the idea that infants “think”
by manipulating the world around them. This is done by using all five senses: seeing, hearing,
touching, tasting, and smelling. Children figure out ways to elicit responses by “doing”, such as
pulling a lever on a music box to hear a sound, placing a MODULE in a bucket and pulling it back
out, or throwing an object to see what happens. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child
develops object permanence, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still
exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000). For example, a child learns that even though his
mother leaves the room, she has not ceased to exist; similarly, a ball does not disappear because a
bucket is placed over it.

By the end of this stage, children are able to engage in what Piaget termed deferred imitation. This
involves the ability to reproduce or repeat a previously-witnessed action later on; rather than copying
it right away, the child is able to produce a mental representation of it and repeat the behaviour later
on. By 24 months, infants are able to imitate behaviours after a delay of up to three months.

Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years)

The preoperational stage occurs from age 2 to age 7. During this stage, children can use symbols to
represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A
child’s arms might become airplane wings as she zooms around the room, or a child with a stick
might become a brave knight with a sword. Language development and make-believe play begin
during this stage. Logical thinking is still not present, so children cannot rationalize or understand
more complex ideas. Children at this stage are very egocentric, meaning they focus on themselves
and how actions will impact them, rather than others. They are not able to take on the perspective of
others, and they think that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just like they do.

Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 years)

The concrete operational stage occurs from age 7 to age 11. It is characterized by the idea that
children’s reasoning becomes focused and logical. Children demonstrate a logical understanding
of conservation principles, the ability to recognize that key properties of a substance do not change
even as their physical appearance may be altered. For example, a child who understands the
principles of conservation will recognize that identical quantities of liquid will remain the same
despite the size of the container in which they are poured. Children who do not yet grasp
conservation and logical thinking will believe that the taller or larger glass must contain more liquid.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and over)

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and lasts into adulthood. During this
time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses.
Piaget (1952) did not explicitly relate his theory to education, although later researchers have
explained how features of Piaget's theory can be applied to teaching and learning.

Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching practice. For
example, a review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on
Piaget’s theory. The result of this review led to the publication of the Plowden report (1967).
Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring - was seen
as central to the transformation of the primary school curriculum.

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 'The report's recurring themes are individual learning, flexibility in the curriculum, the centrality of
play in children's learning, the use of the environment, learning by discovery and the importance of
the evaluation of children's progress - teachers should 'not assume that only what is measurable is
valuable.'
Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the notion of 'readiness' is
important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught. According to
Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate
stage of cognitive development.

According to Piaget (1958), assimilation and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive
one, because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered.
Within the classroom learning should be student-centered and accomplished through active discovery
learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition. Therefore, teachers
should encourage the following within the classroom:
 Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it.
 Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths."
 Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other).
 Devising situations that present useful problems and create disequilibrium in the child.
 Evaluate the level of the child's development so suitable tasks can be set.

Critical Evaluation of Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development:

 The influence of Piaget’s ideas in developmental psychology has been enormous. He changed how
people viewed the child’s world and their methods of studying children. 
He was an inspiration to many who came after and took up his ideas. Piaget's ideas have generated a
huge amount of research which has increased our understanding of cognitive development.
 His ideas have been of practical use in understanding and communicating with children, particularly
in the field of education (re: Discovery Learning).

1.14.1 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT – BEHAVIOURAL

During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought known as behaviourism rose to
become a dominant force within psychology. Behaviourists believed that psychology needed to focus
only on observable and quantifiable behaviours in order to become a more scientific discipline.
According to the behavioural perspective, all human behaviour can be described in terms of
environmental influences. Some behaviourists, such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, insisted
that learning occurs purely through processes of association and reinforcement.

Behavioural theories of child development focus on how environmental interaction influences

behaviour and is based on the theories of theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F.
Skinner. These theories deal only with observable behaviours. Development is considered a reaction
to rewards, punishments, stimuli, and reinforcement.

This theory differs considerably from other child development theories because it gives no
consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it focuses purely on how experience shapes
who we are.

Two important types of learning that emerged from this approach to development are classical
conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning by pairing a naturally
occurring stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement
and punishment to modify behaviours.

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Behaviourism is a learning theory that focuses on observable behaviours. It is broken into two areas
of conditioning – classic and behavioural or operant. Most are familiar with operant conditioning,
where one learns through reward what behaviour is desired. B.F. Skinner spent lots of time exploring
operant conditioning through research with animals, which proved that behaviour is a learned
response. Classic conditioning is a natural reflex or response to stimuli. When a child feels
apprehension at the thought of taking a test, she’s exhibiting classic conditioning.

Skinner’s research determined the brain was not a part of conditioning, and learning was through
environmental factors, differentiating his ideas from others such as John Watson, and coining his
theories as radical behaviourism. All actions required a reaction, positive or negative, which modified
behaviour. With basic behaviourism theories, it is thought that the individual is passive and
behaviour is molded through positive and negative reinforcement. This means that a child’s
behaviour can be changed and modified through reinforcement, but which type of reinforcement is
best? Positive or negative?

Rewarding behaviour
Yes, incentives do seem to reap positive rewards. Many of us resort to offering rewards for desired
behaviour. If a child performs well on her next test, she is promised a new toy. When she is loudly
complaining at the supermarket, she is offered a tasty-treat to stop screaming. This means the child is
rewarded for both her positive and negative behaviours sending a confusing message, which results
in a child learning through her behaviours that she can receive the same outcome.

Behaviourism has even hit the mainstream with several television shows setting almost impossible
examples of how children can and should behave with the proper attention. Alfie Kohn finds
that behaviourism is as American as apple pie, applying techniques for a quick response without
consideration for the future. According to Kohn, instead of tossing kids in time-out, spending time
reasoning with children in a warm and compassionate manor offers better response resulting in future
well-adjusted and loving adults.

Modifying behaviour
As adults, we can work to model positive behaviours to encourage the same behaviour from our
children along with not offering incentives when unnecessary or overly praising. Our gut reaction is
to offer a “good job” when a child behaves in a promising way. This raises the child’s psyche but
doesn’t offer them necessary important incentive to continue the behaviour. The child also does not
understand specifically what behaviour caused the adult to praise her, causing disregard. The blanket
phrase “good job” becomes insignificant and doesn’t promote continued positive behaviour.
When specific praise is provided, such as turning that “good job” into “I like the way you explained
the answer to that question,” with the praise focused on growth, learning, and development, the
child’s behaviour is positively acknowledged and encouraged. It also gives the adult a chance to
think about what actually excited them about the child’s behaviour, making it a win-win on both
ends. The child feels supported and motivated in a nurturing way, and the adult has identified the
specific behaviour they are proud of.

Along with offering specific and well-defined praise, adults can model positive behaviours to inspire
the same in a child. Communication is key along with having realistic expectations. A parent can’t
assume their two-year-old child will be able to sit through a family meal without some difficulty.
But, when the behaviour is modeled and expectations are communicated clearly to the child, the
desired behaviour can be achieved – potentially. And, instead of becoming frustrated when the
behaviour starts breaking down, redirect the child and offer assistance if necessary. Why not
encourage the child to finish her meal with a puzzle at her side to help her stay motivated while at the
table.

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 Consistent and realistic consequences are essential when dealing with behaviours. This can be a
tricky area and children may manipulate the situation. Feedback, or consequences, are a large aspect
of behaviourism. When feedback is given after a desired behaviour, learning has been set in place.
Selecting appropriate rewards is important so that they can be offered consistently.

When a child works hard to perform in a positive way and then not rewarded as expected, her self-
esteem drops, and she is not motivated to continue the behaviour. When she behaves negatively,
instead of placing her in time-out, removing a reward is an option. Rewards could include items that
are decided together. The child can take ownership of her behaviour when she is able to take part in
the decision-making process. Working with kids in a nurturing way is the best step toward positive
behaviour – and a healthy and happy relationship.

1.14.2 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT – SOCIO COGNITIVE

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert
Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a
dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The unique feature of
SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social
reinforcement.

SCT considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and maintain behavior, while also
considering the social environment in which individuals perform the behavior. The theory takes into
account a person's past experiences, which factor into whether behavioral action will occur. These
past experiences influence reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape
whether a person will engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that
behavior.

Many theories of behavior used in health promotion do not consider maintenance of behavior, but
rather focus on initiating behavior. This is unfortunate as maintenance of behavior, and not just
initiation of behavior, is the true goal in public health. The goal of SCT is to explain how people
regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can
be maintained over time. The first five constructs were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of
self-efficacy was added when the theory evolved into SCT.

1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the dynamic and
reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned experiences), environment (external
social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve goals).
2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a behavior through essential
knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a person must know what to do
and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of their behavior, which also affects the
environment in which they live.
3. Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior conducted by
others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often exhibited through "modeling" of behaviors. If
individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior, they can also complete the behavior
successfully.
4. Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's behavior that affect the
likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior. Reinforcements can be self-initiated or in the
environment, and reinforcements can be positive or negative. This is the construct of SCT that most
closely ties to the reciprocal relationship between behavior and environment.

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5. Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior. Outcome
expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the consequences of their
actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated consequences can influence successful
completion of the behavior. Expectations derive largely from previous experience. While
expectancies also derive from previous experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on
the outcome and are subjective to the individual.
6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to successfully
perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories have added this construct
at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's
specific capabilities and other individual factors, as well as by environmental factors (barriers and
facilitators).

1.14.3 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT – ETHOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL

Ethological Theory:
When we observe children in natural settings we are impressed by the diversity of their physical size
and shape and the vast individual differences in their behavior. Charles
Darwin (1809-82), an English naturalist, studied various species of plants and animals in different
parts of the world and concluded that diversity was a universal characteristic of all species of plants
and animals, including humans. Darwin came to believe that the variation among the members of a
species is essential to survival of the species in natural environments.

In The Origin of Species (1859), Darwin presented the theory of evolution--a theory with profound
implications for the study of child development. Darwin viewed each species of living things in a
"struggle for survival" within its natural environment. He viewed the natural environment in terms of
risk and opportunity for survival: predators, disease, and natural disasters threaten survival; the
availability of food, shelter, and favorable climate promote survival. Darwin proposed that only those
members of a species with the most adaptive traits would be likely to live long enough to reproduce
and pass these traits on to successive generations. Greater diversity in traits among members of a
species increases the likelihood that adaptive traits will be available to overcome any risk to survival.
Adaptive traits are thus "selected" into the species across generations. Darwin proposed that a
species' survival is dependent on this process, which he called natural selection.

Darwin's theory implies that the course of development has evolved as a solution to the problem of
survival of the species. Moreover, the development of each individual may be thought of as a unique
"experiment" in survival: a unique combination of genetic traits confronting the ongoing process of
natural selection. Ethology is the scientific study of behavior and development in evolutionary
perspective. Its purpose is to identify behavior patterns that have had, and may continue to have,
significant impact on the survival of a species.

The study of ethology as a distinct discipline derives from the work of Niko Tinbergen and Konrad
Lorenz in the 1930's. Lorenz (1937) proposed that certain behaviour patterns are inherited, much as
physical structures are inherited. Innate behaviors appear in the form of reflexes and fixed action
patterns. Reflexes are "wired-in" responses to specific forms of stimulation. Infants, for example, will
grasp your finger when you press it into their palm. Fixed action patterns are more complex
behaviors that are necessary for survival, such as foraging for food, searching for mates, and
attacking or running.

Important ethological contributions to the study of child development have come from studies of
animals in their natural environment. Lorenz (1952) observed that in a certain

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species of birds, there is a brief critical period of time during which the newborn is particularly
sensitive to certain forms of learning. For instance, if geese are exposed to their mothers shortly after
birth, they learn to recognize their mothers and to follow them.

Exposure after the end of the second day will be ineffective. Lorenz referred to this biological
readiness for learning as imprinting. Lorenz soon discovered that geese's predisposition to imprint
was so powerful that they would imprint on virtually any moving form (including Lorenz himself),
that he exposed them to during that critical period.

John Bowlby (1969, 1989) incorporated aspects of the ethological view into his theory of how the
human infant develops emotional ties to its mother. Bowlby believed that infants and their caregivers
are biologically predisposed to form an emotional relationship that promotes staying close together.
Consistent with ethological principles, staying close together would serve to protect the infant from
threats to survival such as predators and accidental injury. Bowlby's important contribution to our
understanding of early emotional development will be revisited in later chapters.

Ethological theory contradicts learning theory by suggesting that behavior is not always learned
through conditioning. Some forms of behavior, particularly behavior that promotes survival, may be
built into the species and elicited only under special environmental circumstances. Aggression, for
example, may be expressed when the individual is threatened, regardless of prior learning
experiences. Similarly, some forms of learning may not be controlled by the principles of classical or
operant conditioning. Ethologists suggest that humans may be predisposed to certain forms of
learning during critical periods of development.

In practical terms, it would seem prudent to consider all aspects of behavior and development in
evolutionary perspective. For instance, some infants in the first few weeks of life experience colic -
prolonged bouts of crying, intestinal upset, and an inability to be soothed. Scientists have failed to
find a physiological or environmental for colic. In ethological perspective, colic may a genetic
holdover from a much earlier period in evolution when intense crying may have been needed to elicit
caregiving from mothers who may have been less responsive to their offspring.

Ethological theory also suggests that the degree of risk or opportunity raised by a developmental
event may depend on when the event happens. For example, whereas a staircase may place a 8-
month-old at risk for injury, it is a challenging opportunity for a toddler to develop his or her motor
skills. This perspective also suggests that certain forms of learning can take place only if a certain
quality of experience is provided. For instance, infants raised in institutions typically show deficits in
motor and language development (Dennis, 1973) and in social and emotional development (Spitz,
1945, 1946).

Ethological theory has helped expand the way we think about the causes of human behavior.
Ethological theory finds explanation of development in the evolution of the species. These
explanations help us to understand why certain behaviors are universal, and why other behaviors vary
enormously from one social context to another. It also helps us to accept that there may be limits to
our ability to change certain aspects of human behavior. It has also heightened our awareness of the
concept of readiness, warning us that while timing may not be everything in development, it often
influences the magnitude of our effects on children's behavior and development.

Ecological Theory:
American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain
how the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to influence how they grow and

41
develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple
environments, also known as ecological systems, in the attempt to understand their development.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find themselves
enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological system to the larger school
system, and then to the most expansive system which includes society and culture. Each of these
ecological systems inevitably interact with and influence each other in all aspects of the children’s
lives.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model organizes contexts of development into five levels of external
influence. These levels are categorized from the most intimate level to the broadest.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most immediate
environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or
daycare, peer group and community environment of the children.
Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members,
classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals interact with the children will
affect how they grow.

Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they treat the
children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships will
understandably foster they children’s improved development.
One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of ecological
systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same ecological system to
experience very different environments.

Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible for the
development of them to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular personality traits, such
as temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand
in how he/she is treated by others.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Mesosystem

The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children find
themselves in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between
home and school, between peer group and family, and between family and community.

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According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved in the friendships of
their child, for example they invite their child’s friends over to their house from time to time and
spend time with them, then the child’s development is affected positively through harmony and like-
mindedness.

However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the child
experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative development.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Ecosystem

The ecosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which
may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless.

Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not directly interact
with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people may include the parents’
workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood the children live in.

For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the
workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at home.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macrosystem

The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that
still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is composed of the children’s
cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and
economic systems.

For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development than children
in peaceful environments.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which
demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the children’s environments. The
chronosystem may include a change in family structure, address, parents’ employment status, as well
as immense society changes such as economic cycles and wars.

By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory is able to
demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on children’s development. Awareness of the
contexts that children are in can sensitize us to variations in the way children may act in different
settings.

For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the role of a
terrified victim at home. Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with the care of a
particular child should pay close attention to his/her behavior in different settings, as well as to the
quality and type of connections that exist between these settings.

1.15 PROCESS OF BIRTH (STAGES OF BIRTH, TRANSITION FROM FOETUS TO NEW

BORN)

Development happens quickly during the Prenatal Period, which is the time between conception
and birth. This period is generally divided into three stages: the germinal stage, the embryonic stage,
and the fetal stage.

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Let's take a closer look at the major stages and events that take place during the prenatal period of
development. The process of prenatal development occurs in three main stages.
The first two weeks after conception are known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth
week is known as the embryonic period, and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the
fetal period.

Process of birth
There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and foetal. Let’s take a look at
what happens to the developing baby in each of these stages.

Germinal stage- (weeks 1–2)

In the discussion of biopsychology earlier in the book, you learned about genetics and DNA. A
mother and father’s DNA are passed on to the child at the moment of conception. Conception occurs
when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote. A zygote begins as a one-cell structure that is
created when a sperm and egg merge.

The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at this point. During the first week after conception,
the zygote divides and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two cells, then four cells, then
eight cells, and so on. This process of cell division is called mitosis. Mitosis is a fragile process, and
fewer than one-half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks (Hall, 2004). After 5 days of
mitosis there are 100 cells, and after 9 months there are billions of cells. As the cells divide, they
become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts. In the germinal stage, the mass of
cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of the mother’s uterus. Once it does, the next stage begins.

Embryonic stage- (weeks 3–8)

After the zygote divides for about 7–10 days and has 150 cells, it travels down the fallopian tubes and
implants itself in the lining of the uterus. Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called
an embryo. Now blood vessels grow, forming the placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to
the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the
umbilical cord. Basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head,
chest, and abdomen. During the embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat, and organs form and begin
to function. The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and
brain.

Fetal stage- (weeks 9–40)

When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is
about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being as the
“tail” begins to disappear.

From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate. At about 16 weeks, the fetus is
approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible. By
the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it weighs up to 1.4 pounds.
Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs, such as the lungs,
heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a
chance to survive outside of the mother’s womb. Throughout the fetal stage the brain continues to
grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from weeks 16 to 28. Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost
ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long, and by week 37 all of the
fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it could survive outside the mother’s uterus without
many of the risks associated with premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in
length until approximately 40 weeks. By then, the fetus has very little room to move around and birth
becomes imminent.

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Infancy
The average newborn weighs approximately 7.5 pounds. Although small, a newborn is not
completely helpless because his reflexes and sensory capacities help him interact with the
environment from the moment of birth. All healthy babies are born with newborn reflexes: inborn
automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. Reflexes help the newborn survive until it is
capable of more complex behaviors these reflexes are crucial to survival.

They are present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually disappear around 4–5
months old. Let’s take a look at some of these newborn reflexes. The rooting reflex is the newborn’s
response to anything that touches her cheek: When you stroke a baby’s cheek, she naturally turns her
head in that direction and begins to suck. The sucking reflex is the automatic, unlearned, sucking
motions that infants do with their mouths. Several other interesting newborn reflexes can be
observed.

For instance, if you put your finger into a newborn’s hand, you will witness the grasping reflex, in
which a baby automatically grasps anything that touches his palms. The Moro reflex is the newborn’s
response when she feels like she is falling. The baby spreads her arms, pulls them back in, and then
(usually) cries.

1.16 STRATEGIES FOR CHILD BIRTH (CHILD BIRTH SETTING AND ATTENDANTS,
METHODS OF DELIVERY)

Childbirth is challenging and complications occur, but women’s bodies are designed to give birth.
The shape of the pelvis, hormones, powerful muscles and more all work together to help you bring
your baby into the world - before, during and after childbirth.

Child birth Settings

Hospital Birth
The vast majority of women in the U.S. give birth in a hospital. If you have a high-risk pregnancy or want
to try having a vaginal birth after a caesarean delivery (VBAC), then a hospital is the safest -- and often
the only -- place you can deliver your baby. Even if you have a low-risk pregnancy, you may want to give
birth in a hospital where you have ready access to the latest in medical technology.
Fortunately, the old stereotype of delivering your baby in a cold hospital room with your feet up in
stirrups is long gone. Now, many hospitals provide options that range from practical to plush in order to
make the labor and delivery experience more comfortable.

Traditional hospital birth. In some hospitals, you may move from one room to another depending on
what stage of labor you are in. For example, you may go through labor and delivery in one room, recover
in another, and then move to a semiprivate room. Your baby may be brought to your room for feedings
and visits but stay in the hospital nursery the rest of the time. Not all hospitals follow the same routine, so
ask what you can expect during your stay.

Family-centered care. Many hospitals now offer private rooms where you can go through labor,
delivery, and recovery all in the same room. Often your partner can stay with you. These rooms are often
decorated with pictures on the walls, soothing colors, and cabinets that hide medical equipment when it's
not in use. After birth, your baby stays in your room with you.

Many studies highlight how health is influenced by the settings in which people live, work, and
receive health care. In particular, the setting in which childbirth takes place is highly influential. The
physiological processes of women's labor and birth are enhanced in optimal ("salutogenic," or health

45
 promoting) environments. Settings can also make a difference in the way maternity staff practice.
This paper focuses on how positive examples of Italian birth places incorporate principles of healthy
settings. The "Margherita" Birth Center in Florence and the Maternity Home "Il Nido" in Bologna
were purposively selected as cases where the physical-environmental setting seemed to reflect an
embedded model of care that promotes health in the context of childbirth. Narrative accounts of the
project design were collected from lead professional and direct inspections performed to elicit the
key salutogenic components of the physical layout.

Comparisons between cases with a standard hospital labor ward layout were performed. Cross-case
similarities emerged. The physical characteristics mostly related to optimal settings were a result of
collaborative design decisions with stakeholders and users, and the resulting local intention to
maximize safe physiological birth, psychosocial wellbeing, facilitate movement and relaxation,
prioritize space for privacy, intimacy, and favor human contact and relationships.

Attendants:
The presence of a skilled health professional (doctor, nurse or midwife) during delivery is crucial in
reducing maternal and child deaths. In 2010 approximately 287 000 women died while pregnant or
giving birth and 3.1 million newborns die in the neonatal period.
The proportion of births attended by skilled personnel– is above 90% in three of the six WHO
regions. However, increased coverage is needed in certain regions, such as Africa where the figure
remains less than 50%.

These services require “an accredited health professional such as a midwife, doctor or nurse – who
has been educated and trained to proficiency in the skills needed to manage normal (uncomplicated)
pregnancies, childbirth and the immediate postnatal period, and in the identification, management
and referral of complications in women and newborns”. (1) In addition to the appropriate skills, these
health professionals should be motivated and located in the right place at the right time, they need to
be supported by appropriate policies, essential supplies including medicines and operating under
appropriate regulatory frameworks.

1.17 METHODS OF DELIVERY

Bringing a baby into this world is a monumental feat and cannot be achieved easily. Although normal
vaginal delivery is commonly referred as the typical way of birthing, New techniques help labouring
women in many ways, either by dampening their pain or smoothening the delivery process.
Advancements in medical sciences have discovered various methods so that delivery can be made
successful even in the face of any complications or risks.

Most Common Methods of Childbirth are:

Expecting mothers can look forward to the following delivery options.
1. Vaginal Delivery: When a baby is born through the birth canal of a woman’s body, the delivery is
termed as a vaginal delivery. It may or may not be assisted with epidurals or pain-relieving
medication. The exact time of birth cannot be predicted in such a case, but most vaginal births tend to
happen once 40 weeks of pregnancy have been completed. Most doctors recommend a vaginal birth
if there is a possibility for it and advise against going for caesarean delivery.

2. During the stress of labour pains, the baby secretes hormones for the development of its brain and
lungs; moreover, passaging through the birth canal squeezes the baby’s chest to clear all amniotic
fluid and expand its lungs effectively. For mothers planning to have multiple children, vaginal births
are highly recommended. When done with an incision above the anal area, the procedure is
called episiotomy. With vaginal deliveries, mothers can recover from the stress of delivery quicker

46
 and return home sooner with their babies. The chances of infection in such cases are lower than
others. The baby too has a lower chance of suffering from any breathing problems if born via the
vagina.

3. Natural Childbirth: This is one of the types of birth that is steadily gaining popularity. In this
method, there are no medical procedures or invasive therapies involved, and the process takes place
in the most natural manner possible. This is mostly a personal choice and the mother needs to be
committed throughout the way. Various exercises and positions are taken into account while carrying
out delivery in natural ways. A midwife usually stays with the mother to ensure the delivery is
successful and the mother is in good spirits.

The delivery can take place at the hospital or even at home, with all preparations done beforehand.
Water birthing or pool birthing with the help of upthurst (buoyancy) pressure of water can alleviate
labour pain in this procedure. Water birthing is the most natural and painless way of bringing new
life to the world. Natural birth can be extremely empowering for a mother. Having skin-to-skin
contact with the baby immediately after delivery can foster a strong bond between the mother and the
child. It also triggers hormones in the body that start producing milk in the breasts right away.

4. Caesarean Section: Things don’t always go according to plan. A mother might want to undertake
vaginal delivery but if complications arise, caesarean delivery is an option that might have to be
taken. In this method, the baby is delivered by opening up the abdomen of the mother and surgically
opening the uterus to remove the baby. The name is derived from the Latin word ‘caedare’, which
means ‘to cut’. Hence, this type of the cut is called a C-section that’s how the delivery method gets
its name.

Many mothers decide to have a caesarean delivery in advance, which allows the hospital and doctors
to start making preparations accordingly. This could be out of choice or even after a sonography has
revealed certain parameters which make it necessary to undertake a C-section, such as the presence
of twins or triplets, breech or transverse presentation, or a very large baby. In other cases, if vaginal
delivery fails even after a good trial of labour or if any complication arises, such as breech position
while delivering, meconium stained liquor or obstruction in the birth canal, the doctors will have to
quickly resort to undertaking a C-section and removing the baby out of the uterus in time.

5. Forceps Delivery: This is a rather peculiar type of delivery method and is required in certain cases of
vaginal birth. This is an assistance to the usual vaginal delivery when the baby is on its way via the
birth canal but fails to fully emerge out. This could be because of small obstructions, or the mother
being tired and exhausted and hence being unable to push the baby out. In these cases, the doctor
makes use of specially created tongs which resemble forceps and inserts them slowly into the birth
canal. These are then used to gently grab the baby’s head and guide it outwards through the canal.

6. Vacuum Extraction: Similar to the forceps delivery method, this delivery technique is used in the
case of a vaginal birth. For example, if the baby is on its way out but has stopped moving further
down the canal, the vacuum extraction method is applied. The doctors make use of a specialized
vacuum pump which is inserted up to the baby via the canal. The vacuum end has a soft cup which is
placed on the top of the baby’s head. Vacuum is created so that the cup holds the head, and the baby
is gently guided outwards through the canal.

7. Vaginal Birth After Cesarean (VBAC): Most of the time, once a woman has had a caesarean
delivery, her chances of having a vaginal delivery after that are pretty much nullified. But in recent
times, certain techniques are making it possible for women to have successful vaginal deliveries even

47
after the previous delivery method has been a C-section. This is termed as vaginal birth after
caesarean (VBAC).

1.18 RESEARCH METHODS IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Our focus in this section is on the methods researchers use to gather information about developing
children and adolescents. Our first task is to understand why developmentalists consider it absolutely
essential to collect all these facts. We will then discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different
fact-finding strategies: self-report methodologies, systematic observation, case studies, ethnography,
and psychophysiological methods. Finally, we will consider the ways developmentalists might design
their research to detect and explain age-related changes in children’s feelings, thoughts, abilities, and
behaviors.

The Scientific Method Modern developmental psychology is appropriately labeled a scientific

enterprise because those who study development have adopted the scientific method, which guides
their attempts at understanding. There is nothing mysterious about the scientific method. It refers to
the use of objective and replicable methods to gather data for the purpose of testing a theory or
hypothesis. By objective we mean that everyone who examines the data will come to the same
conclusions, that is, it is not a subjective opinion. By replicable we mean that every time the method
is used, it results in the same data and conclusions. Thus, the scientific method dictates that, above
all, investigators must be objective and must allow their data to decide the merits of their thinking. In
earlier eras, people assumed that great minds always had great insights. Experts or common beliefs
guided child-rearing practices (for example, “spare the rod, spoil the child,” “children should be seen
and not heard,” and “never pick up a crying baby”). Very few individuals questioned the word of
well-known scholars and common knowledge because the scientific method was not yet a widely
accepted criterion for evaluating knowledge.

The intent here is not to criticize the early developmentalists and parents. However, great minds may
on occasion produce miserable ideas that can do a great deal of harm if those ideas are uncritically
accepted and influence the way people are treated. The scientific method, then, is a valuable
safeguard that helps to protect the scientific community and society at large against fl awed reasoning
(Machado & Silva, 2007). Protection is provided by the practice of evaluating the merits of various
theoretical pronouncements against the objective record, rather than simply relying on the academic,
political, or social credibility of the theorist. Of course, this also means that the theorist whose ideas
are being evaluated must be equally objective and willing to discard pet notions when there is suffi
cient evidence against them. Today, developmentalists use the scientific method to draw conclusions
about development. This doesn’t magically resolve differences of opinion, however. For example, for
every “expert” who believes that psychological differences between males and females are largely
biological in origin, there is likely to be another “expert” who just as firmly insists that boys and girls
differ because they are raised differently. (See Burchinal & ClarkeStewart, 2007, for a modern
example of such a controversy.) Who are we to believe? It is in the spirit of the scientific method to
believe the data such as research findings regarding the effects of sexist and nonsexist learning
experiences on the interests, activities, and personality traits of girls and boys.

The scientific method involves a process of generating ideas and testing them by making research
observations. Often, casual observations provide the starting point for a scientist. Sigmund Freud, for
instance, carefully observed the psychologically disturbed adults whom he treated and began to
believe that many of their problems stemmed from experiences in early childhood. Ultimately, he
used these observations to formulate his psychoanalytic theory of development.

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 1.19 SUMMARY

Development of the lifespan is a matter that begun a long time ago but is still an area that enjoys
social and scientific research. Children are normally born, and they grow to develop their
understanding and perception of their environment. We realize that lifespan is multidimensional, life-
long, multidirectional, plastic, historically-embedded, multidisciplinary and contextual. The major
human domains are biological, cognitive and psychological. Lifespan development can be divided
into eight major periods that range from infancy to late adulthood.

Developmental psychology is concerned with the many factors that influence human
development. The question of nature vs. nurture has long been an important one in the field of
psychology. Most theorists agree that both biological and environmental factors influence how an
individual develops,

Life is a series of changes. Beginning as tiny, two-celled organisms, people eventually become
babies, children, teenagers, and adults. Countless new skills, both simple and complicated,
accompany each new stage. Babies learn how to smile and laugh, children learn how to count and
spell, and college students learn how to set their own schedules and wash their own clothes.

All the changes that mark our lives make up a process called development, which is the series of age-
related changes that happen over the course of a life span. Many factors influence development,
including genes, parental upbringing, parents’ educational and economic backgrounds, and life
experiences. Even historical events over which we have no control can influence our development.

While prenatal development usually follows this normal pattern, there are times when problems or
deviations occur. Learn more about some of the problems with prenatal development. Disease,
malnutrition, and other prenatal influences can have a powerful impact on how the brain develops
during this critical period.

But brain development does not end at birth. There is a considerable amount of brain development
that takes place postnatally including growing in size and volume while changing in structure. The
brain grows by about four times the size between birth and preschool. As children learn and have
new experiences, some networks in the brain are strengthened while other connections are pruned.

The childbirth setting is important to be considered before giving birth to a baby. The surroundings
should be in a clean condition and safe for the mother and the baby. Birth techniques have their own
advantages and disadvantages. The focus should always be on ensuring that the baby is delivered
safely, the baby comes out healthy into the world, and the mother stays safe throughout the entire
process of delivery. When it comes to a delivery method you want to choose versus one that your
doctor recommends for you, it is always best to go with the doctor’s recommendation to avoid any
complications in the future.

1.20 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Explain the characteristics of Life Span Perspective.

2. Write a note on developmental issues.
3. Explain the psychoanalytic theory of development.
4. Explain the cognitive theory of development.
5. Explain the socio cognitive theory of development.
6. Explain the behaviour theory of development.
7. Explain the ethological and ecological theories of development.

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8. Explain the process of birth.
9. Write a note on childbirth setting and attendants.
10. Explain the methods of delivery.

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 MODULE-II
INFANCY, EARLY, MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD

STRUCTURE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Characteristic of infancy
2.3 Motor and sensory development, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development in infancy
2.4 Motor and sensory development, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development in
babyhood
2.5 Motor and sensory development, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development in
childhood
2.6 Motor and sensory development, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development in late
childhood
2.7 Physical development in infancy babyhood, early childhood and late childhood
2.8 Speech development
2.9 Social context of development in childhood, friendship, role of family play & leisure, role
disciplining
2.10 Social context of development in childhood, role of development
2.11 Summary
2.12 Suggested Questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To understand the social context of overall development of infancy, early, middle and late childhood.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The Newborn’s Readiness for Life: In the past, newborns were often characterized as fragile and
helpless little organisms who were simply not prepared for life outside the womb. This view may
once have been highly adaptive, helping to ease parents’ grief in earlier eras when medical
procedures were rather primitive and a fair percentage of newborns died.

Even today, in cultures where many newborns die because of poor health and medical care, parents
often do not name their newborns until they are 3 months old and have passed the critical age for
newborn death (Brazelton, 1979).

The surprising fact is that newborns are much better prepared for life than many doctors, parents, and
developmentalists had initially assumed. All of a newborn’s senses are in good working order and
she sees and hears well enough to detect what is happening around her and respond adaptively to
many of these sensations. Very young infants are also quite capable of learning and can even
remember some of the particularly vivid experiences they have had. Two other indications that
neonates are quite well adapted for life are their repertoire of inborn reflexes and their predictable
patterns, or cycles, of daily activity.

Newborn Reflexes
One of the neonate’s greatest strengths is a full set of useful reflexes. A reflex is an involuntary and
automatic response to a stimulus, as when the eye automatically blinks in response to a puff of air.
Table 5.1 describes some reflexes that healthy newborns display. Some of these graceful and
complex patterns of behavior are called survival reflexes because they have clear adaptive value
(Berne, 2003). Examples include the breathing reflex, the eye-blink reflex (which protects the eyes

51
 against bright lights or foreign particles), and the sucking and swallowing reflexes, by which the
infant takes in food. Also implicated in feeding is the rooting reflex an infant who is touched on the
cheek will turn in that direction and search for something to suck.

Major Reflexes Present in Full-Term Neonates

Name Response Development and course Significance

Survival reflexes Repetitive inhalation and expiration. Permanent Provides oxygen and expels
Breathing reflex carbon dioxide.

Eye-blink reflex Closing or blinking the eyes. Permanent Protects the eyes from bright
light or foreign objects

Pupillary reflex Constriction of pupils to bright light; Permanent Protects against bright lights;
adapts the dilation to dark or dimly lit adapts the visual system to
surroundings. low illumination

Rooting reflex bottle. Turning the head in the direction of a Disappears over the first few weeks of Orients baby to the breast or
tactile (touch) stimulus to the cheek. life and is replaced by voluntary head bottle.
turning.

Sucking reflex Sucking on objects placed (or taken) into Permanent Allows baby to take in
the mouth. nutrients

Swallowing reflex Swallowing Permanent Allows baby to take in

nutrients.

Primitive reflexes Fanning and then curling the toes when Usually disappears within the first 8 Its presence at birth and
Babinski reflex. the bottom of the foot is stroked months to 1 year of life. disappearance in. the first
year are an indication of
normal neurological
development.

Curling of the fingers around objects Disappears in first 3–4 months and is Its presence at birth and later.
Palmar grasping (such as a finger) that touch the baby’s disappearance then replaced by a are an indication of normal
reflex palm. voluntary grasp neurological

Moro reflex A loud noise or sudden change in the The arm movements and arching of Its presence at birth and later
position of the baby’s head will cause the the back disappear over the first 4–6 disappearance are an
baby to throw his or her arms outward, months; however, the child continues indication of normal
arch the back, and then bring the arms to react to unexpected noises or a loss neurological development
toward each other as if to hold onto of bodily support by showing a startle
something reflex (which does not disappear).

Swimming reflex An infant immersed in water will display Disappears in the first 4–6 months. Its presence at birth and later
active movements of the arms and legs disappearance are an
and involuntarily hold his or her breath indication of normal
(thus giving the body buoyancy); this neurological development.
swimming reflex will keep an infant
afloat for some time, allowing easy
rescue

Stepping reflex Infants held upright so that their feet Disappears in the first 8 weeks unless Its presence at birth and later
touch a fl at surface will step as if to the infant has regular opportunities to disappearance are an
walk. practice this response. indication of normal
neurological development

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 Skills such as taking a first step, smiling for the first time, and waving “bye-bye” are called
developmental milestones. Developmental milestones are things most children can do by a certain
age. Children reach milestones in how they play, learn, speak, behave, and move (like crawling,
walking, or jumping).

In the first year, babies learn to focus their vision, reach out, explore, and learn about the things that
are around them. Cognitive, or brain development means the learning process of memory, language,
thinking, and reasoning. Learning language is more than making sounds (“babble”) or saying “ma-
ma” and “da-da”. Listening, understanding, and knowing the names of people and things are all a part
of language development.

During this stage, babies also are developing bonds of love and trust with their parents and others as
part of social and emotional development. The way parents cuddle, hold, and play with their baby
will set the basis for how they will interact with them and others.

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF INFANCY

Infancy is the shortest of all Developmental period - Infancy begins with birth and ends when the
infant in approximately two weeks old. This period is divided into two namely
Period of the Partunate - from birth to fifteen to thirty minutes after birth. The infant continues to
be a parasite until the umbilical cord has been cut and tied.

Period of the Neonate - from cutting and tying of the umbilical cord to approximately the end of the
second week of postnatal life. Now the infant is an independent individual and not a parasite. During
this period, the infant must make adjustments to the new environment.

Infancy is a time of radical adjustment - although the human life span legally begins at the moment of
birth, birth is merely an interruption of the developmental pattern that started at the moment of
conception. It is the graduation from an internal to external environment.

Infancy is a plateau in development - The rapid growth and development which took place during the
prenatal period suddenly comes to a stop with birth. The halt in growth and development,
characteristic of this plateau is due to the necessity for making radical adjustment to the postnatal
environment. Once these adjustments have been made, infants resume their growth and development.
Infancy is a preview of later development. It is not possible to predict with even reasonable accuracy
what the individual's future development will be on the basis of the development at birth.

Infancy is a hazardous period - physically it is hazardous because of the difficulties of making the
necessary radical adjustment to the totally new and different environment. Psychologically infancy is
hazardous because it is the time when the attitudes of significant people towards the infant are
crystallized and change radically after the infant is born or can remain unchanged depending on
conditions at birth and on how the parents adjust. The following characteristics are:

i) The infancy period is the shortest period of whole life-span development. Its start from birth to two
years. This is the time when foetus comes into the world from the mother’s womb where he lives
almost nine critical months.
ii) Adjustment is equally important to the infant as he has to adjust with the outer surroundings. Most of
the infants complete their adjustment period in two weeks or less than two weeks. In infants whose
birth has been difficult or premature require more time for adjustment.

53
iii) Infancy period is a plateau in development. The growth and development which took place during the
prenatal period suddenly come to a stop with birth. Infant loses weight after birth, is less healthy
compared to what it was at the time of birth. At the end of this period infant again starts gaining
weight.
iv) Bell, R.Q. et. al. (1971) suggested that infancy is a period of future prediction. We can start some
future prediction about the infant. Some activities show the prediction of development. It is a preview
of later development.
v) Infancy is considered a period full of hazards in terms of physical and psychological adjustment.
Physical adjustment to the new environment is difficult for the child. The attitudes of the family
members create more difficult situation for the infant. Psychologically, the attitude of significant
toward the infant gets crystallized. This attitude changes from one stage to another.

Characteristics of Babyhood
Babyhood is the stage that follows infancy and extends between two weeks to two years. The
characteristics of babyhood are as follows.
i) Development during babyhood is the foundation for the development during the entire life span.
ii) During babyhood rapid physical and intellectual development takes place as evidenced by increase in
height, weight and body proportions.
iii) Increased independence and individuality mark babyhood.
iv) Socialisation begins during babyhood as the baby shows increasing desire to be a part of the social
group of the family and extend the basic relationship with the mother or mother substitute to others as
well.
v) Sex-role typing begins during babyhood. Boys and girls are dressed sex appropriately and are treated
in subtly different ways. Culturally relevant sex-appropriate clothes, games, behaviour or even
interactions are gradually brought in.
vi) There are hazards faced by a baby which may be physical or psychological. Physical hazards such as
in illness, accidents and psychological hazards can interfere with positive development of the baby.
During babyhood, the baby is expected to learn to walk by two years, to take 1 solid foods, to gain
partial control over elimination, learn the foundation of 1 receptive and expressive speech and to
emotionally relate to parents and others.

Characteristics of Early childhood and late childhood

Early Childhood:
All parents secretly wonder if their mighty tyke is keeping up with the rest of his peers, but growth
and development are two different things when it comes to measuring up. Child development refers
to the ability to accomplish more complex tasks as your child gets older. There are a group of
characteristics that most children can accomplish during certain age ranges.
1. Some parents feel that behavioural problems of childhood period are more troublesome then physical
care of infants.
2. Some behavioural problems occur in this period such as obstinacy, stubbornness, disobedience,
negativistic and antagonistic.
3. It is a toy age because most of the time children are engaged with their toys. These toys are also
helpful to educate the children. Toys are important element of their play activities.
4. This is a period when a child is considered physically and mentally independent. This is also a school
going age.
5. Children are become more self-sufficient, independent, develop self-esteem.
6. This is the age of foundations of social behaviour. They are more organised social life they will be
required to adjust to when they enter first grade.
7. Develop physical, cognitive, emotional and social development.

54
 Late Childhood:
1. Late childhood extends from 6 years to 12 years. By 12 years, the child becomes sexually mature.
For most young children, there is a major change in the pattern of their lives. While adjusting to the
new demands and expectations, most children are in a state of disequilibrium.
2. They are emotionally disturbed. Many changes take place in attitude, values and behaviour. During
the last year or two, marked physical changes take place. The physical change at the end of this stage
create disequilibrium resulting in the disturbance of accustomed life style.
3. It is a troublesome age by which the children are no longer willing to do what they are told to do.
Older children, especially boys, are careless about their clothes and other material possessions. Such
an age is called sloppy age.
4. It is at this stage that the children acquire the rudiments of knowledge that are considered as essential
for successful adjustment to adult life.
5. Physical growth gives a predictable future in body structure with reference to weight and height.
Physical growth in sex matters, become more pronounced. Puberty growth spurt a little later for boys
and girls.

2.3 MOTOR AND SENSORY DEVELOPMENT, COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL

AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

Human development characteristically passes through different stages. These stages are orderly and
sequentially linked with the preceding and succeeding t stages. Features unique to each stage, change
from stage to stage. They also vary from person to person thus making us unique in our own way. For
some of us, these factors may move on smooth1y while others may experience ups and downs. These
factors and the way they are established in each person mark the foundation of the human
personality.

Motor Development:
 At 1 month of age, babies' neck muscles are not developed enough to support their heads for
prolonged periods of time. Babies can lift their heads only briefly when lying on their stomachs.
Limb movements are influenced by newborn reflexes, such as the startle reflex, which makes a baby
throw out his or her arms and spread the fingers in response to a loud noise or other sudden,
unexpected stimulus. By 6 weeks of age, newborn reflexes begin to fade and the baby's strength and
coordination improve.

 By age 3 months, your baby can control his or her head movements. Put your baby on his or her
tummy during awake periods and closely supervise. Allowing your baby to exercise and move in this
position helps develop head and neck muscles. Around 4 months of age, babies gain control and
balance in their head, neck, and trunk. Most babies can balance their heads for short periods when in
a stable position. Around this same age, your baby starts playing with his or her hands and grasps
your finger on purpose, rather than as a reflex.

 Between 4 and 6 months of age, babies' balance and movement dramatically improve as they gain
use and coordination of large muscles. During this time, babies purposefully roll over and may be
able to sit with their hands balancing them in front (tripod position). Reaching toward an object with
both hands, babies may grasp at toys with their palms.

 Babies gain more control of their muscles between 6 and 9 months of age as the nervous system
connections continue to form. By the 7th month, babies can see almost as well as an adult. Babies
develop leg and trunk coordination, sit alone steadily, and may crawl using both their hands and feet.
Some babies even pull themselves up to a standing position, although the timing and sequence of
these milestones vary widely.
55
 Around 9 to 12 months of age, babies develop more control over their hands and fingers and may be
able to grab small objects with a forefinger and thumb. The brain continues to grow, helping to refine
control over the large muscles. By now, your baby will probably be able to crawl and stand. In these
few months before babies begin to walk, they often spend hours "cruising" around the room holding
on to furniture and other objects. Cruising develops muscles and coordination and gives your baby a
chance to practice walking.
 Many toddlers start to walk around 9 to 15 months of age. Those first steps are possible because of
changes that have taken place in the brain and the spinal cord.

Sensory Development:
 Vision. At 1 month of age, babies can see about 30 cm (12 in.) in front of them. Babies this age
especially enjoy looking at the human face and bright contrasting colours. At 2 months of age, babies
begin to be able to follow a toy or other object when it is moved in front of their face. At 3 to 4
months, babies can focus on an object or your smiling face from 1 m (1.1 yd) to 2 m (2.2 yd) away
and begin to see a full range of colours. At 7 to 12 months, a baby's vision is the same as an adult's
vision.

 Hearing. At 1 month of age, babies strongly prefer the sound of the human voice. Hearing is the
same as an adult's hearing. They recognize the voice of their caregiver, even when they are in another
room. At 2 months of age, babies begin to coo and make sounds, such as ooh and ahh. At 4 months,
babies often amuse themselves with babbling and are beginning to understand that tone of voice
means different things. At 6 or 7 months, babies start copying the sounds they hear spoken. Babies
may not be able to say the words they are hearing yet, but they can understand many of the words
you say. At 12 months, babies are working hard to master language, and soon they may say their first
word.

 Touch. Babies of all ages have a well-developed sense of touch. They often prefer soft, gentle
touches and cuddles.
 Smell and taste. Babies of all ages have a well-developed sense of smell and taste. They prefer sweet
smells and know the smell of their mother's breast milk. At 9 to 12 months of age, most babies like to
experience and explore objects through taste and texture, which prompts them to put almost anything
they can into their mouths.

Cognitive Development:
Cognition is a broad and inclusive concept that refers to the mental activities involved in the
acquisition, processing, organisation, and use of knowledge. The major processes under the term
cognition include detecting, interpreting, classifying and remembering information, evaluating ideas,
inferring principles and deducting rules imagining possibilities, generating, and strategies, fantasizing
and dreaming. At the infancy period children develop many elements of abilities to think and to
understand the world around them. Infants have remarkably competent organisms, even on the first
day of life.

The newborn child is ready to the basic sensations of our species. They can see, hear, and smell, and
they are sensitive to pain, touch, and changes in bodily position. Infants are not only growing
physically during the first 2 years of life, but also, they are growing cognitively (mentally). Every day
they interact with different persons and learn about their environment and pathways between nerve
cells both within their brains, and between their brains and bodies. Cognitive change and
development is a little harder to determine as clearly. Therefore, much about what experts know
about mental and cognitive development is based on the careful observation of developmental
theories, such as Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and Erikson’s psychosocial stages.
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 According to Piaget’s theory, infants interact with their environment entirely through reflexive
behaviours. They do not think about what they are going to do, but rather follow their instincts and
involuntary reactions to get what they need, such as food, air, and attention. Piaget believed that as
children begin to grow and learn about their environment through their senses, they begin to engage
in intentional, goal-directed behaviours. Jean Piaget was the most influential developmental
psychologist of the twentieth century. The work of cognition has held center stage in child
development research since 1960. His theory of cognitive growth and change is original,
comprehensive, integrative and elegant. He recorded infant’s and children’s spontaneous activities
and presented problems of thousands of children and adolescents. His ideas have been the source of
many research studies.

In Piaget’s theory, knowledge is assumed to have a specific goal or purpose to aid the person in
adapting to the environment. The child does not receive information passively, and thoughts are not
simply the product of teaching by others. Nor is the cognitive progress seen as primarily a product of
maturation of a brain. Knowledge is acquired and thought processes become more complex and
efficient as a consequence of the maturing child’s interactions with the world. The individual is
active, curious and inventive throughout the life cycle.

The theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of
human intelligence. It deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans come gradually to
acquire it, construct it, and use it. Moreover, Piaget claims that cognitive development is at the centre
of human organism and language is contingent on cognitive development. Piaget considered
cognitive development in terms of stages.
He mentioned four stages in cognitive development, that is
i) Sensory motor stage (Birth -2years)
ii) Pre operational stage (2-7 years)
iii) Concrete operational stage (7-11years)
iv) Formal operational stage (11-15 years). Let us take up these stages one by one and discuss. Sensory
Motor Stage (Birth -2 years): The first stage is the sensory motor stage which lasts from birth to
about two years old. The infant uses his or her senses and motor abilities to understand the world,
beginning with reflexes and ending with complex combinations of sensory motor skills.
This stage can be divided into six separate sub-stages as given below:
i) Reflexes (birth -1 month): The child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes
such as sucking and looking.
ii) Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months): Between one and four months, the child works on an action
of his own which serves as a stimulus to which it responds with the same action, and around and
around we go.
iii) Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): The child becomes more focused on the world and
begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment.
iv) Coordination of Secondary Reactions (8-12 months): Develop certain focuses on the demand object.
Responses become more coordinated and complex.
v) Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-24 months): Children begin a period of trial and-error
experimentation during this sub-stage.
vi) Early Representational Thought: Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in
the world in the final sensory motor sub-stage.

Social Development:
The infancy stage focuses on the infant’s basic needs, being met by the parents. If the parents expose
the child to warmth, regularly, and dependable affection, the infant’s view of the world will be one of
trust. If the parents fail to provide a secure environment and fail to meet the child’s basic need, a

57
 sense of mistrust will result. If proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue hope, the
strong beliefs that, even when things are not going well, they will work out well in the end. Failing
this, maladaptive tendency or sensory distortion may develop, and the malignant tendency of
withdrawal will develop.
Others type of social behaviour, which are discussed here:
i) Attachment: A new born baby in arms is the greatest feeling of motherhood. An infant always seek
love and attention from mother and he cries to be pick up , fed, and otherwise stimulated and often as
not he cries when put down. At six weeks, infant will smile at his mother face and grasp his cloth. At
this age infant can recognise their caretaker and his faces. He needs mother’s and father’s attention
towards him. This early attachment is called ‘indiscriminate’; the infant seeks stimulation rather than
any particular person. The concept of attachment is investigated by Ainsworth and her associates
(1978), was defined as an emotionally toned relationship or tie to the mother that led the infant to
seek mother presence and comfort, particularly when the infant was frightened or uncertain. This
indicates that all healthy infants have healthy and strong attachment with their caretakers and this
strong bonding provides the basis for healthy emotional and social development during later
childhood.

ii) Smiling: Smiling is the means of communication for infants in early years. An early smile of the
infant is just a facial exercise of the muscles. A child first passes his smile to his mother and this is at
first bestowed indiscriminately between the mother and child. The smile is an important influence on
mother - child relationship. The mother’s responsive smile is equally important to the child. It
transforms the spontaneous smile of the infant into an exchange. This may be called first real social
interaction. The social smile appears at 7 or 8 weeks of age, and by 3 months infants will smile
almost any face. This smile is important to the caretakers and child because it invites adult to interact
with the baby and therefore contributes to the attachment bonding.

iii) Anxiety: As we all know that mother and child relation is important in infancy period. The child first
recognised his mother face and infant is aware that mother is special person at this time; he is at once
in a position to lose her. An infant around 10 months may be seen crawling behind his mother, from
one room to another room. If mother is disappearing, he may be cry and scream, and watch every
door. Even his crying and searching at different places is an indication of attachment with the mother.
The increase in attachment behaviour is considered to be an indication of separation anxiety.

iv) Fear of strangers: A second anxiety that is a direct result of the infant’s first attachment is stranger
anxiety. The child is specially attached with the mother and he can be easily upset by the approach of
an unfamiliar adult, especially if his mother is not present around. The infant fixes his eyes on the
stranger and stares, unmoving, for a short time. He is likely to cry and show the signs of distress.
Stranger anxiety disappears toward the end of the first year, as the child comes in contact with a
growing number of relatives.

Emotional Development:
Babies can feel interest, distress, disgust, and happiness from birth, and can communicate these
through facial expressions and body posture. Infants begin showing a spontaneous "social smile"
around age 2 to 3 months and begin to laugh spontaneously around age 4 months. In addition,
between ages 2 and 6 months, infants express other feelings such as anger, sadness, surprise, and
fear. Between ages 5 and 6 months, babies begin to exhibit stranger anxiety. They do not like it when
other people hold or play with them, and they will show this discomfort visibly. Previously, they
would smile at anyone and allow them to hold them. However, during this time babies are learning
not only how to show their own feelings, but also how to notice others' feelings. Around age 4
months, infants can begin distinguishing the different emotional expressions of others. Later, around
age 6 months, babies begin to mimic the emotions and expressions they see in others.

58
At birth, babies treat caregivers more or less interchangeably, unequipped as they are, by and large,
to distinguish among people. However, as the months of their first year go by and their perceptual
and processing abilities grow, they begin to form a powerful attachment or bond with their primary
caregivers. As babies' attachment to their primary caregivers strengthens, they become more sensitive
to the absence of their caregivers. Around age 8 to 10 months, babies start to experience separation
anxiety when separated from their primary caregivers. The intensity of this anxiety varies between
individuals and is based on baby's temperament and environment. While some babies will respond
very strongly and heatedly to caregiver absence by crying and fussing, others will respond in a more
subdued fashion through whimpers and slight agitation. It's during this period, around age 9 months
that babies first frown to show displeasure or sadness. It's also during this time that babies'
temperaments, or innate personality styles, begin to show. More will be said about temperament
shortly.

By nine months of age, babies have learned how to express a wide variety of emotions. This becomes
readily apparent between ages 9 to 10 months, as babies become highly emotional. They go from
intense happiness to intense sadness/frustration/anger quickly. This emotional lability evens out as
babies develop rudimentary strategies for regulating their emotions around age 11 months.

Babies' understanding of others' emotions grows as well. Around age 12 months, babies become
aware of not only other peoples' expressions but also their actual emotional states, especially distress.
They're beginning to make the connection that expressions match an inside feeling. It's interesting to
note some babies begin to exhibit jealousy at the end of this first year, around age 12 months.

As toddlers move into the end of the second year, they continue to build on the emotional progress
they have already made. Between the ages of 13 and 18 months, separation anxiety may subside as
object permanence develops, and they understand their caretaker isn't gone even when they can't see
them. This is also the point during which babies may also use transitional objects such as stuffed
animals or blankets to soothe and comfort themselves when the caretaker is not there. Toddlers
usually enter another emotionally rocky time between the ages of 15 to 18 months.

During this time, they can be fretful and easily frustrated, and may throw temper tantrums to
demonstrate this emotionality. Toddlers often come out of those "Terrible Twos" around age 21
months and become less fretful and more relaxed. Also, during this time, toddlers may show signs of
self-consciousness when doing certain tasks or trying new situations, looking for caretaker approval.

By age 2, toddlers can show a wide range of emotions and are becoming better at regulating and
coping with their emotions. In fact, by this age, toddlers can even fake some emotions in order to get
what they want. They know that if they fall and show behaviours of being hurt (even if they aren't
hurt), they will get attention. However, they will often still become upset at situations that disrupt
their sense of control or alter their normal routine. Also, around their second birthday, genuine
empathy appears. They become capable of recognizing when they've hurt someone somehow, and
capable of apologizing.

Moral Development:
Moral development is the process of defining the difference between right and wrong. Baby is not
born with these intuitions, though. According to doctors, a baby does not have the capacity to
understand morals outside of how he relates to what feels right and wrong to him. For example, an
infant quickly learns that hungry is "wrong" because his belly hurts when he's hungry. Likewise, he
learns that being held and comforted is "right" because it feels good to him, as opposed to the scary
feeling of being left alone in his crib.

59
 Later in life, his moral development shifts from self to others. Babies do not feel a sense of
"otherness" until they are around 18 months of age. Before then, they are not able to determine
whether their actions are morally right or wrong. However, parents still have the responsibility and
opportunity to begin teaching their baby moral development from his early days. By putting simple
rules into place, such as telling baby "no" if he hits the cat or takes a toy out of another baby's hand or
deterring him when he approaches an electrical outlet, baby can understand what he is being directed
to do. In his toddler years, he begins to comprehend why those actions are right or wrong.

2.4 MOTOR, SENSORY, COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL

DEVELOPMENT OF BABYHOOD

Motor Sensory:
Rapid growth takes place during babyhood. Height and weight increase. The birth weight is doubled
by four months and tripled by one year. On an average the height of the baby at four months is 23 to
24 inches and at one year 28 to 30 inches and by two years 32 to 34 inches. Social smile which is a
response to recognizing a face is the first clear milestone which happens around 2 months. Also, the
baby car1 roll over from side to back at 2 months and from back to side at 4 months. At 6 months, it
can roll over completely. The baby begins to pull the body to a sitting position and sits ‘up without
support around 8 months. Hands and palm scoop up an object which is called palmers scoop, around
5 months. Around 9 months it can use the fingers in a pincer-grip to pick up even fine objects. The
baby hitches or moves in a sitting position around six months, crawls and creeps around 8 months.
Walks on all fours, pulls up and stands by 10 months. He/she learns to stand with support by 11
months and without support, for longer time around a year. Also, he/she learns to walk with support
initially and without support around 14 months. These milestones, which indicate movement, are also
called as motor development. The motor skills of babyhood are not integrated initially but when they
are integrated later, they are of importance to the baby and its developing personality.

Sensory Development:
Because the infant’s repertoire of responses is so limited, it is difficult to obtain exact information
about sensory acuities. However, it is possible to observe and record such behaviors as visual regard,
pupillary reflexes to light, startle, and changes in activity level to sounds and tactile stimulation.
More recently, sensory reactivity has been recorded by observing changes in EEC and in heart rate
and by such devices as observing eye nystagmus to moving striped patterns.

It is evident that the intact full-term newborn in some degree sees, hears, and responds to pressure,
touch, taste, and change in temperature. There is evidence from his behavior and from the structures
of the nervous system that of his various senses, vision is most developed.

Visio: Changes in visual acuity during the first month appear to be very slight. As observed in a
standard test of infant development, soon after birth the infant will briefly regard a large moving
object (such as a person) nearby and directly in his line of vision. A little less often he will regard a
small bright red object in motion, when it is held about eight inches above his eyes (Bayley 1933;
White, Castle, & Held 1964). At about two weeks his gaze may follow this moving object (a red
plastic ring) across his visual field right to left or the reverse (Bayley 1933).

At three weeks his eyes may follow a moving person two or three feet away. At about one month he
follows the red ring with up and down eye movements and, a little later, as it is moved slowly in a
circle (18 to 24 inches in diameter). At six or seven weeks the infant appears to inspect his
surroundings when carried in an upright position, and he turns his eyes toward the red ring at a thirty-
degree angle when it is moved into his field of vision from the side. By the fourth month the infant’s
retina is able to accommodate to objects at varying distances in an almost adult fashion.

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 Cognitive Development:
Much of modern cognitive developmental theory stems from the work of the Swiss psychologist,
Jean Piaget. In the 1920s, Piaget observed that children's reasoning and understanding capabilities
differed depending on their age. Piaget proposed that all children progress through a series of
cognitive stages of development, just as they progress through a series of physical stages of
development. According to Piaget, the rate at which children pass through these cognitive stages may
vary, but boys and girls eventually pass through all the stages, in the same order.

During Piaget's sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), infants and toddlers learn by doing: looking,
hearing, touching, grasping, and sucking. The learning process appears to begin with coordinating
movements of the body with incoming sensory data. As infants intentionally attempt to interact with
the environment, infants learn that certain actions lead to specific consequences. These experiences
are the beginning of the infants' understanding of cause‐and‐effect relationships.

Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six substages. In stage 1 (birth through month 1), infants
exclusively use their reflexes, and their cognitive capabilities are limited. In stage 2 (months 1
through 4), infants engage in behaviors that accidentally produce specific effects. Infants then repeat
the behavior to obtain the same effect. An example is the infant's learning to suck on a pacifier
following a series of trial‐and‐error attempts to use the new object. In stage 3 (months 4 through 8),
infants begin to explore the impact of their behaviors on the environment. In stage 4 (months 8
through 12), infants purposefully carry out goal‐directed behaviors.

Object permanence, or the knowledge that out‐of‐sight objects still exist, may begin to appear at
about month 9 as infants search for objects that are hidden from view. In stage 5 (months 12 through
18), toddlers explore cause‐and‐effect relationships by intentionally manipulating causes to produce
novel effects. For example, a toddler may attempt to make her parents smile by waving her hands at
them. In stage 6 (months 18 through 24), toddlers begin to exhibit representational (symbolic)
thought, demonstrating that they have started to internalize symbols as objects, such as people,
places, and things. The child at this stage, for instance, uses words to refer to specific items, such as
milk, dog, papa, or mama.

Piaget's model introduces several other important concepts. Piaget termed the infant's innate thinking
processes as schemas. In the sensorimotor period, these mental processes coordinate sensory,
perceptual, and motor information so that infants eventually develop mental representations. In other
words, reflexes provide the basis for schemas, which in turn provide the basis for representational
thinking. For example, a child repeatedly touches and sees its rattle and thus learns to identify the
rattle by forming an internalized image of it.

According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs from two processes: adaptation and equilibrium.
Adaptation involves children changing their behavior to meet situational demands and consists of
two sub processes: assimilation and accommodation.
 Assimilation is the application of previous concepts to new concepts, such as a child who refers to a
whale as a fish. 
 Accommodation is the altering of previous concepts in the face of new information, such as a child
who discovers that some creatures living in the ocean are not fish and then correctly refers to a whale
as a mammal. 
Equilibrium is Piaget's term for the basic process underlying the human ability to adapt—is the
search for balance between self and the world. Equilibrium involves the matching of children's
adaptive functioning to situational demands, such as when a child realizes that he is one member of a
family and not the centre of the world. Equilibrium, which helps remove inconsistencies between

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reality and personal perspectives, keeps children moving along the developmental pathway, allowing
them to make increasingly effective adaptations and decisions.

Social and Emotional Development:

Babyhood emotions such as joy, affection, curiosity, fear and anger are often expressed explosively
and are out of proportion to the stimuli. They are also short lived. These emotions get conditioned or
established much more in later years. Beginning with a social smile babies learn to respond to the
social environment and are the foundations of the social skills valued greatly in later years.

Moral Development:
At this age, babies do not have the ability moralize. Their idea of right and wrong stems from what
feels comfortable and what does not. It is important to understand that in the womb, the baby was
never alone, never hungry and was in constant contact with the mother. If this fails to happen in the
outside world, the infant perceives this as something ‘wrong’. Being fed, held and cuddled is what
feels naturally right for the baby.

2.5 MOTOR, SENSORY, COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL

DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

Motor Development:
Ages 2 through 6 are the early childhood years, or preschool years. Like infants and toddlers, pre-
schoolers grow quickly both physically and cognitively. A short chubby toddler who can barely talk
suddenly becomes a taller, leaner child who talks incessantly. Especially evident during early
childhood is the fact that development is truly integrated: The biological, psychological, and social
changes occurring at this time (as well as throughout the rest of the life span) are interrelated.

Motor skills are physical abilities or capacities. Gross motor skills, which include running, jumping,
hopping, turning, skipping, throwing, balancing, and dancing, involve the use of large bodily
movements. Fine motor skills, which include drawing, writing, and tying shoelaces, involve the use
of small bodily movements. Both gross and fine motor skills develop and are refined during early
childhood; however, fine motor skills develop more slowly in preschoolers. If you compare the
running abilities of a 2‐year‐old and a 6‐year‐old, for example, you may notice the limited running
skills of the 2‐year‐old. But the differences are even more striking when comparing a 2‐year‐old and
6‐year‐old who are tying shoelaces. The 2‐year‐old has difficulty grasping the concept before ever
attempting or completing the task.

Albert Bandura's theory of observational learning is applicable to preschoolers' learning gross and
fine motor skills. Bandura states that once children are biologically capable of learning certain
behaviors, children must do the following in order to develop new skills:
1. Observe the behavior in others.
2. Form a mental image of the behavior.
3. Imitate the behavior.
4. Practice the behavior.
5. Be motivated to repeat the behavior.
In other words, children must be ready, have adequate opportunities, and be interested in developing
motor skills to become competent at those skills.

Cognitive Development:
Jean Piaget described two processes of behaviour (i) assimilation and (ii) accommodation.
Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in pre-
existing cognitive structures. Let us take an example of an infant who uses a sucking schema that was

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developed by sucking on a small bottle when attempting to suck on a larger bottle. Accommodation
is the process of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment.
Both processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life. An example of
accommodation would be when the child needs to modify a sucking schema developed by sucking on
a pacifier to one that would be successful for sucking on a bottle. As schemas become increasingly
more complex (i.e., responsible for more complex behaviours) they are termed structures. As one’s
structures become more complex, they are organised in a hierarchical manner (i.e., from general to
specific).

Stages of Cognitive Development: Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development; sensory
motor stage (birth- 2 years), preoperational stage (2-7 years), concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
and formal operational stage (11-above).

At the pre-operational stage (Play age and Early Childhood) intelligence is demonstrated through the
use of symbols, language use which matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but
thinking is done in a non-logical, non-reversible manner. Egocentric thinking also predominates at
this stage. Children form stable concepts and mental reasoning begins to develop.

From 2-4 years children develop symbolic reasoning (the ability to picture an object that is not
present.). Egocentrism starts out strong in early childhood but weakens. Magical beliefs are
constructed.

Between 4-7 years of age the child develops intuitive thought (the use of primitive reasoning skills
and wondering “why”). Starting school is a major landmark for children at this age. Piaget also noted
that children feel great difficulty to accept the views of others and Piaget called this egocentrism.
Egocentrism is when children experience difficulty in experiencing others person’s perspective.

As we know that this is called a play age and many schools are adopting the Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development, which provides part of the foundation for constructive learning. Discovery
learning and supporting the developing interests of the child are two primary instructional techniques.
It is recommended that parents and teachers challenge the child’s abilities. It is also recommended
that teachers use a wide variety of concrete experiences to help the child learn (example, use of
manipulatives, group work, field trips or work, etc.).

Social and Emotional Development:

As young children leave toddlerhood behind, they also begin to mature in their ability to interact with
others socially. A baby's main social need and developmental task is bonding and connecting wit h
primary caregivers. In contrast, young children are starting to branch out and to create other social
relationships. When interacting with other children their age, such as peers at daycare or preschool,
sensorimotor children engage in parallel play. In parallel play, children play beside each other
without truly interacting with each other. For example, Jimmy plays with his MODULEs and builds
his structure independently while sitting by Jane, who is creating her own MODULE tower.

During the Preoperational stage, young children begin to play more cooperatively. In cooperative
play, young children engage in the same activity in a small group. Often, these first forms of
cooperative play include pretend or symbolic play. For example, Jane and Jackie may "play house"
together and assign one child to be the mother and the other to be the baby. Pretend play begins as
early as toddlerhood and then peaks for the majority of young children at ages 4 and 5 years.

As young children continue to develop socially with peers, they often enter a stage of rough and
tumble play which includes running, racing, climbing, or competitive games. Often, this is the stage

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when social skills such as learning to take turns and follow simple group rules and norms are
practiced.

Young children in the Preoperational stage often identify friends at the park or at daycare; however,
"friendship" is still a very concrete, basic relationship. At this stage of social development, friendship
usually means sharing toys and having fun playing together. Friendship at this age does not have the
associated qualities of empathy and support that older children, adolescents, and adults develop.

During the Preoperational stage, young children are also developing socially inside the family.
Families typically give young children the opportunity to interact with a variety of people in a range
of roles. Today's families take on many different forms. Young children can be raised in nuclear
families, with two opposite sex biological parents and sometimes one or more siblings.

Children are also commonly raised in "blended" families, spending time with both parents in
different homes, perhaps with step-parents and half- or step-siblings. Some young children grow up
with an extended family, living with or spending lots of time with grandparents, aunts, uncles,
cousins, etc. Still others grow up in small clusters, spending most of the time with a single parent,
and perhaps one or more siblings. Some children may be adopted into a nuclear, blended, or extended
families. Still others are raised with two homosexual parents alone or with other biological or
adopted siblings.

Moral Development:
Morality is our ability to learn the difference between right or wrong and understand how to make the
right choices. As with other facets of development, morality doesn't form independently from the
previous areas we have been discussing. Children's experiences at home, the environment around
them, and their physical, cognitive, emotional, and social skills influence their developing sense of
right vs. wrong. Between the ages of 2 and 5, many children start to show morally-based behaviors
and beliefs.

According to Piaget, children between the ages of 5 and 10 see the world through a Heteronomous
Morality. In other words, children think that authority figures such as parents and teachers have rules
that young people must follow absolutely. Rules are thought of as real, unchangeable guidelines
rather than evolving, negotiable, or situational. As they grow older, develop more abstract thinking,
and become less self-focused, children become capable of forming more flexible rules and applying
them selectively for the sake of shared objectives and a desire to co-operate.

Contemporary research has provided us with additional information about how young children
understand morals. Children between the ages 5 and 6 typically think in terms of distributive justice,
or the idea that material goods or "stuff" should be fairly shared. In other words, everyone should get
his or her exact "fair share." For example, Sally may think that it's only fair if each child gets exactly
2 cookies and the same amount of milk in their glass.

Other factors, such as need or effort, are not considered. Sally wouldn't think that Susie should get an
additional cookie because her lunch fell on the floor. By age 6 or 7, children begin to consider what
people have earned or worked for when thinking about distributive justice. Children can also reason
that some people should get more because they worked harder. For example, Jane begins to
understand that Jill should earn a bigger prize because she sold more Girl Scout cookies.

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2.5 MOTOR, SENSORY, COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL
DEVELOPMENT OF LATE CHILDHOOD

Motor Development:
Motor skills are behavioral abilities or capacities. Gross motor skills involve the use of large bodily
movements, and fine motor skills involve the use of small bodily movements. Both gross and fine
motor skills continue to refine during middle childhood.

Children love to run, jump, leap, throw, catch, climb, and balance. Children play baseball, ride bikes,
roller skate, take karate lessons, take ballet lessons, and participate in gymnastics. As school‐age
children grow physically, they become faster, stronger, and better coordinated. Consequently, during
middle childhood, children become more adept at gross motor activities.

Children enjoy using their hands in detailed ways, too. From early in preschool, children learn and
practice fine motor skills. Preschool children cut, paste, mold, shape, draw, paint, create, and write.
These children also learn such skills as tying shoelaces, untying knots, and flossing their teeth. Some
fortunate children are able to take music lessons for piano, violin, flute, or other instruments.
Learning to play an instrument helps children to further develop their fine motor skills. In short,
along with the physical growth of children comes the development of fine motor skills, including the
sense of competence and confidence to use these skills.

Cognitive Development:
School‐age children think systematically about multiple topics more easily than preschoolers. Older
children have keener metacognition, a sense of their own inner world. These children become
increasingly skilled at problem solving.

Piaget referred to the cognitive development occurring between ages 7 and 11 as the concrete
operations stage. Piaget used the term operations to refer to reversible abilities that the child has not
yet developed. By reversible, Piaget referred to mental or physical actions that can occur in more
than one way, or in differing directions. While in the concrete operations stage, older children cannot
think both logically and abstractly. School‐age children are limited to thinking concretely—in
tangible, definite, exact, and uni‐directional terms based on real and concrete experiences rather than
on abstractions. Older children do not use magical thinking and are not as easily misled as younger
children. Unlike preschoolers, school‐age children know better than to ask their parents to take them
flying in the air just like the birds do.

Piaget noted that children's thinking processes change significantly during the concrete operations
stage. School‐age children can engage in classification, or the ability to group according to features,
and serial ordering, or the ability to group according to logical progression. Older children come to
understand cause‐and‐effect relationships and become adept at mathematics and science.
Comprehending the concept of stable identity that one's self remains consistent even when
circumstances change is another concept grasped by older children. For example, older children
understand the stable identity concept of a father maintaining a male identity regardless of what he
wears or how old he becomes.

In Piaget’s view, children at the beginning of the concrete operations stage demonstrate conservation,
or the ability to see how physical properties remain constant as appearance and form change. Unlike
preschoolers, school‐age children understand that the same amount of clay moulded into different
shapes remains the same amount. A concrete operational child will tell you that five golf balls are the
same number as five marbles, but the golf balls are larger and take up more space than the marbles.

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Piaget believed that preoperational cognitive abilities are limited by egocentrism the inability to
understand the point of view of others. But egocentrism is not found in children in the concrete
operations stage. By the school years, children have usually learned that other people have their own
views, feelings, and desires.

Piaget's model of cognitive development has come under increasing attacks in recent years. Modern
developmentalists have frequently referred to experimental research that contradicts certain aspects
of Piaget's theories. For example, cognitive theorists like Robert Siegler have explained the
phenomenon of conservation as a slow, progressive change in the rules that children use to solve
problems, rather than a sudden change in cognitive capacities and schemas. Other researchers have
shown that younger and older children develop by progressing through a continuum of capacities
rather than a series of discrete stages.

In addition, these researchers believe that children understand far more than Piaget theorized. With
training, for instance, younger children may perform many of the same tasks as older children.
Researchers have also found that children are not as egocentric, suggestible, magical, or concrete as
Piaget held, and that their cognitive development is largely determined by biological and cultural
influences.

School‐age children are better at the skill of remembering than are younger children. Experiencing
more of the world, older children have more to draw upon when encoding and recalling information.
In school, older children also learn how to use mnemonic devices, or memory strategies. Creating
humorous lyrics, devising acronyms, chunking facts (breaking long lists of items into groups of
three's and four's), and rehearsing facts (repeating them many times) help children memorize
increasingly complicated amounts and types of information.

Youngsters may remember more when participating in cooperative learning, in which adult‐
supervised education relies on peers interacting, sharing, planning, and supporting each other.
Develop‐mentalists disagree on the relative value of cooperative learning versus didactic
learning, in which a teacher lectures to students.

Social and Emotional Development:

The older child shows strong desire to be an accepted member of the peer. Group. Staying at home or
playing with siblings are disliked by them. The gangs are not delinquent groups but play groups.
Their main activity is to play games, sports or simply chatting. The gangs are also strictly segregated,
that is, members of a gang often come from the same sex. Those who are accepted by the gang
members gain social status and feel self-confident while the opposite is true of those who are
rejected.

Older children learn to control emotional outbursts as these are looked down upon by peer members,
as immature and inappropriate behaviour. Happy and pleasant expressions on the other hand are
expressed freely as seen in laughing, giggling or jumping. While the child tends to curtail expressions
of negative emotions, he/she may show moodiness or resort to sulking. In expressing emotions, sex
appropriateness can be noticed. Boys tend to show anger 'or curiosity while girls experience fears,
worries and feelings of affection.

Moral Development:
This is the age when children begin to understand that adults probably don’t have everything figured
out! Although they still obey authority, they are capable of judging the fairness of rules and identify
the concept of equality. At this age, they will have a strong idea about what should be done and what

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needs to be shunned. They will also come to believe that children have opinions that need to be heard
too.

The code of conduct and morality learnt at home is now extended to the social group. The child
makes a conscious choice to be part of the peer group. Moral code is developed on the basis of
general rather than specific situations. Discipline also helps in this process. Use of rewards,
punishment and consistent application of rules enable the child to develop moral behaviour.

2.7 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY, BABYHOOD, EARLY CHILDHOOD AND

LATE CHILDHOOD

Infancy: The first year of infant is characterised by rapid physical growth. A normal baby doubles its
birth weight in six months and triples it in a year. During that time, there is great expansion of the
head and chest, thus permitting development of the brain, heart, and lungs, the organs most vital to
survival. The bones, which are relatively soft at birth, begin to harden, and the fontanelles, the soft
parts of the newborn skull, begin to calcify, the small one at the back of the head at about 3 months,
the larger one in front at varying ages up to 18 months.

Brain weight also increases rapidly during infancy: by the end of the second year, the brain has
already reached 75% of its adult weight. Growth and size depend on environmental conditions as
well as genetic endowment. For example, severe nutritional deficiency during the mother’s
pregnancy and in infancy are likely to result in an irreversible impairment of growth and intellectual
development, while overfed, fat infants are predisposed to become obese later in life.

Human milk provides the basic nutritional elements necessary for growth; however, in Western
cultures supplemental foods are generally added to the diet during the first year. The newborn infant
sleeps almost constantly, awakening only for feedings, but the number and length of waking periods
gradually increases. By the age of three months, most infants have acquired a fairly regular schedule
for sleeping, feeding, and bowel movements. By the end of the first year, sleeping and waking hours
are divided about equally.

Babyhood: Rapid growth takes place during babyhood. Height and weight increase. The birth weight
is doubled by four months and tripled by one year. On an average the height of the baby at four
months is 23 to 24 inches and at one year 28 to 30 inches and by two years 32 to 34 inches. Social
smile which is a response to recognizing a face is the first clear milestone which happens around 2
months. Also, the baby car1 roll over from side to back at 2 months and from back to side at 4
months. At 6 months, it can roll over completely.

The baby begins to pull the body to a sitting position and sits ‘up without support around 8 months.
Hands and palm scoop up an object which is called palmers scoop, around 5 months. Around 9
months it can use the fingers in a pincer-grip to pick up even fine objects. The baby hitches or moves
in a sitting position around six months, crawls and creeps around 8 months. Walks on all fours, pulls
up and stands by 10 months. He/she learns to stand with support by 11 months and without support,
for longer time around a year. Also, he/she learns to walk with support initially and without support
around 14 months.

These milestones, which indicate movement, are also called as motor development. The motor skills
of babyhood are not integrated initially but when they are integrated later, they are of importance to
the baby and it's developing personality.

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Early Childhood: Children begin to lose their baby fat, or chubbiness, around age 3. Toddlers soon
acquire the leaner, more athletic look associated with childhood. The child's trunk and limbs grow
longer, and the abdominal muscles form, tightening the appearance of the stomach. Even at this early
stage of life, boys tend to have more muscle mass than girls. The preschoolers' physical proportions
also continue to change, with their heads still being disproportionately large, but less so than in
toddlerhood.

Three‐year‐old preschoolers may grow to be about 38 inches tall and weigh about 32 pounds. For the
next 3 years, healthy preschoolers grow an additional 2 to 3 inches and gain from 4 to 6 pounds per
year. By age 6, children reach a height of about 46 inches and weigh about 46 pounds. Of course,
these figures are averages and differ from child to child, depending on socioeconomic status,
nourishment, health, and heredity factors.

Late Childhood: By the beginning of late childhood, children typically have acquired a leaner, more
athletic appearance. Girls and boys still have similar body shapes and proportions until both sexes
reach puberty, the process whereby children sexually mature into teenagers and adults. After
puberty, secondary sexual characteristics breasts and curves in females, deeper voice and broad
shoulders in males make distinguishing females from males much easier.

Girls and boys grow about 2 to 3 inches and gain about 7 pounds per year until puberty. Skeletal
bones and muscles broaden and lengthen, which may cause children (and adolescents) to experience
growing pains. Skeletal growth in middle childhood is also associated with losing the deciduous
teeth, or baby teeth.

Throughout most of middle childhood, girls are smaller than boys and have less muscle mass. As
girls enter puberty, however, they may be considerably larger than boys of the same age, who enter
puberty a few years later. Once boys begin sexually maturing, their heights and weights eventually
surpass the heights and weights of girls of the same age.

2.8 SPEECH DEVELOPMENT

In babyhood, as the baby develops, the important bridge into the world of other is also developed in
the form of speech which aids communication. It has two aspects: receptive speech to understand
what others are communicating and expressive speech to make oneself understood. The baby begins
to babble or produces several sounds. Then she moves on to the stage of monosyllables (Eg: Ma,
Ma,Da,Da.Na, Na etc.) which gives way to two-syllables stage. Before two years, the baby speaks
with words made of two syllables formed in a sentence which typically has no grammar.

During early childhood, both receptive and expressive communication improve as babbling of
babyhood and crying are largely reduced. Normal speech development gains significant strides where
they learn proper pronunciation, making of sentences (even though with poor grammar) and building
of vocabulary. Also, the content of speech takes a tum. From talking about self, self-interests and self
needs the child moves on to socialized speech around six years wherein others and their concerns are
spoken of.

Older children are increasingly aware of speech.as a tool for being accepted by their peer group
members. Therefore, speech is consciously improved from immature, unacceptable ways of
communication such as crying and gesturing which are avoided. Proper pronunciation and grammar
are learnt. Children take interest in telling jokes or narrating events or riddles. Parents and teachers
also contribute to speech improvement by encouraging them. Radio and television serve as models
for speech. There is marked improvement in vocabulary as names of colours, numbers, money

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concepts, time concepts are included. Secret codes used by the gang often become part of older
child's communication pattern.

2.9 SOCIAL CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD: FRIENDSHIPS, ROLE OF

FAMILY, PLAY AND LEISURE, ROLE OF DISCIPLINING.

The period of late childhood ranges from 6 years to the attainment of sexual maturity, around 12- 13
years. During this stage children develop marked negativism and because of their desire for
independence seldom obey the parents. The child begins going to school and learns the rudiments of
knowledge essential for successful adult life. The peer group assumes great significance and children
of this age 'crowd together or 'gang up', thus earning the name gang age'.

Social context of development in childhood: friendships

Friendships:
Friends are vital to school-age children’s healthy development. Research has found that children who
lack friends can suffer from emotional and mental difficulties later in life. Friendships provide
children with more than just fun playmates. Friendships help children develop emotionally and
morally. In interacting with friends, children learn many social skills, such as how to communicate,
cooperate, and solve problems.

They practice controlling their emotions and responding to the emotions of others. They develop the
ability to think through and negotiate different situations that arise in their relationships. Having
friends even affects children’s school performance. Children tend to have better attitudes about
school and learning when they have friends there. In short, children benefit greatly from having
friends.

Parents play a crucial role in their child’s social development. A child is not born with social skills.
He needs parents who take an active role in preparing him to interact successfully with his peers. The
most important thing parents can do for their child is to develop a loving, accepting, and respectful
relationship with him.

This warm relationship sets the stage for all future relationships, including friendships. It helps the
child develop the basic trust and self-confidence necessary to go out and meet others. It provides a
firm foundation on which the child can develop social skills. Parents also teach their child various
social skills by being a good role model.

That is, a child learns from how his parents interact with him and other people. He learns how to
meet people and talk to them, to tell stories and jokes, and to cooperate with others and ask for
favors. He learns how to win or lose well, to apologize and accept apologies. He learns to accept
compliments graciously and to show admiration and appreciation. Furthermore, he learns to be
patient, respectful, and considerate. Parents help their child learn how to be a person other like to be
around by showing him with their own actions.

Social context of development in childhood: family

Family:
Family is the single most important influence in a child's life. From their first moments of life,
children depend on parents and family to protect them and provide for their needs. Parents and family
form a child's first relationships. They are a child's first teachers and act as role models in how to act
and how to experience the world around them.

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By nurturing and teaching children during their early years, families play an important role in making
sure children are ready to learn when they enter school. Children thrive when parents are able to
actively promote their positive growth and development. Every parent knows that it's sometimes
difficult to do this important work without help, support, and additional resources.

Relationship with Significant Others

Parental relationship: Children experience it with their father and mother or parent-substitute. Poor
relationships lead to devastating effects since young children depend on parents to a great extent.
Besides the security of the child is centered around the parents.

Therefore, poor relationship with parents, or their absence or death can severely traumatize the young
child and affect the developing personality. Sibling relations tip: The child progressively moves on to
independence and is no longer the 'baby'. Siblings often start frictions when a young child wants
his/her way. This is called sibling rivalry.

However, siblings may also enjoy a good relationship. Especially when the older children serve as
role models for the young children to learn socially approved and sex appropriate behaviour through
imitation.

Social context of development in childhood: play

Play: The beginning of early childhood finds children playing extensively with toys but slowly they
grow out of it towards the completion of this stage. The number of toys or play equipment, the
opportunities for manipulation, well developed motor skills, creativity, higher IQ-all these factors or
their lack influence the pattern of playing. Play includes a great deal of imitation and dramatizing.
For example, young children behave like mothers, teachers and others. The imaginative play often
merges reality and fantasy and is enjoyed by young children.

Play is one of the main ways in which children learn and develop. It helps to build self-worth by
giving a child a sense of his or her own abilities and to feel good about themselves. Because it’s fun,
children often become very absorbed in what they are doing.

Play is very important to a child's development, it is an integral part of a child's Early Years
Foundation Stage and supports their learning journey too. Young children can develop many skills
through the power of play. They may develop their language skills, emotions, creativity and social
skills. Play helps to nurture imagination and give a child a sense of adventure. Through this, they can
learn essential skills such as problem solving, working with others, sharing and much more.

It's important that learning is fun at this age. It needs to be about doing things with them that they
like. They might find unusual ways of doing things - for a toddler, building MODULEs aren't just for
making towers, and paint can be used without a brush! Show them how things work, but if they want
to experiment, let them.

Children learn through all their senses through taste, touch, vision, hearing and smelling. They will
watch those around them and copy language and behaviour.
Don't push your child too hard. Children develop in their own ways and in their own time. Try not to
compare them to other children. You can also encourage reading, by reading to and with them. Look
at the pictures together; this will help younger children make sense of the words.

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2.10 SOCIAL CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD: ROLE OF DISCIPLINE

Discipline isn't just about giving kids consequences. Instead, it ensures children are gaining the skills
they need to become responsible adults.

There are many types of discipline and various approaches to parenting. But ultimately, regardless of
the type of discipline a parent uses, discipline offers kids many benefits.

Discipline helps kids manage anxiety

Believe it or not, kids don’t want to be in charge. They often test limits just to make sure that their
caregivers can keep them safe. When adults offer positive and negative consequences, kids grow and
learn.

Kids who have overly permissive parents often experience anxiety because they have to make adult
decisions. The lack of guidance and the absence of leadership can be very unsettling for kids.

Discipline teaches kids to make good choices

Appropriate discipline teaches kids how to make good choices. For example, when a child loses his
bicycle privileges for riding into the road, he learns how to make safer choices next time.
Healthy discipline teaches kids alternative ways to get their needs met. Kids need to learn problem-
solving skills, impulse control, and self-regulation skills from appropriate training.

It is important to distinguish the difference between consequences and punishments. When kids are
disciplined with appropriate consequences they learn from their mistakes. Punishments, however,
tend to mean that kids quickly learn how to not get caught when they misbehave.

Discipline teaches kids to manage emotions

When a child receives a time-out after hitting his brother, he learns skills that will help him manage
his anger better in the future. The goal of time-out should be to teach your child to place himself in
time-out or step away from the situation when he's getting upset before he gets into trouble.

Other discipline strategies such as praise, can also teach kids how to deal with feelings. When you
say, “You are working so hard to build that tower even though it is really hard to do. Keep up the
good work,” your child learns about the importance of tolerating frustration.

Ignoring mild misbehaviour can teach kids socially appropriate ways to manage their frustration as
well. If you refuse to give in to a temper tantrum, your child will learn that's not a good way to get his
needs met. When you ignore whining, your child will learn that whining won't change your behavior.

Discipline keeps kids safe

The ultimate goal of discipline should be to keep kids safe. This includes major safety issues, such as
looking both ways before crossing the road. There should be consequences when your child doesn't
take appropriate safety precautions.

Discipline should also address other health risks, such as preventing obesity. If you let your child eat
whatever she wants, they may experience serious health risks. It's important to set healthy limits and
offer education to help your child learn to make healthy choices.

Explain the underlying reasons for rules so your child will understand the safety issues. Instead of
saying, “Stop jumping,” when your child is jumping on the bed, tell them why it's a problem. Say,
"You could fall and hit your head. That's not safe."

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When your child learns about the reasons for your rules, and he understands the specific safety risks,
they will be more likely to consider the safety risks when you're not there to tell them what to do.

2.11 SUMMARY

The period of infancy covers approximately the first two weeks of life. There are five important
characteristics in the infancy period. This is the shortest period of life span; it is the time of
adjustment; a plateau in development and consists of hazards filled event in life. Childhood begins
when the infancy period is over approximately two years of the age group. Childhood period is
divided into two age groups (i) early childhood, 2-6 years (ii) late childhood, 6- to the time the child
becomes sexually mature. Early childhood period is called as a conclusion of the infancy period.

In human development, infancy, babyhood, early and late childhood. In each stage we have examined
the characteristics, the milestones, the physical and psychosocial development.

If one is concerned about their child making enough friends, stop to consider whether he just has a
different social style than you do. For example, a child may prefer one or two close friends rather
than a wide circle of friends. One style is not better than another. What matters is that the child is
comfortable and happy with his friends. If it seems that the child has no friends, talk to the child’s
teacher, school or family counsellor, or paediatrician for additional guidance and resources.

2.12 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Explain the characteristics of infancy.

2. Explain the characteristics of babyhood.
3. Explain the characteristics of early childhood.
4. Explain the characteristics of late childhood.
5. Explain motor, sensory, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development of infancy.
6. Explain motor, sensory, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development of babyhood.
7. Explain motor, sensory, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development of early childhood.
8. Explain motor, sensory, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development of late childhood.
9. Explain the physical development in infancy, babyhood, early childhood and late childhood.
10. Write a note on speech development.
11. Explain the role of friendships in a child’s development.
12. Explain the role of family in a child’s development.
13. Explain the role of play in a child’s development.
14. Explain the role of discipline in a child’s development.

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 MODULE-III
PUBERTY AND ADOLESCENCE

STRUCTURE

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Characteristics of Puberty and Adolescence
3.3 Physical development, cognitive, social, emotional & moral development in adolescence
3.4 Emerging of sexuality
3.5 Social context adolescent peer relationships
3.6 Social context, role of family
3.7 Social context: Attraction towards members of the other sex
3.8 Summary
3.9 Suggested Questions

OBJECTIVES:

• To understand the outline of physical process of puberty in terms of human development

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Adolescence literally means 'to grow to maturity'. It is an intermediary stage between childhood and
adulthood characteristically possessing qualities of both stages, although not fully in either of them.
The age range is from 12-19 years. It is the threshold to adulthood. There are rapid physical changes
taking place including sexual maturity which is attained during adolescence. Consequently, there are
also psychological and social changes. Adolescence is a crucial stage for the person. In addition, it
usually encounters problems of different kinds. Adolescents are very sensitive. This must be
understood and handled with utmost responsibility

3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBERTY AND ADOLESCENCE

Rapid Physical Development: Adolescence is first of all a period of physical changes and
development. Physiological development primarily converts the boy into a man and the girl into a
woman and provides the basic for emotional, social, intellectual and economic maturity. The most
important changes occur in the glandular system which has great influence not only on the physical
development but also in the behavior and personality development of the adolescents.

Bio-chemical changes in the body make the endocrine glands more active and there is increase in
height, weight, changes in voice muscular growth, appearance of pubic hair, growth of hair on the
face arms, legs etc. The most striking physical change in this growth period is attainment of puberty
which leads to development of reproductive capacity. Respiratory, circulatory and digestive system
are also developed that give more physical energy and vigour. All these changes often lead to
confusion, feeling of inadequacy, insecurity and in some cases abnormal behavior. You must
understand the fact that all the aspects of adolescent development are basically conditioned by
physical changes.

Mental Development: Mental Development in adolescence accelerates in many intellectual fronts.

As compared with children, adolescents develop greater insight, better understanding and can
perceive relationship more easily. They develop the ability to generalize and can think of the solution
of more difficult problems. This indicates that the thought process becomes more logical, scientific

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and systematic during adolescence. It is an accepted fact that the ability of intelligence reaches its
maximum at the age of 16 and 17 years.

Memory power also develops tremendously, and adolescents can retain facts for a longer period.
They can anticipate the future needs and can plan for it. Another important change in intellectual
orientation is the adolescent’s ability to identity with the circumstances and people outside his own
immediate environment. The imitative tendency of childhood disappears during adolescence. The
adolescents develop certain amount of independence in thinking and can critically examine the things
to make the decision of his own.

Emotional immaturity: We have already said that adolescence is a period of “storm and stress.”
Psychologists have regarded it as a period of heightened emotionality. Continuous physical changes
mainly give rise to emotional uncertainty and instability. Emotions of anger, fear, shame, disgust
give rise to variation in moods, nervousness, sensitiveness, stubbornness, disobedience etc.

Sex drive is also a prolific source of emotional disturbance in adolescence. Beside these, adolescent’s
striving for independence gives rise to emotional conflicts. Their ideas and views often appear
contradictory with that of their parents and other members of the society. At many times, therefore,
the adolescent suffers from emotional detachment from their parents and other members of the
society. So, they are very pone to emotional maladjustment.

Social Consciousness: The period of adolescence is pre-eminently a period of social development

and adjustment. The most important social development during this period is the increased influence
of the peer group. The type of peer group shapes the behaviour of the adolescent to a great extent.
His interests, attitudes and values are influenced by his peers.

The adolescent boys and girls become self-conscious about their place in society and they gradually
enlarge their spheres of social activities and conducts. The adolescent tries to act in an independent
manner, but the parents often refuse to treat them like grownups which may lead to difficulties. An
adolescent also develops sense of patriotism in his mind and wants to join any type of social services.

Moral Consciousness: The development of morality contributes a great to the general development
of personality. Family is the main place where the adolescent receives the moral training, and which
exerts influence on his attitudes and behaviour. As the child grows older his capacity for independent
thinking develops. He can distinguish between right and wrong, true and false, virtue and vice and
the desirable and the undesirable. Adolescents in general, cannot tolerate immoral or illegal
activities. Interest in their own religion also develops.

Their moral senses may make them God fearing but sometimes they also develop religions doubts,
conflicts uncertainties regarding religious beliefs and practices etc. This may puzzle the thinking of
the adolescents.

Hero-worshipping: Hero-worshipping is a tendency of the adolescent stage. It means that the

adolescents start to identify themselves with an ideal hero, whom they obey and follow. They admire
and respect him. They organize their thoughts and activities in conformity with the ideal of the hero.

The hero becomes the source of inspiration for the adolescents to aim for their future. For this
reason, the adolescent should be encouraged to study biographies of great man so that they can shape
their own life following the ideals of these great men.

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Hetero-sexuality: Hetero-sexuality is another important characteristic of the adolescents. It means
the attraction for the opposite sex. Both the sexes develop greater interest for the opposite sex.
Adolescents become very much eager to know about the opposite sex. But unfortunately, the
knowledge which they may receive be harmful for their mental and physical health. Many boys and
girls suffer from worries because of the wrong information about sex and lack of proper guidance.
All teachers, social workers and psychologists agree that sex education should be provided to the
adolescents.

Creative imagination: During adolescence the imaginative faculty of an individual undergoes

considerable development. Imagination added with intellectual elements become artistic and creative
and finds expression in literature, art, poetry, fiction and even musical and artistic creations,
indicating the power of their creative imagination. Imagination thus enriches and transforms
experience and contributes to artistic appreciation and production during adolescence. Adolescents’
should be provided with opportunities for the development of their creative talents through music,
dance, art and culture. Divergent thinking should be encouraged.

Development of personal Independence: One of the most important things that an adolescent want
is independence from the adult authority. It becomes important for the young persons to establish
convictions about their identity. They develop faith in their own capability of doing things and
demand self-respect from the elder members of the society. They want psychological freedom and do
not like adult interference in their own personal business and they want to take decision themselves.
A sense of dignity, honour and freedom prevails in their thought, attitude and behaviour.

3.3 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT, COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL

DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Adolescence, the transition between childhood and adulthood, is a stressful period of life
characterised by discernible physical, mental, emotional, social and behavioural changes.
Adolescence has been described as the transition period in life when an individual is no longer a
child, but not yet an adult. It is a period in which an individual undergoes enormous physical and
psychological changes. In addition, the adolescent experiences changes in social expectations and
perceptions. Physical growth and development are accompanied by sexual maturation, often leading
to intimate relationships. The individual’s capacity for abstract and critical thought also develops,
along with a sense of self-awareness when social expectations require emotional maturity.

Physical development
Adolescence the transition period between childhood and adulthood encompasses ages 12 to 19. It is
a time of tremendous change and discovery. During these years, physical, emotional, and intellectual
growth occurs at a dizzying speed, challenging the teenager to adjust to a new body, social identity,
and expanding world view. Perhaps no aspect of adolescence is as noticeable as the physical changes
that teenagers experience. Within the span of a few years, a dependent child becomes an independent
and contributing adult member of society. The start of adolescence also marks the beginning of
Freud's final stage of psychosexual development, the genital stage, which pertains to both
adolescence and adulthood.

Puberty is the time of rapid physical development, signalling the end of childhood and the beginning
of sexual maturity. Although puberty may begin at different times for different people, by its
completion girls and boys without any developmental problems will be structurally and hormonally
prepared for sexual reproduction. The speed at which adolescents sexually mature varies; the
beginning of puberty in both genders falls within a range of 6 to 7 years. In any grouping of 14‐year‐

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olds, for example, one is likely to see teenagers in assorted stages of development some appearing as
older children and others as fully mature adolescents. Eventually, though, everyone catches up.

Hormones are responsible for the development of both primary sex characteristics (structures
directly responsible for reproduction) and secondary sex characteristics (structures indirectly
responsible for reproduction). Examples of primary sex characteristics are the penis in boys and the
uterus in females. An example of secondary sex characteristics is the growth of pubic hair in both
genders.

During childhood, males and females produce roughly equal amounts of male (androgen) and female
(estrogen) hormones. At the onset of puberty, the pituitary gland stimulates hormonal changes
throughout the body, including in the adrenal, endocrine, and sexual glands. The timing of puberty
seems to result from a combination of genetic, environmental, and health factors.

An early sign of maturation is the adolescent growth spurt, or a noticeable increase in height and
weight. The female growth spurt usually begins between ages 10 and 14 and ends by age 16. The
male growth spurt usually begins between ages 10 and 16 and ends by age 18.

Girls generally begin puberty a few years earlier than boys, somewhere around ages 11 to 12.
Increasing levels of estrogen trigger the onset of puberty in girls. They grow taller; their hips widen;
their breasts become rounder and larger; hair grows on the legs, under the arms, and around the
genitals; the labia thicken; the clitoris elongates; and the uterus enlarges. Around the age of 12 or 13,
most girls today begin menstruating, or having menstrual periods and flow. The onset of
menstruation is termed menarche. At this time, females can become pregnant.

Increasing levels of the hormone testosterone trigger the onset of puberty in boys around ages 12 to
14. Boys become taller, heavier, and stronger; their voices deepen; their shoulders broaden; hair
grows under the arms, on the face, around the genitals, and on other parts of the body; the testes
produce sperm; and the penis and other reproductive organs enlarge. At this time, boys can
impregnate sexually mature girls. Teenage boys may also experience the harmless release of semen
during sleep, termed nocturnal emissions (wet dreams).

The resulting changes of puberty can have wide‐ranging effects on teenagers' bodies. For both
adolescent girls and boys, differences in height and weight, general awkwardness, emotional ups‐
and‐downs, and skin problems (acne vulgaris, or pimples) are common. These and other changes,
including the timing of sexual maturation, can be sources of great anxiety and frustration for the
blossoming youth.

Cognitive development
Most adolescents reach Piaget's stage of formal operations (ages 12 and older), in which they
develop new tools for manipulating information. Previously, as children, they could only think
concretely, but in the formal operations stage they can think abstractly and deductively. Adolescents
in this stage can also consider future possibilities, search for answers, deal flexibly with problems,
test hypotheses, and draw conclusions about events they have not experienced first-hand.

Cognitive maturity occurs as the brain matures and the social network expands, which offers more
opportunities for experimenting with life. Because this worldly experience plays a large role in
attaining formal operations, not all adolescents enter this stage of cognitive development. Studies
indicate, however, that abstract and critical reasoning skills are teachable. For example, everyday
reasoning improves between the first and last years of college, which suggests the value of education
in cognitive maturation.

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Intellectual development
According to Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory, intelligence is comprised of three
aspects: componential (the critical aspect), experiential (the insightful aspect), and contextual (the
practical aspect). Most intelligence tests only measure componential intelligence, although all three
are needed to predict a person's eventual success in life. Ultimately, adolescents must learn to use
these three types of intelligence.

Componential intelligence is the ability to use internal information‐processing strategies when

identifying and thinking about solving a problem, including evaluating results. Individuals who are
strong in componential intelligence do well on standardized mental tests. Also involved in
componential intelligence is metacognition, which is the awareness of one's own cognitive processes
an ability some experts claim is vital to solving problems.

Experiential intelligence is the ability to transfer learning effectively to new skills. In other words, it
is the ability to compare old and new information, and to put facts together in original ways.
Individuals who are strong in experiential intelligence cope well with novelty and quickly learn to
make new tasks automatic.

Contextual intelligence is the ability to apply intelligence practically, including taking into account
social, cultural, and historical contexts. Individuals who are strong in contextual intelligence easily
adapt to their environments, can change to other environments, and are willing to fix their
environments when necessary.

An important part of contextual intelligence is tacit knowledge, or savvy, which is not directly
taught. Tacit knowledge is the ability to work the system to one's advantage. Examples are knowing
how to cut through institutional red tape and manoeuvring through educational systems with the least
amount of hassle. People with tacit knowledge are often thought of as street‐smart.

Social development
Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson referred to the task
of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s
main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Some adolescents adopt the values and
roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their
parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer relationships become a central focus in
adolescents’ lives.

As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group
becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time
with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman,
& Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with positive
child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as
well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005).

It appears that most teens don’t experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree once famously
suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers
of teens have major conflicts with their parents (Steinberg & Morris, 2001), and most disagreements
are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and
ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework,
money, curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens
develop (Galambos & Almeida, 1992).

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Although peers take on greater importance during adolescence, family relationships remain important
too. One of the key changes during adolescence involves a renegotiation of parent–child
relationships. As adolescents strive for more independence and autonomy during this time, different
aspects of parenting become more salient. For example, parents’ distal supervision and monitoring
become more important as adolescents spend more time away from parents and in the presence of
peers. Parental monitoring encompasses a wide range of behaviors such as parents’ attempts to set
rules and know their adolescents’ friends, activities, and whereabouts, in addition to adolescents’
willingness to disclose information to their parents (Stattin & Kerr, 2000). Psychological control,
which involves manipulation and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world through
invalidating adolescents’ feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways (Barber, 1996), is
another aspect of parenting that becomes more salient during adolescence and is related to more
problematic adolescent adjustment.

As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and less
time with their families, and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults.
Children’s notions of friendship often focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents’ notions of
friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings.

During adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. Adolescents within
a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which has been explained as
being a function of homophily (adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend time
together in a “birds of a feather flock together” way) and influence (adolescents who spend time
together shape each other’s behavior and attitudes).

One of the most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known as deviant peer
contagion (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011), which is the process by which peers reinforce problem
behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future
problem behavior.

Influences on Social Development

Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence. Negative peer pressure can
lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behaviour than they would
alone or in the presence of their family. For example, adolescents are much more likely to drink
alcohol, use drugs, and commit crimes when they are with their friends than when they are alone or
with their family. However, peers also serve as an important source of social support and
companionship during adolescence, and adolescents with positive peer relationships are happier and
better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or have conflictual peer relationships.

Crowds are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships (which
are reciprocal dyadic relationships) and cliques (which refer to groups of individuals who interact
frequently), crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual interactions
(Brown & Larson, 2009). These crowds reflect different prototypic identities (such as jocks or brains)
and are often linked with adolescents’ social status and peers’ perceptions of their values or
behaviours.

Emotional development
Adolescents have to cope, not only with changes in their physical appearance, but also with
associated emotional changes and emerging and compelling sex urges. Bodily changes cause
emotional stress and strain as well as abrupt and rapid mood swings. Getting emotionally disturbed
by seemingly small and inconsequential matters is a common characteristic of this age group.

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Hormonal changes are likely to result in thoughts pertaining to sex, irritability, restlessness, anger
and tension. Attraction to the opposite sex leads to a desire to mix freely and interact with each other.
However, in reality, this may not always be possible, partly due to societal restrains on pre-marital
sexual expressions and also because of other priority needs in this period, viz. education,
employment, etc. Hence, it becomes almost necessary for adolescents to learn how to face and deal
patiently with the turbulence they face. It requires development of a sense of balance and self-
imposition of limits on expression of one’s needs and desires. An inability to express their needs
often leads adolescents to fantasize and daydream that helps them to at least partially fulfil their
desires.

Adolescence is also marked by development of the faculty of abstract thinking that enables them to
think and evaluate systematically and detect and question inconsistencies between rules and
behaviour. Parents as well as service providers often overlook this development, one of the basic
reasons for the popularly known ‘generation gap’.

Socially, adolescence consists in shifts from dependency to autonomy, social responses to physical
maturity, the management of sexuality, the acquisition of skills and changes in peer groupings. The
need to be a part of a gang or a large group is replaced by a preference for maintaining fewer, more
steady and binding relationships.

Moral development
As adolescents become increasingly independent, they also develop more nuanced thinking about
morality, or what is right or wrong. We all make moral judgments on a daily basis. As
adolescents’ cognitive, emotional, and social development continue to mature, their understanding of
morality expands and their behaviour becomes more closely aligned with their values and beliefs.
Therefore, moral development describes the evolution of these guiding principles and is
demonstrated by the ability to apply these guidelines in daily life. Understanding moral development
is important in this stage where individuals make so many important decisions and gain more and
more legal responsibility.

Moral development, in adolescents, means the ability to reason about right and wrong Lawrence
Kohlberg proposed a theory of moral development with three levels consisting of six stages. The first
level, preconventional morality, has to do with moral reasoning and behaviour based on rules and
fear of punishment (Stage 1) and nonempathetic self‐interest (Stage 2). The second
level, conventional morality, refers to conformity and helping others (Stage 3) and obeying the law
and keeping order (Stage 4). The third level, postconventional morality, is associated with
accepting the relative and changeable nature of rules and laws (Stage 5) and conscience‐directed
concern with human rights (Stage 6).

Moral development depends, in part, on the appearance of empathy, shame, and guilt. Internalization
of morality begins with empathy, the ability to relate to others' pain and joy. Children in their first
year begin to show signs of basic empathy in that they become distressed when those around them do
likewise. Internalization of morality also involves shame (feelings of not living up to others'
standards) and guilt (feelings of not living up to personal standards). Shame develops around age 2,
and guilt develops between ages 3 and 4. As children mature cognitively, they evidence an increasing
ability to weigh consequences in light of self‐interest and the interest of those around them.
Teenagers typically demonstrate conventional morality as they approach their 20s, although some
may take longer to gain the experience, they need to make the transition.

Influences on Moral Development

Adolescents are receptive to their culture, to the models they see at home, in school and in the mass

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media. These observations influence moral reasoning and moral behaviour. When children are
younger, their family, culture, and religion greatly influence their moral decision-making. During the
early adolescent period, peers have a much greater influence. Peer pressure can exert a powerful
influence because friends play a more significant role in teens’ lives. Furthermore, the new ability to
think abstractly enables youth to recognize that rules are simply created by other people. As a result,
teens begin to question the absolute authority of parents, schools, government, and other traditional
institutions (Vera-Estay, Dooley, & Beauchamp, 2014). By late adolescence, most teens are less
rebellious as they have begun to establish their own identity, their own belief system, and their own
place in the world.

Unfortunately, some adolescents have life experiences that may interfere with their moral
development. Traumatic experiences may cause them to view the world as unjust and unfair.
Additionally, social learning also impacts moral development. Adolescents may have observed the
adults in their lives making immoral decisions that disregarded the rights and welfare of others,
leading these youth to develop beliefs and values that are contrary to the rest of society.

That being said, adults have opportunities to support moral development by modeling the moral
character that we want to see in our children. Parents are particularly important because they are
generally the original source of moral guidance. Authoritative parenting facilitates children’s moral
growth better than other parenting styles and one of the most influential things a parent can do is to
encourage the right kind of peer relations. While parents may find this process of moral development
difficult or challenging, it is important to remember that this developmental step is essential to their
children’s well-being and ultimate success in life.

3.4 EMERGENCE OF SEXUALITY

Human sexuality is much more complex than the biological forces that initiate the sexual maturation
process. As such, the development of adolescent sexuality includes not only physical development
but also cognitive, emotional, social, and moral development. These developmental areas do not
uniformly advance at the same rate. This is particularly problematic with respect to adolescent
sexuality because poor decisions, due to a lack of cognitive and/or emotional maturity, can have dire,
life-long consequences.

Thus, it is important for caregivers to be prepared to discuss all aspects of sexuality (i.e., the physical,
cognitive, emotional, social, and moral aspects of sexuality) so that they can best assist their teens to
make wise and thoughtful decisions. When parents understand the process of adolescent sexual
development, they are in a better position to assist their children. In addition, knowledge of this
information enables caregivers to know when to intervene if necessary.

Early adolescence is a precarious period in youths' sexual development because of the inter-
relationship between sexual development, cognitive development, and emotional development.
Youth at this age lack the cognitive and emotional maturity that is necessary to make wise and
healthy decisions regarding their sexuality and are ill-prepared to cope with consequences of sexual
activity. This is particularly unfortunate as today's adolescents are becoming sexually active sooner
than previous generations. According to a survey by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
published in 2010, 46% of high school students were reported have sexual intercourse (Eaton, Kann,
Kinchen, et al., 2010).

This stands in contrast to the 1940's when only 10% of women ages 16-17 reported having had sex,
while 50-60% of men of the same age, reported having had sex (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948;

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Kinsey, Pomeroy, Martin, & Gebbard, 1953). Since sexual development begins during Puberty, the
reader may wish to review the Middle Childhood article on Puberty for more detailed information
and for specific advice regarding menstruation, erections, etc.

When teens are approximately 12-13 years of age, they begin to show a general interest in sexual
topics. Youth may try to satisfy their curiosity by reading information about sex and viewing images
with a sexual content. This may include drawings in anatomy books, photographs of naked people,
images of animal sexual behavior, and pornographic materials. Youth can readily find these images
at the library, in an older sibling's biology text book, watching certain television programs, viewing
adult magazines, or searching on the Internet. Some youth may attempt to satisfy their curiosity by
"peeping;" i.e., to secretly observe people when they are naked such as when they are bathing or
changing clothes. It is normal for youth to want to avoid the embarrassment of being discovered
doing any of these things so they may attempt to deny or conceal what they are doing.

During early adolescence boys will experience frequent erections since this is the normal response of
the male body to sexual excitement. Erections can also occur spontaneously for no apparent reason at
all as boys' bodies adjust to the extreme chemical and hormonal changes initiated during puberty.
Similarly, girls may find they produce vaginal secretions for no apparent reason, even when they're
not menstruating. Sometimes, these secretions are caused by sexual arousal, but increased vaginal
secretions can also be caused by normal hormonal fluctuations during their monthly cycle.

By ages 13-14 years, guys will have a more obvious interest in sex than girls do, but girls are
interested in sex as well. Guys will have even more frequent erections at this age. It's quite normal for
guys to experiment with their erections and their sexual arousal through masturbation. Because
sexual pleasure is a new experience, boys may want to masturbate quite frequently. Since indicators
of girls' sexual arousal are not as overtly obvious as boys' erections, girls may not masturbate as
frequently because they may be less aware of their sexual arousal.

Although sexual behavior is usually limited to masturbation at this age, both guys and girls may start
to experiment with sexual arousal through flirting, hugging, and playfully hitting or tickling other
youth they are romantically interested in. They may also start kissing or "making out" with other
teens. This may occur between two teens in private or it may occur in the context of a larger group,
such as a party, where youth might play a kissing game like spin-the-bottle.

Youth at this age may also begin to experiment with vocalizing their sexual thoughts when they are
with other teens. They may begin telling sexual jokes or using sexual double engenders, which are
comments that can have two meanings: the usual or customary meaning, and a subtly inferred sexual
meaning. Teens may also begin hinting about their own sexual activity to gauge others' reactions and
readiness to talk about sex.

Teens begin to become concerned with other people's opinions and judgments of them. Therefore, it
makes sense that both guys and girls will become more modest about their own nudity, even around
people of the same gender. For instance, a father and son may have routinely enjoyed going to the
gym together to play basketball, and comfortably dressed next to each other in the locker room. But
suddenly, the son seems highly uncomfortable with this arrangement, and may attempt to dress in
another row of the locker room or may even make excuses to avoid going to the gym altogether. This
increased sense of modesty is due to youths' own uncertainty about their new adult-like bodies and
their concerns about how others might judge their body. Family members will need to remember to
adjust to this increased need for privacy.

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3.5 SOCIAL CONTEXT: ADOLESCENT PEER RELATIONSHIPS

Parents gasp and clap in excitement as they witness their toddlers' first steps or hear them babble
their first words. Children's first day of school, their first piano recital, and their first soccer game,
can cause parents to beam with pride. However, similar developmental milestones during their
children's transition into adulthood are much less welcome. This transitional period, from childhood
to adulthood, is called Adolescence and spans the ages of 12-24 years old.
During adolescence the desire for independence and autonomy increase, and parents usually find
themselves much less thrilled with the developmental indicators of this increasing maturity. Instead
of beaming with pride when their teens question the rules or challenge authority, parents often find
themselves wanting to scream in frustration, "Why are they doing that!?"

While this developmental period certainly presents parents with many challenges, it also includes
many bittersweet moments that mark their child's increasing maturity. Some of these developmental
milestones may include graduation from high school or trade school, a teen's first romantic
relationship, a first job, or the first home-away-from-home. But along the way, a teen's normal
developmental process can certainly confound and frustrate even the most patient and understanding
parents.

Peer relationships are very influential in adolescence. During this time, when young people are
developing autonomy from their parents, peers become a significant source of social and emotional
support. The attitudes of adolescents’ friends can have both a positive and negative influence. Strong
peer attachments can enhance a young person’s wellbeing while problems in peer relationships, such
as bullying, can have significant psychological, physical, academic and social-emotional
consequences for both victims and perpetrators.

Given the significance of peer relationships for adolescents’ development, it is important to

understand the nature of these relationships. We provide a snapshot of the peer relationships of
Australian adolescents, by describing peer attachments, peer group attitudes, and peer problems as
they are reported by young people in mid adolescence.

3.6 SOCIAL CONTEXT: ROLE OF FAMILY

Developmental theories view adolescence as a period of growth in which identity formation is

addressed. Research shows, however, that ongoing positive family connections are protective factors
against a range of health risk behaviours. Although the nature of relationships is changing, the
continuity of family connections and a secure emotional base is crucial for the positive development
of young people.

Increasingly, research indicates that the role of the family context in adolescent well-being goes
beyond the importance of the direct relationship between a parent and a child. Other factors, such as
family members’ levels of engagement with each other, how much hostility or how many negative
interactions are part of family interactions, and satisfaction with relationships between parents all
play a role. For example, parents with high levels of marital satisfaction are more likely to
demonstrate good parenting practices, such as warmth, responsiveness, and affection, which in turn
can positively affect adolescent well-being.

Over 80 percent of adolescents with partnered parents have parents who report high levels of
happiness in their spousal or partner relationship.
Among adolescents with partnered parents, the majority have parents who say their relationship with
their partner or spouse is very happy or completely happy. Slightly more white, non-Hispanic and

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Hispanic adolescents have parents who report being completely/ very happy compared with black,
non-Hispanic adolescents’ parents.

Low ratings of parental happiness are also more common among adolescents in low-income
households. About one in five adolescents in poor families and families with incomes between 100
and 200 percent of poverty have parents who say they are fairly or not too happy, compared with
about one in six adolescents in families with incomes above 200 percent of poverty.

3.7 SOCIAL CONTEXT: PLAY AND LEISURE

Throughout most of history, kids have spent hour after hour playing with parents, siblings,
babysitters, and friends. Play is so important in child development that it's been recognized by the
United Nations High Commission for Human Rights as a right of every child.

But the amount of time that children spend playing each day has gone down considerably over the
last two decades. A 1989 survey taken by the National Association of Elementary School Principals
found that 96 percent of schools had at least one recess period for kids. A decade later, a similar
survey found that only 70 percent of kindergarten classes offered even one recess period each day.

The American Academy of Paediatrics’ recent report explains why children are playing less and what
the impact is on today's kids. Over the last few decades, the amount of play time has been reduced
both at school and at home, according to the AAP. Many school districts have responded to increased
government pressure about academics (including the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001) by reducing
the time committed to free play to focus more on reading and mathematics. And a child's playtime at
home has been negatively affected by the hectic lifestyles of today's working parents and the
increased focus that parents often put on the academic end of their children's education. But this all
comes at a cost.

"Play allows children to use their creativity while developing their imagination, dexterity, and
physical, cognitive, and emotional strength," according to the AAP report. It allows children to
explore the world, practice adult roles, and gain confidence. And it improves children's social skills
as well, by helping them to "learn how to work in groups, to share, to negotiate, to resolve conflicts,
and to learn self-advocacy skills."

During adolescence there are a number of cognitive, emotional, physical and attitudinal changes that
provide the basis for personality development. Teenagers are in an important transition stage where
they naturally try to break free from their parents and instead seek out new ways of doing things for
themselves. For the first time, teenagers will start to view their friends and peers’ groups as more
important and influential than their parents – often leading to conflict.

However difficult, teenagers need to be given the time and space to make decisions for themselves
and learn from their errors. Although we may worry about their choice in friends, these self-built
relationships can actually help them develop skills such as empathy, sharing and leadership, as well
as having a positive impact on them in terms of academic motivation and aspirations. Maintaining an
open dialogue is important at this age and it is crucial your child feels able to talk to you about their
new experiences and concerns.

Due to all these changes it is easy to forget that teenagers still need time to play and have fun!
Teenagers may not call it play, but the time that they spend with their friends or on their own, without
being told what to do, is their version of play. Teenage play is predominantly social, and they have
the freedom to decide for themselves or as a group how to have fun. Analysis of teenage behaviour

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during play shows that their behaviour mimics and practices being an adult, which is a positive for
their development.
However, it is still important as a parent to hold a discussion with your child to set clear boundaries
e.g. controls on the internet and phones, so that they can grow and explore their identity but still
within a safe environment.

3.8 SOCIAL CONTEXT: ATTRACTION TOWARDS MEMBERS OF OTHER SEX

A part of discovering one's total identity is the firming of sexual orientation, or sexual, emotional,
romantic, and affectionate attraction to members of the same sex, the other sex, or both. A person
who is attracted to members of the other sex is heterosexual. A person who is attracted to members
of the same sex is homosexual. Many use the term gay to refer to a male homosexual, and lesbian to
refer to a female homosexual.

A person who is attracted to members of both sexes is bisexual. In the 1940s and 1950s, Alfred
Kinsey and his associates discovered that sexual orientation exists along a continuum. Prior to
Kinsey's research into the sexual habits of United States residents, experts generally believed that
most individuals were either heterosexual or homosexual. Kinsey speculated that the categories of
sexual orientation were not so distinct. On his surveys, many Americans reported having had at least
minimal attraction to members of the same gender, although most had never acted out on this
attraction.

In short, Kinsey and colleagues brought to the attention of medical science the notion of
heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality all being separate but related sexual orientations.
The ethology of heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality continues to elude researchers.
Today's theories of sexual orientation fall into biological, psychological, social, and interactional
categories.

Academic Pressure:
School education is a very important part in an individual’s life and is also a turning point in their
academic life. At this stage, the academic performance of a student plays a crucial role in deciding the
next stage of their education, which in turn shapes their career. An excess of academic stress during
this stage can result in adverse effects that are far-reaching and prolonged.

In today’s highly competitive world, students face various academic problems including exam stress,
disinterest in attending classes and the inability to understand a subject. Academic stress involves
mental distress regarding anticipated academic challenges or failure or even the fear of the possibility
of academic failure. Academic stressors show themselves in many aspects in the students’
environment: at school, home, in their peer relations and even in their neighbourhood.

Excessive levels of academic stress can result in an increased prevalence of psychological and
physical problems like depression, anxiety, nervousness and stress related disorders, which in turn can
affect their academic results. Anxiety as a disorder is seen in about 8% of adolescents and children
worldwide. Anxiety and stress have a substantial negative effect on their social, emotional and
academic success. Depression is becoming the most common mental health problem college students
suffer these days. It is also a reflection of an individual’s academic frustration, academic conflict,
academic anxiety and academic pressure.

The four components of academic stress usually identifiable in a student are academic frustration,
academic conflicts, academic anxieties and academic pressures.

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According to most high school students, their greatest academic stressors include tests, grades,
homework, academic and achievement expectations and parental pressure. School related stresses
include inadequate instructional methods, teacher-student relationships, heavy academic workload,
poor physical classroom environments, inability to balance one’s leisure time with school, and
disorganization surrounding academic assignments and schedules. Additional sources consist of a
struggle to meet academic standards, worries about time management and concerns over grades and
scores. Students are thus, seen to be affected by the negative causes of academic stress.
The mental health of students, especially in terms of academic stress and its impact, has become a
serious issue among school and policymakers because of the increasing incidence of suicides among
students across the globe. The Lancet Report states that, India has the world’s highest suicide rates
among the youth. Parental pressure for better academic performance is found to be mostly responsible
for academic stress. Due to the constant pushing of the student by the parents in order to perform
better in both academics and extra-curricular activities, some children develop deep-rooted nervous
disorders during their childhood.

Academic and exam stress is found to be positively correlated with parental pressure and psychiatric
problems. It is important to remember that the mental constitution or coping capacities vary from one
child to another. Therefore, children with poor coping capacities become more prone to anxiety,
depression and fear of academic failure and this shows us that one should not compare one student
with another.

Career choices:
Parenting styles and parent-child relationships are linked to identity development during adolescence.
Parents who encourage their adolescent in decision making for the family tend to promote identity
achievement. Parents who do not encourage this type of decision making tend to promote identity
foreclosure. Passive and lenient parents, on the other hand, who allow their children to make their
own decisions, promote identity diffusion. Families that offer support and allow for individual
decision making allow for the advancement of the most effective atmosphere for positive identity
development (Santrock, 2007; Berzonsky, Branje, & Meeus 2007).

Other psychosocial resources, such as personal effectiveness and adaptability, are also related to
identity development, because they allow for an individual to develop a committed sense of purpose
and the capability to have control of his or her life. This commitment serves as the template for how
an individual will perform in life in everyday situations and solving problems. Individuals are likely
to have high levels of academic achievement, be capable of adapting to situations, and have low
levels of problem behaviors when they have high levels of self-regulatory resources. Psychosocial
resources are correlated with these desirable outcomes.

The socialization of work is another factor affecting occupational choice in adolescence. Long before
individuals enter the work force, they are being socialized to work by various sources. This process
of socialization continues throughout their career. People begin accumulating their knowledge about
the work force in early childhood, primarily from their parents, friends, and schools (Levine &
Hoffner, 2006). Parents are a primary source of socialization and also serve as influential factors in
their children’s career choices. In the family, children are first exposed to social and gender role
behavior through chores around the house and through the power differences amongst family
members.

This gives children information about future interactions of superior-subordinate relationships

(Levine & Hoffner, 2006). At home, children are made aware of the importance of education and
school in their household. This in turn affects the attitudes and motivation children have towards
school, which can be either positive or negative. (Koutsoulis & Campbell, 2001). According to

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 Levine and Hoffner (2006), friends are another influential socialization source for children and
adolescents. Through interactions with friends, adolescents can discuss career goals and receive
feedback on their career choices. Information on career aspirations can be shared amongst friends
who have similar interests. After-school activities, sports in particular, provide a great deal of
socialization through decision making and problem solving.

Many studies have been conducted investigating the various aspects of career development during
adolescence. One study of particular significance to the present study investigates parental
expectations and the barriers to career aspirations. According to the researchers, there are several
barriers that can affect the occupational choices of adolescents.

These barriers include socioeconomic status, family attitude, and poor school engagement (Creed,
Conlon, & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007). The researchers note that although there are barriers to
occupational choice, the relationship between these barriers and actual occupational functioning is
difficult to understand. Some individuals may be restricted by these barriers, while others use them as
motivation for achievement (2007).

The results of Creed et al.’s (2007) study demonstrated that adolescents and their parents typically
hold high career expectations; they found a correlation between the child’s individual expectations
for the career development and their parent’s expectations for the child. These findings are reflective
of previous findings indicating that parents are influential and have an impact on their children’s
future career aspirations.

3.8 SUMMARY

Adolescence has been described as the transition period in life when an individual is no longer a
child, but not yet an adult. It is a period in which an individual undergoes enormous physical and
psychological changes. In addition, the adolescent experiences changes in social expectations and
perceptions. Physical growth and development are accompanied by sexual maturation, often leading
to intimate relationships. The individual’s capacity for abstract and critical thought also develops,
along with a sense of self-awareness when social expectations require emotional maturity.

Adolescence literally means 'to grow to maturity'. It is an intermediary stage between childhood and
adulthood characteristically possessing qualities of both stages, although not fully in either of them.
The age range is from 12-19 years. It is the threshold to adulthood. There are rapid physical changes
taking place including sexual maturity which is attained during adolescence.

Adolescent sexuality has changed over the past 50 years, with adolescents now reaching physical
maturity earlier and marrying later. Puberty marks the obvious physical development in early to
middle adolescence and is seen as the time for potential onset of sexual thoughts and
experimentation.

On average, middle adolescence is a time when teens begin to be interested in more intimate
relationships and experimentation. Parental and societal concerns regarding premature sexual activity
include unplanned pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), sexual abuse, and potential
emotional consequences of sexual behaviours. These concerns underscore the importance of
providing adolescents with preventive health services and comprehensive sexual health education.

3.9 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Explain the characteristics of adolescence and puberty.

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2. Write a note on adolescent peer relationships.
3. Write a note on role of family.
4. Write a note on play and leisure.
5. Write a note on attraction towards members of the other sex.
6. Write a note on academic pressures and career choices.
7. Explain the physical development in adolescents.
8. Explain the cognitive development in adolescents.
9. Explain the social development in adolescents.
10. Explain the emotional development in adolescents.
11. Explain the moral development in adolescents.
12. Explain the emergence of sexuality in adolescents.

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 MODULE-IV
EARLY, MIDDLE AND LATE ADULTHOOD
STRUCTURE

4.1 Introduction
1. Characteristics of Adulthood
2. Summary
3. Suggested Questions

OBJECTIVES

• To learn physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs in early, middle and late
adulthood.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Adulthood is the stage where growth is complete, and the person assumes various responsibilities.
Starting around 18 years, it extends till middle age which is around 45 years. The developmental
tasks for this stage of life are as follows:
Like all earlier stages adult too has certain developmental tasks, except they are referred to as 'Vital
roles". All of us occupy status, a position, socially recognized and regularized. For example, the
status of being a son, an officer or/and a captain. According to the status one occupies, one needs to
perform certain duties or fulfil certain responsibilities, which are termed as 'roles'.

A role is the dynamic side of the status. Taking the example further, the son takes care of the parents
or the captain leads the team. The roles of the adult are so important that they are called as vital roles
and each adult performs these roles. These roles include the role of a worker. a spouse and a parent.

4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULTHOOD

There are several defining characterisations of adulthood, including independence, self-discovery and
management of a person's life. Even though some people do not experience all of the common
characterisations, most people do look forward to the independence they attain upon leaving their
childhood home.

For most people, the independence they get once they leave home is the most important characteristic
of becoming an adult. When adults have the ability to take care of each portion of their lives, this
allows them to discover who they are. However, most people make common mistakes such as
forgetting about bills or forgetting to plan for the future. Aside from the freedom that most people
seek, there are also other parts of becoming an adult.

One part is discovering who they are as a people, which is separate from their parents. Another
characteristic is the ability to manage individual parts of life, such as choosing the furniture for their
home, picking out each type of food they prepare and choosing to stay up or going to bed when they
feel like it. These simple actions separate children from adults, because once the novelty of staying
up late wears off, most adults create a schedule that works best for their needs.

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1. Capability and willingness to accept responsibility for our actions.
2. Capability and willingness to extend “care” beyond our own physical body. This care often is
directed to the other in an LTR, but may be to a family group, religious order, squad of other
soldiers, or less dramatically some secular vocations, or even to a pet.
3. Capability and willingness to self-examine, admit error and self-correct, or accept correction from
another.
4. Capability and willingness to delay gratification of immediate inclinations in favour of other values:
the welfare of another, self-control for its own sake, long-term cost, the healthy regulation of
appetites so that they do not tip into addictive behaviors, keeping the conduct that matches a desired
or an established identity.

All four of these include the ability and will to self-assess, to modify one’s behavior (including
curtailing old patterns and creating new patterns) for a variety of motivations, all of which originate
either with benefiting others, or benefitting the self in the long term.

4.3 ISSUES IN ADULTHOOD-MARRIAGE, FAMILY, CAREER, LIFE STYLES AND

PARENTING

Adulthood, the period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturity have
been attained. Adulthood is commonly thought of as beginning at age 20 or 21 years. Middle age,
commencing at about 40 years, is followed by old age at about 60 years.

An important aspect of achieving intimacy with another person is first being able to separate from
the family of origin, or family of procreation. Most young adults have some familial attachments but
are also in the process of separating from them. This process normally begins during Daniel
Levinson's early adult transition (17–22), when many young adults first leave home to attend
college or take a job in another city.

By age 22 young adults have attained at least some level of attitudinal, emotional, and physical
independence. They are ready for Levinson's entering the adult world (22–28) stage of early
adulthood, during which relationships take centre stage.

Marriage
Divorce and Remarriage
Divorce refers to the legal dissolution of a marriage. Depending on societal factors, divorce may be
more or less of an option for married couples. Despite popular belief, divorce rates in the United
States actually declined for many years during the 1980s and 1990s, and only just recently started to
climb back up landing at just below 50% of marriages ending in divorce today (Marriage & Divorce,
2016); however, it should be noted that divorce rates increase for each subsequent marriage, and
there is considerable debate about the exact divorce rate. Are there specific factors that can predict
divorce? Are certain types of people or certain types of relationships more or less at risk for breaking
up? Indeed, there are several factors that appear to be either risk factors or protective factors.

Pursuing education decreases the risk of divorce. So too does waiting until we are older to marry.
Likewise, if our parents are still married, we are less likely to divorce. Factors that increase our risk
of divorce include having a child before marriage and living with multiple partners before marriage,
known as serial cohabitation (cohabitation with one’s expected marital partner does not appear to
have the same effect). Of course, societal and religious attitudes must also be taken into account. In
societies that are more accepting of divorce, divorce rates tend to be higher. Likewise, in religions
that are less accepting of divorce, divorce rates tend to be lower. See Lyngstad & Jalovaara (2010)
for a more thorough discussion of divorce risk.

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If a couple does divorce, there are specific considerations they should take into account to help their
children cope. Parents should reassure their children that both parents will continue to love them and
that the divorce is in no way the children’s fault. Parents should also encourage open communication
with their children and be careful not to bias them against their “ex” or use them as a means of
hurting their “ex”.

Remarriage
Middle adulthood seems to be the prime time for remarriage, as the Pew Research Center reported in
2014 that of those aged between 55-64 who had previously been divorced, 67% had remarried. In
1960, it was 55%. Every other age category reported declines in the number of remarriages. Notably,
remarriage is more popular with men than women, a gender gap that not only persists, but grows
substantially in middle and later adulthood.

Cohabitation is the main way couples prepare for remarriage, but even when living together, many
important issues are still not discussed. Issues concerning money, ex-spouses, children, visitation,
future plans, previous difficulties in marriage, etc. can all pose problems later in the relationship. Few
couples engage in premarital counselling or other structured efforts to cover this ground before
entering into marriage again.

The divorce rate for second marriages is reckoned to be in excess of 60%, and for third marriages
even higher. There is little research in the area of repartnering and remarriage, and the choices and
decisions made during the process. A notable exception is that of Brown et al (2019) who offer an
overview of the little that there is, and their own conclusions. One important constraint which they
note is that men prefer younger women, at least as far as remarriage is concerned. Indeed, the gap in
age is often more pronounced in second marriages than in the first, according to Pew (2014).

Allied to the fact that women live, on average, five years longer in the USA, then the pool of
available partners shrinks for women. Brown et al (2019), also argue that this is further reinforced by
the fact that women have a preference for retaining their autonomy and not playing the role of
caregiver again. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of their research is the fact that those who
repartner tend to do so quickly, and that longer-term singles are more likely to remain so.

Reviews are mixed as to how happy remarriages are. Some say that they have found the right partner
and have learned from mistakes. But the divorce rates for remarriages are higher than for first
marriages. This is especially true in stepfamilies for reasons which we have already discussed. People
who have remarried tend to divorce more quickly than those first marriages. This may be due to the
fact that they have fewer constraints on staying married (are more financially or psychologically
independent).

Family
As young adults enter the culminating phase of early adulthood (33–45), they enter the settling
down (33–40) stage. By this time, they have established a career (at least the first one!) and found a
spouse. If the couple have not already done so, they will probably decide to have one or more
children and start a family.

People generally think that parenthood strengthens marriages, even though research indicates that
marital satisfaction often declines after the birth of the first child. This need not be the case, however.
If the marriage is already positive and the spouses share equally in parenting duties, they can
minimize the hassles of parenthood and keep it from significantly interfering with marital happiness.

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Regardless of the many joys of parenthood, new parents are not always prepared for the
responsibility and time‐commitment that raising a child requires, especially when the pregnancy is
accidental rather than planned, or when the child is “difficult” and prone to irritability and excessive
crying.
The postponement of marriage and childbearing until the 30s makes for an interesting trend in today's
world. Two advantages of waiting are the emotional maturity of both partners and the stability of
their relationship. A more mature and stable couple possesses the necessary tools for weathering the
storms of parenthood. Another advantage is financial stability due to more years on the job,
promotions, and long‐term savings.

Another interesting trend is an increase in non-traditional family units. Examples of these

include blended families (or “stepfamilies,” in which children from previous marriages are
“blended” into a new family), single‐parent families, and same‐sex families.
Some couples choose to remain childless. Couples who have children do not necessarily regard
themselves as more “fulfilled” than couples who do not. The critical factor seems to be the couples'
ability to choose their lifestyle.

Career
Career development in adulthood includes establishing a career, maintaining it, and making
adjustments in it during an adult's declining years. To be successful in finding a place in the
occupational world may involve mobility as seriously as credentials. Adult identity is largely a
function of career movements within occupations and work organizations. In the maintenance stage
the individual has made his place in the occupational world. He has developed his role in the home,
community, and job and will continue to follow that role. In the years of decline the individual
curtails, or modifies, his activities, or he may even change the type of work. Hence, the individual's
role in the occupational world changes throughout his career.

Lou Varga discusses the phenomenon of occupational floundering-that is, a time when a person is
working without a commitment to an occupational goal. Three stages of floundering are described:
initial entry into the job market, a shopping period, and the mid-career stage. Some positive aspects
of floundering are also identified. Rene V. Dawis and Lloyd H. Lofquist offer a theory regarding
work adjustment. They describe work personality styles and their relationship to work adjustment.
Harold L. Sheppard presents some patterns of individuals moving toward second careers. He suggests
a way of identifying individuals who will seek second careers and indicates some dimensions that
differentiate them from non-candidates for second careers.

There also is a trend now toward retirement preparation programs; however, there is a need to
increase counseling and planning in that area. Patricia L. Kasschau proposes that definitive retirement
preparation programs be systematically conceived, designed, and implemented. The new concerns in
vocational guidance for adulthood are second careers, changing life personality patterns as one
develops on the job, and adjusting to retirement.

Lifestyle
Stress, or the internal sense that one's resources to cope with demands will soon be depleted, is
present in all age groups, although it seems to be unavoidable during middle age. Middle adults are
faced with stressors, such as the challenges of raising a family, paying their mortgages, facing
layoffs at the office, learning to use technology that is continually changing, or dealing with chronic
health ailments.

All stressful events need not be negative (Distressors), however. Psychiatrists Holmes and Rahe note
that positive events (Eustressors), such as marriage, vacations, holidays, and winning the lottery, can

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be just stressful as negative ones. They also indicated that the higher a person's stress levels,
including the number of good or bad stresses being experienced, the more likely that person is to
develop an illness within two years.

Resistance to stress, known as hardiness, varies from person to person. Hardiness is probably due to
a combination of a person's cognitive appraisal, or interpretation, of the stresses, the degree to which
he or she feels in control of the stresses, and his or her personality type and behavioral patterns. Some
people, such as easy-going type B's, seem less bothered by stress and are thus better equipped
physically to handle both negative and positive stresses than are other personality types, such as type
A's, or more anxious people.

Most everyone considers death during middle age as being a premature occurrence. Even so, the
death rate doubles during each decade after 35, and unlike death in adolescence and young adulthood,
death during middle adulthood is more often the result of natural causes than accidents.
Socioeconomic status and race also have an impact on health and death. Typically, less educated,
urban, and poorer minorities have the worst health, frequently due to limited access to necessary
medical care. The death rate for middle‐aged black Americans is nearly twice that of their white
counterparts.

Perhaps the place where stress is most keenly felt during middle age is at work. Middle adults may
feel that their competence is in question because of their age, or middle adults may feel pressured to
compete with younger workers. Research indicates that age has less to do with predicting job success
than do tests of physical and mental abilities.

The most common sources of stress in the workplace include forced career changes, lack of expected
progress (including promotions and raises), lack of creative input into decision making, monotonous
work, lack of challenging work, inadequate pay, feelings of being underutilized, unclear procedures
and job descriptions, conflicts with the boss or supervisor, lack of quality vacation
time, workaholism (addiction to work), and sexual harassment.

Long‐term job stress can eventually result in burnout, a state of mental exhaustion characterized by
feelings of helplessness and loss of control, as well as the inability to cope with or complete assigned
work. Short of resigning, interventions to prevent burnout include using standard stress‐ reduction
techniques, such as meditation or exercise, and taking longer breaks at work and longer vacations
from work.

Most middle adults can be categorized as either successful in a stable career chosen during young
adulthood or ready for a new career. Career changes are sometimes the result of revaluation, or
a midcareer reassessment, which can certainly be stressful. Such re-examination of one's vocation
can come about for many reasons, such as feeling trapped in a career or even wanting to make more
money. One recent trend, however, is for middle adults to leave high‐paying professions to take on
more humanitarian roles, such as ministers, social workers, or counsellors.

The greatest source of job stress is unemployment, especially when termination comes suddenly.
Besides wrestling with issues of self‐esteem, unemployed workers must also deal with the financial
hardship brought about by loss of income. As may be expected, unemployed persons who have
alternative financial resources and who also cognitively reframe their situations tend to cope better
than those who do not.

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Parenting
The decision to become a parent should not be taken lightly. There are positives and negatives
associated with parenting that should be considered. Many parents report that having children
increases their well-being (White & Dolan, 2009). Researchers have also found that parents,
compared to their non-parent peers, are more positive about their lives (Nelson, Kushlev, English,
Dunn, & Lyubomirsky, 2013). On the other hand, researchers have also found that parents, compared
to non-parents, are more likely to be depressed, report lower levels of marital quality, and feel like
their relationship with their partner is more business-like than intimate (Walker, 2011).

If you do become a parent, your parenting style will impact your child’s future success in romantic
and parenting relationships. Recall from the module on early childhood that there are several
different parenting styles. Authoritative parenting, arguably the best parenting style, is both
demanding and supportive of the child (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Support refers to the amount of
affection, acceptance, and warmth a parent provides. Demandingness refers to the degree a parent
controls their child’s behavior. Children who have authoritative parents are generally happy, capable,
and successful (Maccoby, 1992).

Other, less advantageous parenting styles include authoritarian (in contrast to authoritative),
permissive, and uninvolved (Tavassolie, Dudding, Madigan, Thorvardarson, & Winsler,
2016). Authoritarian parents are low in support and high in demandingness. Arguably, this is the
parenting style used by Harry Potter’s harsh aunt and uncle, and Cinderella’s vindictive stepmother.

Children who receive authoritarian parenting are more likely to be obedient and proficient but score
lower in happiness, social competence, and self-esteem. Permissive parents are high in support and
low in demandingness. Their children rank low in happiness and self-regulation and are more likely
to have problems with authority. Uninvolved parents are low in both support and demandingness.
Children of these parents tend to rank lowest across all life domains, lack self-control, have low self-
esteem, and are less competent than their peers.

Parenting may or may not form part of adulthood. Those that do have children often report improved
relationships once the children have left home provided that they remain in contact with the
children. Those that do not have children tend to spend more time involved in companionate
activities with one another.

Most parents believe quite sincerely that their responsibility is to raise their children, to take an active
part in guiding them, or perhaps in steering them, on their way to becoming mature adults. This role
may be an easy or difficult job. Even more than the husband-wife relationship, the parent-child
relationship has this serious factor of interpersonal manipulation seemingly built into it, as though
part of the job description of mother or father.

Single Parenting
In many cases okay, most cases people are single parents because it is their best or only option. As
adolescents we thought we would all live happily ever after with our mate. In today’s world this is
not necessarily true. Many people are now single parents. It is a new way of being a family that
wasn’t so common 40 years ago. Despite what you hear in the media, single parenting is not all bad
news not at all. If the two parents, can manage to sort out the difficult issues of money, childcare, and
their relationship (if any) - single parenting can be a joy. You can gain an increased closeness with
your kid, plus the increased sense of control or the opportunity to parent from your own vision. It
may also be the best thing for the child.

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4.4 COGNITIVE, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTHOOD

Cognition changes over a person’s lifespan, peaking at around age 35 and slowly declining in later
adulthood. Because we spend so many years in adulthood (more than any other stage), cognitive
changes are numerous during this period. In fact, research suggests that adult cognitive development
is a complex, ever-changing process that may be even more active than cognitive development in
infancy and early childhood (Fischer, Yan, & Stewart, 2003).

Unlike our physical abilities, which peak in our mid-20s and then begin a slow decline, our cognitive
abilities remain relatively steady throughout early and middle adulthood. Research has found that
adults who engage in mentally and physically stimulating activities experience less cognitive decline
in later adult years and have a reduced incidence of mild cognitive impairment and dementia.

According to Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the establishment of formal operational
thinking occurs during early adolescence and continues through adulthood. Unlike earlier concrete
thinking, this kind of thinking is characterized by the ability to think in abstract ways, engage in
deductive reasoning, and create hypothetical ideas to explain various concepts.

Since Piaget’s theory, other developmental psychologists have suggested a fifth stage of cognitive
development, known as postformal operational thinking (Basseches, 1984; Commons & Bresette,
2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and
circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on
contexts. This kind of thinking includes the ability to think in dialectics and differentiates between
the ways in which adults and adolescents are able to cognitively handle emotionally charged
situations.

During early adulthood, cognition begins to stabilize, reaching a peak around the age of 35. Early
adulthood is a time of relativistic thinking, in which young people begin to become aware of more
than simplistic views of right vs. wrong. They begin to look at ideas and concepts from multiple
angles and understand that a question can have more than one right (or wrong) answer. The need for
specialization results in pragmatic thinking using logic to solve real-world problems while accepting
contradiction, imperfection, and other issues. Finally, young adults develop a sort of expertise in
either education or career, which further enhances problem-solving skills and the capacity for
creativity.

Two forms of intelligence crystallized and fluid are the main focus of middle adulthood.
Our crystallized intelligence is dependent upon accumulated knowledge and experience it is the
information, skills, and strategies we have gathered throughout our lifetime. This kind of intelligence
tends to hold steady as we age in fact, it may even improve. For example, adults show relatively
stable to increasing scores on intelligence tests until their mid-30s to mid-50s (Bayley & Oden,
1955). Fluid intelligence, on the other hand, is more dependent on basic information-processing skills
and starts to decline even prior to middle adulthood. Cognitive processing speed slows down during
this stage of life, as does the ability to solve problems and divide attention.
However, practical problem-solving skills tend to increase. These skills are necessary to solve real-
world problems and figure out how to best achieve a desired goal.

Emotional development in adulthood

Emotion regulation skills appear to increase during adulthood. Older adults report fewer negative
emotions as well as more emotional stability and well-being than younger people. Older adults may
also be savvier at navigating interpersonal disagreements than younger people. They may pay

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more attention to the good and less attention to the bad and when they experience a negative emotion,
they may be able to recover more quickly than younger people.

Thus, at first glance, there seems to be an emotional “mellowing out” with maturity and an increased
and potentially deliberate ability to see the world through rose-colored glasses. Given these data, it is
interesting to learn that older adults may react with stronger emotions than younger people in some
situations.

Indeed, bad events may hit older adults harder than younger ones. In studies in which researchers try
to create a negative mood in their participants, older adults can react with stronger emotions than
younger people. This is particularly true if the investigators use negative stimuli that are relevant to
older adults, such as stimuli about loss or injustice. In my research, we find that older adults react to
films about loss with greater negativity than younger adults.

A recent study by Streubel and Kunzmann (2011) suggests that emotional arousal is a factor that
needs more attention in aging research. That is, a focus on positive and negative emotions and aging
may be too limited; rather a focus on the strength of emotions also is needed. In circumstances in
which strong emotions are aroused, older adults may not be able to regulate their emotions as well as
younger people. Indeed, in our data, where we see older adults reacting with stronger negative
emotions than younger ones, the films are very powerful and highly relevant to older people.

Changes in emotions with age are complex. Older adulthood is not simply a time of emotional well-
being and tranquillity. Strong emotions exist and reactions to important life events may increase with
age, rather than diminish. More research along these lines is needed for practitioners to learn how to
help older adults navigate emotionally powerful events in their lives.

Moral development in adulthood

Principled Conscience – This stage is the last stage and emerges in young adulthood. Unfortunately,
only a minority of adults are expected to reach this stage of moral development. Individuals in this
stage prioritize respect for individual human rights, which leads them to support systems that protect
human rights. Their primary motivation is to make choices based on the principle of respect for all
human beings and to show respect and dignity to everyone they encounter, not just family, friends, or
neighbours.

4.5 INTERESTS AND SOURCES OF RECREATION IN ADULTHOOD

As most developed nations restrict the number of hours an employer can demand that an employee
work per week, and require employers to offer paid vacation time, what do middle aged adults do
with their time off from work and duties, referred to as leisure? Around the world the most common
leisure activity in both early and middle adulthood is watching television (Marketing Charts Staff,
2014). On average, middle aged adults spend 2-3 hours per day watching TV (Gripsrud, 2007) and
watching TV accounts for more than half of all the leisure time.

There are hundreds of different ways that you can get up and get active today. Here is some fun,
productive and beneficial activities with proven benefits for both your physical and mental wellbeing.
1. Tai chi
The ancient art of Tai Chi is a useful source of exercise for people of all ages. Sometimes referred to
as “meditation in motion,” Tai Chi blends lightly strenuous exercise with stretching and mindfulness.
This practice is particularly useful as we get older. Tai Chi improves balance, flexibility and overall
fitness levels. Many practitioners of Tai Chi believe it’s also helpful to reduce pain, and some believe

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it can even reduce symptoms associated with depression. Studies have shown that Tai Chi reduces
the risk of falls for older adult practitioners by as much as 45%.
There are Tai Chi centers throughout the country that offer beginner classes in Tai Chi. You can find
a center in your area here.

2. Swimming
Another low impact source of exercise is swimming. While swimming is fun and enjoyable for just
about anybody, there are even more profound reasons for older people to head to the pool for a
dip. Swimming has been shown to ease arthritis symptoms, reduce knee, ankle and joint pain and
even reduce high blood pressure.

Plus, swimming is extremely refreshing on a hot day, and by its very nature, it eliminates the risk of
heat exhaustion or heat stroke while exercising. Almost every town in America has a swimming pool
you can access. Many gyms, health, and community centers also have pools available.

3. Walking & hiking

One of the best ways to remain active while also enjoying the great outdoors is walking or hiking. Dr.
Michael Pratt, a chief medical advisor to the CDC, suggests that walking and hiking has “very real
benefits for maintaining mobility and independence in older adults.”

It’s also a great way to take in the great outdoors. While walking is an activity that nearly anyone can
engage in right now, be sure to discuss the prospect of hiking with your doctor before hitting the
trails.

4. Gardening
Gardening is a fun and enriching activity that has plenty of cognitive and physical benefits.
Gardening can be a great way to learn new skills and regain skills you may have lost. It also helps to
improve memory and attention span while reducing stress and promoting feelings of calm and
relaxation.

Gardening also helps to foster a sense of accomplishment, as well. Perhaps best of all are the tangible
benefits of gardening. By gardening, you’re increasing the beauty of your environment.

Depending on what you decide to grow, you may even be putting food on the table in the process!
Plus, it’s an activity you can begin right away. All you’ll need to start a garden is a plot of land and
some seeds from your local home store.

5. Board games
Board games are a fun and enjoyable activity and are a great way for those of us who can’t engage in
physical activity to remain active. There’s also plenty of evidence that suggests that board games
help to prevent against dementia and cognitive decline.

Engaging in a board game is also a great way to socialize, either with friends and family members or
with complete strangers. Many of us already have everything we’ll need to get started collecting dust
in a closet. But, if you don’t have any games yet, you’ll find a wide variety of games at local stores or
online.
6. Yoga
Few things are more beneficial to the human body than yoga. Best of all, it’s not just an activity for
the young and fit. There are tons of yoga poses and practices you can incorporate into your exercise
routine regardless of how old you are. When it comes to yoga, there is such a wide range of physical
and mental benefits.

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Practicing yoga can help minimize hypertension, strengthen bones, increase balance and poise, build
strength, and reduce anxiety, just to name a few. As for practicing yoga, there are studios throughout
the country where you can practice yoga with others in a controlled environment. Many studios even
offer classes for those 55 and up.

Yoga practice isn’t limited to a studio, either. There are plenty of online classes or DVDs you can
pick up today that will allow you to create a yoga routine from the comfort of your own home.

7. Painting & drawing

Painting and drawing are another low impact activity you may want to consider incorporating into
your daily life. Not only is painting and drawing lots of fun, but there are a ton of other benefits that
you’ll enjoy if you take up the hobby. Painting and drawing help to improve fine motor skills while
increasing brain activity, concentration and mental health in general.

Many people swear by the type of therapy they experience that only art can provide. Are you
thinking about taking up art as a hobby? The good news is all you need is a pencil and paper! If you
feel like you’re in need of some more advanced tools, you’ll be able to find everything you need at
the local craft or art supply store.

8. Group trips
One of the most beautiful things about getting older is having more time to enjoy the things you love.
If you’ve always wanted to travel and see the world, now is a great time to start. Group trips are a
great way to enjoy the world as you connect with others in a social setting.
Many travel agencies specialize in planning trips for people who are 55 and older, and they can pair
you with an enthusiastic group of people that are just as ready to enjoy the rest of the world as you
are. Before you travel, there are a few things you may want to consider to make sure that
you’re traveling safely.

9. Birdwatching
Another engaging activity that’s extremely popular is birdwatching. Birdwatching helps to exercise
both your body and your mind, and it can be a great way to get up and get active. Plus, it’s one of the
most affordable activities there are.
All you’ll need to become a successful birdwatcher is a field guide and perhaps a pair of binoculars.

10. Scrapbooking & collages

Scrapbooking is another great activity that’s particularly popular among those 55 and older. It’s a
great way to connect with the past while enjoying the present. There are also many therapeutic
benefits associated with scrapbooking.
Scrapbooking helps to improve memory function while stimulating the mind, it’s also a great way to
relax, which can help to lower blood pressure as well. Scrapbooking is a self-esteem booster, and it
can also be a great way to communicate with others. Here are some fun ideas for getting started with
scrapbooking.

11. Playing an instrument

If you’re like most people, you’ve spent your entire life enjoying music. But you may be unaware of
the benefits that playing an instrument has, especially if you get older. Playing an instrument is a
great way to improve cognitive function and coordination, and it also has a positive impact on our
ability to hear and process speech.
Plus, according to The Hearing Journal, learning an instrument later in life improves our ability to
process and retain information.

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12. Cooking & baking
There’s a good chance you’ve been engaged in cooking and baking for many years. But, did you
know that cooking and baking have a strong positive effect on our mental health? Cooking helps to
stimulate our senses, it makes us (and others) happy, and it can also be a great creative outlet. If
you’re looking for a new activity to engage in, you might want to consider diving into an activity
you’ve known your entire life and head for the kitchen!

13. Knitting & crocheting

There’s a reason why these are such popular activities; Knitting and crocheting are therapeutic!
Knitting is a great way to keep your fingers dexterous as you get older. They are also a fantastic
creative outlet, and a fun way to blow off stress.
If you’re looking for an activity that will lend a sense of purpose, knitting and crocheting may be the
answer. There are tons of charitable organizations that you can help right now by knitting or
crocheting.

4.6 CHALLENGES IN MIDDLE AGE- PHYSICAL CHANGES AND ITS IMPACT

Adulthood is the time when most of us encounter death for the first time, marriage, divorce, second
families, and career changes and so on. As such, there are many challenges to be met.
The transition from adolescence to adulthood is a major developmental challenge for everyone.
While it is often successful, it sometimes fails or threatens to fail – particularly in young people with
mental illness.

Although no longer at the peak level of their young adult years, middle‐aged adults still report good
health and physical functioning, However, as a result of the passage of time, middle adults undergo
various physical changes. Decades of exposure and use take their toll on the body as wrinkles
develop, organs no longer function as efficiently as they once did, and lung and heart capacities
decrease.

Other changes include decreases in strength, coordination, reaction time, sensation (sight, hearing,
taste, smell, touch), and fine motor skills. Also common among middle adults are the conditions
of presbyopia (farsightedness or difficulty reading) and presbycusis (difficulty hearing high‐pitched
sounds). Still, none of these changes is usually so dramatic that the middle adult cannot compensate
by wearing glasses to read, taking greater care when engaging in complex motor tasks, driving more
carefully, or slowing down at the gym. Of course, people age at different rates, so some 40-year olds
may feel middle‐aged long before their 50‐year‐old counterparts. Most people, however, describe
feeling that they have reached midlife by their mid‐50s.

The biopsychosocial changes that accompany midlife specifically, menopause (the cessation of
menstruation) in women and the male climacteric (male menopause) in men appear to be major
turning points in terms of the decline that eventually typifies older adulthood. None of the biological
declines of middle and late adulthood needs to be an obstacle to enjoying all aspects of life, including
sex. For example, too often society has erroneously determined that menopause inevitably means the
end of female sexuality.

However, while menopause gives rise to uncomfortable symptoms, such as hot flashes, headaches,
irritability, dizziness, and swelling in parts of the body, post‐menopausal women frequently report
improved sexual enjoyment and desire, perhaps because they no longer worry about menstruation
and pregnancy. For these same reasons, women who have undergone a hysterectomy, or surgical
removal of the uterus, frequently report improved sexual response.

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Men also experience biological changes as they age, although none is as distinct and pronounced as
female menopause. Testosterone production lessens, which creates physical symptoms, such as
weakness, poor appetite, and inability to focus on specific tasks for extended periods. However, this
reduction in testosterone does not fully explain the psychological symptoms of anxiety and
depression that may accompany middle adulthood, indicating that the male climacteric probably has
more to do with emotional rather than physical events. During middle age, men are faced with the
realization that they are no longer 20 years old and that they are not going to accomplish all they
wanted to in life.

They may also feel less sexually attractive and appealing, as they discover that seemingly overnight,
they have gained extra weight around the waist, are balding, and are feeling less energetic than they
used to.
Because of society's emphasis on youthfulness and physical appearances, middle‐aged men and
women may sometimes suffer from diminished self‐esteem. Women, for instance, experience the
American double standard of aging: Men who are graying are perceived as distinguished, mature,
and sexy, while women who are graying are viewed as being over the hill or past their prime. This
double standard, coupled with actual physical changes and decline, does little to help middle adults
avoid a midlife crisis.

4.7 PREPARATION FOR OLD AGE AND RETIREMENT

It’s one of the last taboo subjects of modern society. Everyone’s aware of it, everyone knows it will
happen one day but even now it’s still one of those topics that dare not mention its name. Old age is a
period of decline in physical strength and social participation. It is not welcomed unlike other phases
of life. The adjustment of older people is often poor. The problems of old age stem from disability,
diseases, dependence and death.

Be organized
It’s not nice to think about but one day a loved one may have to come in and make decisions about
your care for you. Try to make things easy for them by being organized. Make sure all your financial
documents and plans are in one place. With them keep a clear list of everything coming in and out of
your household finances, any savings or investments you have, any properties you own and any debts
you might have. Knowing exactly what your finances are will be invaluable in sorting your care for
you.

Make a will
If the worst happens and you die without making a will (called dying intestate) then the law gets to
specify how your money will be divided. That means your assets might not necessarily go to those
you want them to after you’re gone. If you want to stay in control and decide who gets what then a
will is a must. While it’s possible to draw one up yourself, even a tiny, technical mistake can
invalidate it so it’s always a clever idea to get it done professionally, however it’s worth noting any
will you draw up now might be invalid if you marry/re-marry so make sure you keep it up to date by
checking it every five years or so and possibly redrafting it.

Have a what if… meeting

Just because you’ve decided to tackle your old age head on it doesn’t mean your family will be happy
to; they may think you’re being morbid or worrying about nothing but it is important you have a what
if… conversation with your nearest and dearest letting them know exactly what your wishes would be
if you became incapacitated or died.

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Make a living will
Holding a What If… meeting with your family segues nicely into the next point; living wills.
A living will is a document in which you express how you’d want to be treated in different situations
in case the time comes when you can’t make your desires known.

Organize your power of attorney

If you think you might one day need someone with the power of attorney for you then you should set
it up well in advance of when you might need it as you won’t be able to if you’re deemed not to have
‘sufficient mental capacity’ (the legal ability to make decisions for yourself). Power of attorney
doesn’t have to be expensive to set up but if a loved one is forced to handle your financial affairs
without it, it will be an even more expensive and complicated process for them.

Set a pension up now

A lot of people resent paying into a scheme for over forty years before they see any benefit from it,
particularly with the bad press some pension companies have had recently but it’s important for you
to set up a private pension.

Most financial experts state to maintain your standard of living after retirement you’ll need at least
70% of your pre-retirement salary; a figure which rises to 90% for those from lower earning
households. With that in mind it’s important to start paying in to a private pension as early as
possible and where possible keep a separate savings account for after your retirement that you pay
into regularly and that earns as much interest as possible for you.

Pay off all your debts before you retire

It may sound like an obvious point but after retirement, unless you’re super prepared, your ability to
pay off debts will be vastly reduced compared to when you were working. With that in mind make
sure you clear as many as possible while you can. They can also cause problems down the line if
you’re trying to get into a care home, but debt collection agencies are chasing you for your assets.

Plan a budget
A good idea when considering the financial implications of retiring is to make a retirement budget.
What do you plan to be doing? Will you be taking up any new hobbies? How expensive are they
likely to be on a monthly basis? Do you have a bucket list you want to work through? Calculating
how much you’ll need on a monthly and annual basis for retirement will make a multitude of other
decisions you must make easier.

Keep working
While retirement ages are always a hot topic for older voters there’s nothing to say you have to retire
at the age of 60 or 65; in fact, that decision could be completely wrong for you.
Obviously, the main question you need to consider is if you can afford to retire but there are many
other factors to consider before you make that choice, not the least of which being are you mentally
prepared to retire? While the thought of not having to get up for work every morning is enticing, it
can leave some people angry or depressed with literally no reason to get up in the morning. When
planning for retirement make sure you’ve thought about how you’ll fill your days. Will you be taking
up a hobby? That’s great, but ask yourself; does it have to wait till you retire?
Stay healthy
While the majority of the advice discussed so far has centered around your finances, they’re by no
means the only thing you need to consider. Looking after yourself by losing weight, quitting
smoking, only drinking in moderation and generally staying active will not only mean you live longer
to enjoy all your financial planning, you’ll also increase the amount of time you can remain
independent and able.

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Make friends
That might come across as a bit of a facetious statement but it’s surprising how many peoples
extended social networks resolve around either family or work or both. As you get older work friends
may drift as you lose touch with them on a day to day basis and family might move away or pass on
themselves. If you don’t have a wide network of friends, you could be setting yourself up for
isolation in your old age. Try to take stock of who you know and who you can stay in touch with
easily after you retire and extend your range of social activities to widen your social circles.

Stay mentally active

It’s not just your physical health you need to look after either. Keeping mentally alert has a range of
proven benefits from staving off depression to delaying/slowing down the onset of dementia.

You can’t control everything

Finally, you can’t control everything. People get old; it’s an inalienable fact of life and will happen to
you. Plan for what you can and then just relax and enjoy your senior years; after all you’ve earnt it!
For years, many people have looked forward to their retirement, when they can stop working and relax.
Instead of respite, however, many of today's retirees are starting to find their golden years fraught with
financial difficulties and emotional woes.

Today's retirees can expect to be considerably more on their own than their parent's generation was.
"For people near their retirement, in their late 50s and 60s, it's probably not such a radical change from
what their parents had," Hush beck explains. "The younger boomers and the people behind them face a
radically different sort of environment."

4.8 SUMMARY

As we age, our bodies change in physical ways. One can expect a variety of changes to take place
through the early- and middle-adult years. Each person experiences age-related changes based on
many factors: biological factors such as molecular and cellular changes are called primary aging,
while aging that occurs due to controllable factors, such as lack of physical exercise and poor diet, is
called secondary aging.

Growing up can certainly be taxing; but actually, having to act grown up is even more so. Life
becomes more challenging and more complicated as a young adult because there is so much change
to contend with that is suddenly upsetting and resetting the terms of their existence.

As parents and mentors, it's vital to see ourselves not as static role models but as imperfect human
beings, continually developing, in our dynamic relationships with our children, our own moral and
mentoring capacities. The subtleties of appreciating and being generous with others, acting with
fairness and integrity, and formulating mature and resilient ideals are a life's work: "There is nothing
noble in being superior to someone else," the civil rights leader Whitney Young said. "The only real
nobility is in being superior to your former self."

The transition from adolescence to adulthood represents a major developmental challenge for every-
one; while it often succeeds, it sometimes fails or threatens to fail. As adolescence and young
adulthood represent a particularly vulnerable period for the development and chronification of mental
disorders, the best possible care needs to be ensured for these age groups. The necessary transition
from adolescent-centred to adult-oriented care represents an additional challenge as regards
development related aspects.

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The psychiatric help system is faced with the challenge of organising this transition in an optimal
manner and supporting the adolescents in solving related problems. At present, however, in many
areas there are still considerable problems at the interface between the different segments of care in
childhood, adolescence and adulthood, resulting in higher treatment discontinuation rates, treatment
disruptions and other factors that have a negative impact on the course and prognosis.

4.9 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Explain the characteristics of adulthood.

2. Write a note on issues in adulthood-marriage.
3. Write a note on issues in adulthood – Family.
4. Write a note on issues in adulthood – Career.
5. Write a note on issues in adulthood -Life styles.
6. Write a note on issues in adulthood – Parenting.
7. Write a note on cognitive development in adulthood.
8. Write a note on emotional development in adulthood.
9. Write a note on moral development in adulthood.
10. Write a note on interest and sources of recreation in adulthood.
11. Write a note on Challenges in middle age – physical changes and its impact.

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 MODULE-V
OLD AGE

STRUCTURE

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Characteristics of old age
5.3 Developmental tasks
5.4 Physical changes; Psychological changes
5.4.1Psychological changes
5.4.2 Depression
5.4.3 Memory problems or Amnesia
5.4.4 Dementia
5.4.5 Sleep related disorders
5.4.6 Alzheimer’s disease
5.4.7 Adjustment to self, Retirement , Family & Singleness
5.4.8 Hazards of old age
5.4.9 Biological & Social theories of aging
5.4.10 Biological theory
5.4.11 Social theory
5.4.12 Defining death & issues related to it, death anxiety
5.4.13 The many faces of death
5.4.14 The morality revolution
5.4.15 Facing death & loss psychological issues
5.4.16 Pattern of Grieving
5.4.17 Death & bereavement across the life span
5.4.18 Childhood & Adolescence
5.5 Summary
5.6 Suggested Questions

OBJECTIVES:

• To understand the concept of aging and its physical and psychological changes.
• To learn how to overcome the death and anxiety related issues.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Old age, also called senescence, in human beings, the final stage of the normal life span. Definitions
of old age are not consistent from the standpoints of biology, demography (conditions of mortality
and morbidity), employment and retirement, and sociology. For statistical and public administrative
purposes, however, old age is frequently defined as 60 or 65 years of age or older.

Old age has a dual definition. It is the last stage in the life processes of an individual, and it is an age
group or generation comprising a segment of the oldest members of a population. The social aspects
of old age are influenced by the relationship of the physiological effects of aging and
the collective experiences and shared values of that generation to the particular organization of the
society in which it exists.

There is no universally accepted age that is considered old among or within societies. Often
discrepancies exist as to what age a society may consider old and what members in that society of
that age and older may consider old. Moreover, biologists are not in agreement about the existence of
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 an inherent biological cause for aging. However, in most contemporary Western countries, 60 or 65
is the age of eligibility for retirement and old-age social programs, although many countries and
societies regard old age as occurring anywhere from the mid-40s to the 70s.

When researchers at the Pew Research Center put this old age question and many others to nearly
3,000 adults, ranging in age from 18 to well over 65, the answers were revealing. Like many other
questions in life, the definition of old age depends on who you ask.

As explained in Growing Old in America: Expectations vs. Reality, the report based on the Pew
study, if you average all of the responses together the average answer is clear: Old age begins at 68.
On the other hand, the average response of adults under 30 is that old age begins at 60. More than
half of the adults in under 30 said that old age actually begins before people hit their 60th birthday.

5.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF OLD AGE

1. Old age is a period of decline - decline comes partly from physical and partly from psychological
factors. There is change in body cells due to the aging process. Unfavourable attitude towards one
self and life in general can lead to decline or become depressed and disorganized. Motivation plays a
very important role in decline.
2. There are individual differences in the effects of aging. People age differently because they have
different hereditary endowment, different socio economic and educational backgrounds and different
patterns of living. The general rule is physical aging precedes mental aging.
3. Old age is judged by different criteria - age is judged in terms of physical appearance and
activities. One who has white hair is labelled as old. There are many who try to cover up their aging
symptoms to create illusion that they are not yet old.
4. There are many stereotypes of old people - let it be the folklore, the media, poetry, fiction, jokes or
different forms of humour or scientific studies, all portray the aged as those who are worn out
physically and mentally, unproductive, accident - prone, hard to live, days of usefulness are over,
should be pushed aside to make way for younger people.
Poor adjustment is characteristic of old age - Because of the unfavourable social attitudes towards
the elderly that are reflected in the way the social group treat them, it is not surprising that many
elderly people develop unfavourable self-concepts. These tend to be expressed in maladjusting
behavior of different degree of severity.

5.3 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Old age has often been characterized as a period of loss and decline. However, development in any
period of life consists of both gains and losses, although the gain-loss ratio becomes increasingly
negative with advancing age (Heckhausen, Dixon, and Baltes, 1989; Baltes, 1987). A central
developmental task that characterizes the transition into old age is adjustment to retirement. The
period after retirement has to be filled with new projects but is characterized by few valid cultural
guidelines. Adaptation to retirement involves both potential gains (e.g., self-actualization) and losses
(e.g., loss of self-esteem). The achievement of this task may be obstructed by the management of
another task, living on a reduced income after retirement.

The period of old age begins at the age of sixty. At this age most individuals retire from their jobs
formally. They begin to develop some concern and occasional anxiety over their physical and
psychological health. In our society, the elderly is typically perceived as not so active, deteriorating
intellectually, becoming narrowminded and attaching new significance to religion and so on. Many of
the old people lose their spouses and because of which they may suffer from emotional insecurity.

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 ‘Nobody has ever died of old age’, is a true statement. Since old age is close to the end point of life,
death has been associated with old age.

Death is actually caused by disease, pollution, stress, and other factors acting on the body. In the
biological sense, some organs and systems of the body may start deteriorating. In the psychological
sense, there may be measurable changes in the cognitive and perceptual abilities. There are also
changes in the way a person feels about him/ herself. You must have come across old people who are
very active in life and socially very participative. Such persons seem to be productive, stable and
happy.

Mental or physical decline does not necessarily have to occur. Persons can remain vigorous, active,
and dignified until their eighties or even nineties. In fact, the older persons have vast reservoir of
knowledge, experience, and wisdom on which the community can draw. In view of increase in life
expectancy increasingly greater proportion of society is joining the group of aged people. Hence they
need greater participation in national planning and make them feel as an integral part of society.

Old age has often been characterised as a period of loss and decline. However, development in any
period of life consists of both gains and losses, although the gain-loss ratio becomes increasingly
negative with advancing age (Heckhausen, Dixon, and Baltes, 1989; Baltes, 1987). The fact that man
learns his way through life is made radically clear by consideration of the learning tasks of older
people. They still have new experiences ahead of them, and new situations to meet. At age sixty-five
when a man often retires from his occupation, his changes are better than even of living another ten
years. During this time the man or his wife very likely will experience several of the following (i)
decreased income, (ii) moving to a smaller house, (iii) loss of spouse by death,(iv) a crippling illness
or accident,(v) a turn in the business cycle with a (vi) consequent change of the cost of living. After
any of these events the situation may be so changed that the old person has to learn new ways of
living.

The developmental tasks of later maturity differ in only one fundamental respect from those of other
ages. They involve more of a defensive strategy that is of holding on the life rather than of seizing
more of it. In the physical, mental and economic spheres the limitations become especially evident.
The older person must work hard to hold onto what he already has. In the social sphere there is a fair
chance of offsetting the narrowing of certain social contacts and interests by the broadening of others.
In the spiritual sphere there is perhaps no necessary shrinking of the boundaries, and perhaps there is
even a widening of them. Havighurst forward the following developmental tasks for this view.

1. Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health: Physical strength begins to decline from age 30
to age 80 and above. Most weakening occurs in the back and leg muscles, less in the arm muscles.
There is a progressive decline in energy production. Bones become increasingly brittle and tend to
break easily. Calcium deposits and disease of the joints increase with age. Muscle tissue decreases in
size and strength. Muscle tone becomes increasingly difficult to maintain with age because of an
increase in fatty substance within the muscle fibres.

This is often caused by the relative inactive role thrust on the elderly in our society. Exercise can help
maintain power and sometimes even restore strength to the unused muscles. Changes in the general
posture become more evident in old age. It has been found that the organ systems of most persons
show a 0.8 to 1 percent decline per year in functional ability after the age of 30. Some of this decline
is normal, some is disease related and some are caused by factors such as stress, occupational status,
nutritional status and various environmental factors.

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2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income: Retirement requires adjustment to a new life-style
characterised by decreased income, lesser activity level, and increased free time. Retirement causes
extreme stress in males because in our society a significant part of men’s identity depends on their
jobs. Loss of job thus results in loss of self-esteem and self-worth. Retired people find it difficult to
adjust to retirement because of financial problems, illness, and feelings of loneliness, and suddenly
finding that time hangs and they do not know how to spend their time.

Retired individuals have to make several adjustments in their roles, personal and social associations,
and in their sense of accomplishment and productivity. However, it does not necessarily mean that
retirement results in negative consequences for every person. Individual’s personal attitude toward
retirement varies as a function of a number of factors such as income, educational level, and
occupational level. In case of some, it may not have any adverse effects on their self-esteem and life
satisfaction. Health may even improve for some after retirement. Retired individuals may find more
time for social and hobby-related activities especially if they have adequate economic resources and
are healthy to engage in these activities.

3. Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group: Social convoy is a cluster of family
members and friends who provide safety and support. Some bonds become closer with age, others
more distant, a few are gained, and some drift away. Elders do try to maintain social networks of
family and friends to preserve security and life continuity.

4. Meeting social and civic obligations: Other potential gains in old age relate to the task of meeting
social and civic obligations. For example, older people might accumulate knowledge about life
(Baltes and Staudings, 2000) and thus may contribute to the development of younger people and the
society.

5. Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements: The principal values that older people look for
in housing are: (i) quiet, (ii) privacy, (iii) independence of action, (iv) nearness to relatives and
friends, (v) residence among own cultural group, (vi) cheapness, (vii) closeness to transportation
lines and communal institutions libraries, shops, movies, churches, etc.

5.4 PHYSICAL CHANGES; PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES

The physical changes in the body are often the most apparent as you age. Wrinkles are a classic sign
of aging, although people actually develop wrinkles all throughout life. Older skin is less elastic and
thinner and is therefore more prone to developing wrinkles.

The heart also gets slower with age. It’s important to maintain good cardiovascular health as one get
older, because your ticker needs more attention than ever. Going on daily walks and sticking to a diet
full of fruits and vegetables are good steps to keep your heart pumping as it should.

Daniel Levinson depicts the late adulthood period as those years that encompass age 65 and beyond.
Other developmental psychologists further divide later adulthood into young‐old (ages 65–85)
and old‐old (ages 85 and beyond) stages.

Today, 13 percent of the population is over the age of 65, compared with 3 percent at the beginning
of this century. This dramatic increase in the demographics of older adulthood has given rise to the
discipline of gerontology, or the study of old age and aging. Gerontologists are particularly
interested in confronting ageism, or prejudice and discrimination against older adults.

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Aging inevitably means physical decline, some of which may be due to lifestyle, such as poor diet
and lack of exercise, rather than illness or the aging process. Energy reserves dwindle. Cells decay.
Muscle mass decreases. The immune system is no longer as capable as it once was in guarding
against disease. Body systems and organs, such as the heart and lungs, become less efficient. Overall,
regardless of people's best hopes and efforts, aging translates into decline.

Even so, the speed at which people age, as well as how aging affects their outlook on life, varies from
person to person. In older adulthood, people experience both gains and losses. For instance, while
energy is lost, the ability to conserve energy is gained. Age also brings understanding, patience,
experience, and wisdom qualities that improve life regardless of the physical changes that may occur.
Aging in late adulthood profoundly affects appearance, sensation, and motor abilities.

An older adult's appearance changes as wrinkles appear and the skin becomes less elastic and thin.
Small blood vessels break beneath the surface of the skin, and warts, skin tags, and age spots (liver
spots) may form on the body. Hair thins and turns grey as melanin decreases, and height lessens
perhaps by an inch or two as bone density decreases. The double standard of aging applies to men
and women in older adulthood just as it did in middle adulthood. Older men may still be seen as
distinguished, while older women are labelled as grandmotherly, over the hill, and past the prime of
life.

During late adulthood, the senses begin to dull. With age, the lenses of the eye discolour and become
rigid, interfering with the perception of colour and distance and the ability to read. Without corrective
glasses, nearly half the elderly population would be legally blind. Hearing also diminishes, especially
the ability to detect high‐pitched sounds. As a result, the elderly may develop suspiciousness or even
a mild form of paranoia unfounded distrustfulness in response to not being able to hear well. They
may attribute bad intentions to those whom they believe are whispering or talking about them, rather
than correctly attributing their problems to bad hearing. Hearing problems can be corrected with
hearing aids, which are widely available.

The sense of taste remains fairly intact into old age, even though the elderly may have difficulty
distinguishing tastes within blended foods. By old age, however, the sense of smell shows a marked
decline. Both of these declines in sensation may be due to medications, such as antihypertensives, as
well as physical changes associated with old age.

In addition to changes in appearance and the dulling of the senses, reflexes slow and fine motor
abilities continue to decrease with old age. By late adulthood, most adults have noticed a gradual
reduction in their response time to spontaneous events. This is especially true of older adults who
drive. While routine manoeuvres on familiar streets may pose fewer problems than novel driving
situations, older adults' reaction times eventually decline to the point that operating a vehicle is too
hazardous. However, many elderlies are hesitant to give up driving because the sacrifice would
represent the end of their personal autonomy and freedom.

Generally, older adult’s score lower overall on tests of manual dexterity than do younger adults.
Older adults may find that their fine motor skills and performance speed decrease in some areas but
not in others. For instance, an elderly lifelong pianist may continue to exhibit incredible finger
dexterity at the keyboard but may at the same time find that taking up needlepoint as a hobby is too
difficult.

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 5.4.1 PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES

As people age, they suffer from many problems that are both psychological and psychiatric and can
be treated with psychological therapies according to the DSM (diagnostic and statistical manual of
psychological disorders). Below are five major problems that are faced by elderly people.

5.4.2 DEPRESSION

Depression is a very general psychological problem and people of all walks and age of life suffer
from it. The effects and symptoms of depression may vary from person to person and can affect areas
of life such as work, sleep, appetite, general health and wellbeing.
Symptoms of depression:
 Feeling sad or struck by despair
 Lack of energy and motivation
 Loss of self-value and self-worth
 Weight loss or weight gain
 Loss of appetite
 Trouble with sleeping
 Suicidal thoughts
 Getting indulged in drugs and alcohol.
Depressed seniors do not necessarily feel sad, but they might complain about low motivation and a
lack of energy. Certain medical conditions can cause depression and anxiety as well. Certain
medications can cause depression as a side effect such as Blood Pressure Medication. Depression can
also exist side-by-side with dementia.

5.4.3 MEMORY PROBLEMS OR AMNESIA:

As the name of this disease is indicative of its circumstances, a person suffering from memory
amnesia lost parts or all of his memory. It’s not your plain everyday forgetfulness, instead complete
eradication of any or all events and relations.
Symptoms of Memory Amnesia:
 Some of the major symptoms of amnesia are:
 Memory loss
 Confusion
 Inability to recognize places and faces

Types of Memory Amnesia:

Amnesia can be of two major types, explained below
1. Anterograde amnesia
2. Retrograde amnesia
In anterograde amnesia, the ability to memorize new things is disabled/lost because the transference
of data from short-term memory to long-term memory is not successful.

Causes of Memory Amnesia:

Amnesia can be caused due to a number of reasons, such as organic and neurological reason, such as
a brain damage caused by some physical injury to the head. Or it can be caused functional or
psychogenic which include psychological factors such as PTSD.

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 5.4.4 DEMENTIA

Dementia is probably the most common disease of numerous types. It should be considered the
mother of all diseases. People suffering from dementia generally lose mental ability to function
normally in their daily life.
Symptoms of dementia:
Below are described some of the symptoms of dementia, for a detailed version read this:
 It includes short-term memory changes.
 Changes in mood
 Apathy
 Confusion
 A failing sense of direction

Causes of dementia:
Dementia can have a wide range of causes, but mainly it’s caused by the death of brain cells. Some of
these causes are explained here:
 It can be caused by some kind of tumour
 Infection
 Vitamin deficiency and/or lack of oxygen

Types of Dementia:
Some types of dementia are explained below:
 Vascular dementia
 Dementia with Lewy Bodies
 Mixed Dementia
 Parkinson’s Disease
 Frontotemporal Dementia
 Huntington’s Disease

5.4.5 SLEEP-RELATED DISORDERS

There are many sleep-related disorders to which the elderly more prone than the younger adults. The
major three are insomnia, sleep apnea etc.

Insomnia:
Insomnia is very common in the senior members of our society. Some symptoms of Insomnia include
taking more than 45 minutes to fall asleep, trouble in staying asleep, waking up early and night falls.
The primary cause of insomnia is stress and anxiety, in the elderly, it is mostly caused by either that
or irregular use of stimulants such as nicotine. It can also be caused due to polypharmacy, i.e. the
increased use of medications.

Sleep Apnea:
Sleep apnea is a sleeping disorder which is primarily inclusive of irregular breathing due to an
obstruction of the upper airway. The main causes are increased weight, age, enlarged tonsils and too
much smoking etc.

5.4.6 ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

Alzheimer’s disease is a kind of dementia in which patients get stuck to a particular memory and they
believe to be a part of it.

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Symptoms of Alzheimer’s
A person suffering from Alzheimer’s disease tends to lose his ability to rationalize events and
happening, forgets his own relations and the ability to communicate is fairly affected.

Causes of Alzheimer’s
Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease. And it involves shrinking of brain tissues.
Mostly Alzheimer’s is caused due to genetic mutation passed on to children from their parents. It can
be treated by psychological therapies and symptoms can be fairly reduced.

5.4.7 ADJUSTMENT TO SELF, RETIREMENT, FAMILY AND SINGLENESS

Everyone will grow old. Normal ageing brings about changes in the body and the mind, but many
symptoms are not normal and may be due to diseases, which can be treated or remedied. Therefore,
the elderly and carers should learn about normal ageing, so as to be prepared and to distinguish
between disease and normal ageing and seek proper and early treatment for diseases.

Self
It is generally accepted that as a person ages, his or her experiences acquired over their life time,
ways in dealing with the environment, economic and social resources, relationships, and support
systems can impact on his or her longevity and well-being profoundly. Moreover, as adults reach late
adulthood, they are more likely to be challenged with physical, mental, and social changes.
Furthermore, some authors suggested that older adults showed multiple attitudes toward aging.
Additionally, aging well involves the flexible use of adaptive strategies, to optimize personal
functioning and well-being within the constraints of personal competence and resources.

Retirement
The following points should be noted for better adjustment: -
1. Finance: It is important to plan well ahead for retirement. Once retired, income would stop or
drop, so do some expenses. Make the ends meet by cutting budget and making the best use of the
pension or savings. Take advantage of the discounts for the elderly.

In case of financial strain, be open-minded to accept help from family, friends or the government.
Avoid high-risk investments, high-interest loan or heavy gambling behaviours. Do not re-mortgage
the house for loan or turn it into a gift to anyone.

2. Health: Always practise healthy life styles, such as having regular exercise and balance diet. Do
not smoke or drink.
3. Family Life: Value and enjoy family life but avoid making extra demands on children. Similarly,
do not indulge family members, which may lead to their dependence and stress you out.
4. Marital Life: Cherish the opportunity to be with your spouse more often. Communicate positively
and strengthen the relationship. Be understanding to the changing needs of each other before and
after retirement. Respect and appreciate each other so as to enjoy a healthy and fulfilling life
together.
5. Social Life: Never isolate yourself. Maintain existing friendships. Make new friends and extend
your social network, such as by visiting Social Centres for the Elderly. Take the initiative to develop
quality relationships.
6. Leisure Time: Retirement can be your "second life". With better use of the additional spare time
to participate in health-enhancing leisure, sport, cultural activities or volunteer work, you can have a
rewarding retirement life with new defined meanings.

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 Family
Ageing can contribute to poor family relationships in a number of ways. Older people with care
requirements is predominantly looked after by their families. Longer life expectancies, coupled with
extended ageing-related illness or disability, can significantly prolong the care phase. This, in turn,
places significant mental, physical and financial burdens on older people, caregivers and extended
family members (Millward, 1998; Silverstein & Giarrusso, 2010). It also places older people living in
vulnerable situations at increased risk of violence and abuse.

Where there are health issues and family care is no longer appropriate or available, or end-of-life
decisions need to be made, relationships may become increasingly strained, particularly for families
with complex structures, poor communication skills or histories of relationship dysfunction. Family
disputes can affect interpersonal relationships far into the future, permeating burial arrangements,
estate devolution and family interactions. These disputes affect the wellbeing of individuals, families
and communities, and lead to increased costs to welfare and service systems.

Singleness
People without romantic partners are often stereotyped and stigmatized. But if you go by how they
really feel about their lives, rather than how other people assume they feel, the story of single life
looks very different. Over time, historically, single life gets better and better. And for individuals, as
they age, satisfaction with their single lives gets even better too. Maybe having a romantic partner
was once relevant to feelings of loneliness, but it is not so relevant anymore.

The routine, everyday life of single elders differs from that of other old people. On the basis of
interview date both about themselves and some aspects of the quality of their everyday lives, it is
proposed that single elders constitute a distinct type of social personality in old age. Interviews
provide subjective and methodological evidence to support this. The "normal", taken-for-granted
social world of single elders is: relatively isolated; but not perceived in terms of loneliness, at present
or anticipated; and considered an ordinary extension of their past. Death is conceived as "just
another" event of their ongoing experiences.

5.4.8 HAZARDS OF OLD AGE

In the older age, all body systems show decrements in physiological reserves. Degenerative process
starts in this age and complications and sequelae of chronic long-term diseases Eg, hypertension and
diabetes make their appearance. In the elderly multiple pathologies are often encountered. Common
disease conditions found in the elderly are: Parkinson's disease, depression, ischaemic heart disease,
chronic obstructive lung disease, tuberculosis and cancer of the lung, osteo-arthritis of various joints,
diabetes, hypertension, cataract, hearing loss and so on. While suggesting food for the elderly, one
should take into account the small amounts of food with minimum sugar and fats but lots of fresh
vegetables and fruits taken in small quantities but more frequently.

Physical activity and exercise is good at all ages including old age. Psychological problems
frequently arise among the elderly. They result from many factors Eg, difficulties with memory, loss
of hearing, financial difficulties, feeling of insecurity, chronic unrelieved pain, diffuse atrophy of the
brain, etc. Depression is the commonest of the psychological problems of the aged. Alzheimer's
disease, dementia are some other problems often arise out of the ageing process. All old people and
not-so-old ones should be encouraged to continue stimulating mental activity with the same vigour as
we advise them to continue physical activity.

1. Chronic health conditions: According to the National Council on Aging, about 92 percent of seniors
have at least one chronic disease and 77 percent have at least two. Heart disease, stroke, cancer, and

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 diabetes are among the most common and costly chronic health conditions causing two-thirds of
deaths each year. The National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health
Promotion recommends meeting with a physician for an annual check-up, maintaining a healthy diet
and keeping an exercise routine to help manage or prevent chronic diseases. Obesity is a growing
problem among older adults and engaging in these lifestyle behaviors can help reduce obesity and
associated chronic conditions.

2. Cognitive health: Cognitive health is focused on a person’s ability to think, learn and remember. The
most common cognitive health issue facing the elderly is dementia, the loss of those cognitive
functions. Approximately 47.5 million people worldwide have dementia a number that is predicted to
nearly triple in size by 2050. The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease with as
many as five million people over the age of 65 suffering from the disease in the United States.
According to the National Institute on Aging, other chronic health conditions and diseases increase
the risk of developing dementia, such as substance abuse, diabetes, hypertension, depression, HIV
and smoking. While there are no cures for dementia, physicians can prescribe a treatment plan and
medications to manage the disease.

3. Mental health; According to the World Health Organization, over 15 percent of adults over the age
of 60 suffer from a mental disorder. A common mental disorder among seniors is depression,
occurring in seven percent of the elderly population. Unfortunately, this mental disorder is often
underdiagnosed and undertreated. Older adults account for over 18 percent of suicides deaths in the
United States. Because depression can be a side effect of chronic health conditions, managing those
conditions help. Additionally, promoting a lifestyle of healthy living such as betterment of living
conditions and social support from family, friends or support groups can help treat depression.

4. Physical injury: Every 15 seconds, an older adult is admitted to the emergency room for a fall. A
senior dies from falling every 29 minutes, making it the leading cause of injury among the elderly.
Because aging causes bones to shrink and muscle to lose strength and flexibility, seniors are more
susceptible to losing their balance, bruising and fracturing a bone. Two diseases that contribute to
frailty are osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. However, falls are not inevitable. In many cases, they can
be prevented through education, increased physical activity and practical modifications within the
home.

5. Malnutrition: Malnutrition in older adults over the age of 65 is often underdiagnosed and can lead to
other elderly health issues, such as a weakened immune system and muscle weakness. The causes of
malnutrition can stem from other health problems (seniors suffering from dementia may forget to
eat), depression, alcoholism, dietary restrictions, reduced social contact and limited income.
Committing to small changes in diet, such as increasing consumption of fruits and vegetables and
decreasing consumption of saturated fat and salt, can help nutrition issues in the elderly. There
are food services available to older adults who cannot afford food or have difficulty preparing meals.

6. Sensory impairments: Sensory impairments, such as vision and hearing, are extremely common for
older Americans over the age of 70. According to the CDC, one out of six older adults has a visual
impairment and one out of four has a hearing impairment. Luckily, both of these issues are easily
treatable by aids such as glasses or hearing aids. New technologies are enhancing assessment of
hearing loss and wearability of hearing aids.

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7. Substance abuse: Substance abuse, typically alcohol or drug-related, is more prevalent among seniors
than realized. According to the National Council on Aging, the number of older adults with substance
abuse problems is expected to double to five million by 2020. Because many don’t associate
substance abuse with the elderly, it’s often overlooked and missed in medical check-ups.
Additionally, older adults are often prescribed multiple prescriptions to be used long-term.
The National Institute on Drugs finds that substance abuse typically results from someone suffering
mental deficits or taking another patient’s medication due to their inability to pay for their own.

5.4.9 BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL THEORIES OF AGING

In the past, maximum life span (the maximum biological limit of life in an ideal environment) was
not thought to be subject to change with the process of aging considered non-adaptive, and subject to
genetic traits. Life span is the key to the intrinsic biological causes of aging, as these factors ensure
an individual’s survival to a certain point until biological ageing eventually causes death.

There are many theories about the mechanisms of age-related changes. No one theory is sufficiently
able to explain the process of aging, and they often contradict one another. All valid theories of
aging must meet three broad criteria:
1. The aging changes that the theory addresses must occur commonly in all members of a humans.
2. The process must be progressive with time. That is, the changes that result from the proposed
process must become more obvious as the person grows older.
3. The process must produce changes that cause organ dysfunctions and that ultimately cause a
particular body organ or system to fail.

5.4.10 BIOLOGICAL THEORY

Most people will live to experience ageing. Age-related deterioration is affecting an ever-growing
number of people. Although the process is unavoidable, if we better understand the process, as a
physiotherapist, it is important to understand that we might be able to positively influence aspects
that maintain or engender better health and wellness as a person ages, treating and ameliorating
symptoms of common conditions associated with ageing.
In the past, maximum life span (the maximum biological limit of life in an ideal environment) was
not thought to be subject to change with the process of ageing considered non-adaptive, and subject
to genetic traits. In the early 1900s, a series of flawed experiments by researcher Alexis Carrel
demonstrated that in an optimal environment, cells of higher organisms (chickens) were able to
divide continually, leading people to believe our cells to potentially possess immortal properties.

In the 1960’s Leonard Hayflick . disproved this theory by identifying a maximal number of divisions a
human cell could undergo in culture (known as the Hayflick limit), which set our maximal life
span at around 115 years. Life span is the key to the intrinsic biological causes of ageing, as these
factors ensure an individual’s survival to a certain point until biological ageing eventually causes
death.

There are many theories about the mechanisms of age-related changes, and they are mutually
exclusive, no one theory is sufficiently able to explain the process of ageing, and they often
contradict one another. Modern biological theories of ageing in humans currently fall into two main
categories:

Programmed and damage or error theories:

The programmed theories imply that ageing follows a biological timetable (regulated by changes in
gene expression that affect the systems responsible for maintenance, repair and defence responses),

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and the damage or error theories emphasise environmental assaults to living organisms that induce
cumulative damage at various levels as the cause of ageing.

These two categories of theory are also referred to as non-programmed ageing theories based on
evolutionary concepts (where ageing is considered the result of an organism’s inability to better
combat natural deteriorative processes), and programmed ageing theories (which consider ageing to
ultimately be the result of a biological mechanism or programme that purposely causes or allows
deterioration and death in order to obtain a direct evolutionary benefit achieved by limiting lifespan
beyond a species-specific optimum lifespan.

5.4.11 SOCIAL THEORY

Ageing is a constant process that every individual goes through as long as there is still life. This
process is an essential part of nature, as it ensures that the homeostasis of the universe is kept
constant. Ageing has to do with the additive effects of changes that occur over time, and in human
beings, refers to the multidimensional progression of biological, psychological and social changes
that occur (Moody 2010). In humans, ageing has its advantages and disadvantages which reflect the
growth and expansion of some dimensions of human life, while on the other hand, others decline.
The inevitability of ageing has driven a whole lot of researches into finding out how and why ageing
occurs. This is why there has been several theories developed to help understand the phenomenon of
ageing.

Ageing has been looked at from different perspectives, but particularly from the biological,
psychological and social points of view. The biological theories of ageing attempt to describe the
phenomenon as a programmed event, and that it arises as a result of constant wear and tear leading to
a decline of the usual functions of the human body.

The psychological concept describes ageing in terms of the specific changes in behavior, cognitive
functions, and roles that occur in an individual undergoing the ageing process. On the other hand,
however, the social theories, which would form the crux of this paper, explain how factors such as
the prevailing circumstances, available resources, caste systems, social accelerators, etc can either
speed up or slow down the process of ageing.

The continuity theory of ageing focuses on adaptive choices that older and middle-aged adults make
in order to maintain both internal and external continuities in their lives (Streib & Schneider 1971).
Internal continuity connotes the process of forming linkages between new circumstances and the
memories left by previous ones (Atchley 1999). External continuity on the other hand refers to the
interaction with familiar people and familiar environments (Atchley 1991).

It focuses on the idea that elderly people tend to ensure familiarity – with their environments, their
families, and other situations – as this helps them to continue to be independent. According to
Atchley and Barusch (2004), this continuity in their environments and activities helps the ageing
person to concentrate energies on familiar situations, which in the long run helps to minimize and
offset the effects of ageing. The continuity theory does not mean that the individual experiences no
change at all, but that the individual adapts to changes with persistent, consistent and familiar
attributes and processes that produce less stress (Menec 2003).

The disengagement theory explains that elderly individuals reduce their levels of activity or
involvement by withdrawing from previous roles and activities they have been undertaking (Atchley
1991). This was drawn from an observation that these elderly people hold on to age as being their
rationale for withdrawal from activities that were previously found meaningful. This theory, as

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shown by Cummings and Henry (1961), assumes that the inward turning typical of ageing individuals
leads to a normal and natural withdrawal for social activities, reduction of involvement with other
people, and an increasing self-preoccupation.

This withdrawal is as a result of individual disengagement, plus the effect of the society’s drive for
withdrawal of old people from active service with the belief that they have little to contribute (Mabry
& Bengtson 2005). However, this disengagement theory contravenes the general belief that the best
way to tackle ageing is to keep active and fit, although it has been suggested that differential
withdrawal rather than total disengagement is the rule (Streib & Schneider 1971).

5.4.12 DEFINING DEATH AND ISSUES RELATED TO IT, DEATH ANXIETY

Death is an intrinsic part of life, and talking about the likely outcomes of illness, including death
and dying, is an important part of health care. Doctors and patients vary in the language they use
and in their comfort level regarding such discussions.
People also vary in their comfort level regarding the amount of information and involvement in
decision making that they want. Seriously ill people and their loved ones should generally try to
understand the likely future course of their illness as well as the options for living with their
particular disabilities and family situation.

People should make any preferences about treatment and family support known. Such preferences
are known as advance directives. People who do not talk with their families and health care
providers about their preferences for care near the end of their life may receive treatments (such as
chemotherapy or surgery) or end up living in situations (such as a hospital or nursing home) they
would not have wanted.

Death: 1. the end of life. The cessation of life. (These common definitions of death ultimately depend
upon the definition of life, upon which there is no consensus.) 2. The permanent cessation of all vital
bodily functions. (This definition depends upon the definition of "vital bodily functions.") See: Vital
bodily functions. 3. The common law standard for determining death is the cessation of all vital
functions, traditionally demonstrated by "an absence of spontaneous respiratory and cardiac
functions." 4. The uniform determination of death.

The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws in 1980 formulated the Uniform
Determination of Death Act. It states that: "An individual who has sustained either (1) irreversible
cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions, or (2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the
entire brain, including the brain stem is dead. A determination of death must be made in accordance
with accepted medical standards." This definition was approved by the American Medical
Association in 1980 and by the American Bar Association in 1981.

Issues related to death:

End-of-life care presents many challenges (e.g., the management of pain and suffering) for clinicians,
as well as for patients and their families. Moreover, the care of the dying patient must be considered
within the context of the psychological, physical, and social experiences of a person's life. Foremost
among those who require end-of-life care are the elderly, who are prone to loneliness, who frequently
underreport pain, and who have a greater sensitivity to drugs and to drug-drug interactions.

Unfortunately, clinicians who are responsible for the treatment of patients at the end of life
commonly lack adequate training to help guide end-of-life decisions and to deliver bad news to
patients and families. They must also face their own discomfort with discussions about death and
deal with poor compensation for the time spent discussing end-of-life care with patients and families.

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Given the unique process of each person's death, algorithmic strategies are often inadequate to guide
patients, their families, and the clinicians who care for them through this complex and emotionally
challenging process.

In the following sections, we will discuss the major challenges faced by dying patients and their
families. We will then comment on the difficulties clinicians face in caring for the dying patient.
Lastly, we will make several recommendations for improving the care of terminally ill patients and
their families.

The challenges faced by the dying patient are substantial and potentially overwhelming. These
challenges include physical pain, depression, a variety of intense emotions, the loss of dignity,
hopelessness, and the seemingly mundane tasks that need to be addressed at the end of life. An
understanding of the dying patient's experience should help clinicians improve their care of the
terminally ill.

Pain:
Pain, and the fear of pain, often drives the behavior of patients at the end of life. In a survey of 310
patients with life-limiting illness,5 “freedom from pain” ranked most important in their considerations
of the end-of-life process. Pain, especially cancer-related pain, is common; moreover, it is
experienced by 50% to 90% of patients with advanced disease. Fortunately, over 90% of those with
cancer-related pain respond to basic analgesic measures; however, many patients fear that their
suffering will progress unabated.

Although there is no evidence that the perception of nociceptive pain is altered by advancing age, the
elderly are often unwilling to report their pain because they believe it is a normal symptom of aging
and that their pain is directly associated with the worsening of their illness.

While nociceptive pain is commonly and successfully treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs and opioids, bodily changes in the elderly demand attention when considering pharmacologic
interventions. Declines in renal and hepatic function predispose the elderly to side effects and toxic
effects of medications. In addition, pain is a notable risk factor for depression and suicide,
particularly in those at the end of life, and it must be carefully assessed and monitored.

Coping:
Patients with advanced illness face the challenge of coping with their disease on a daily basis. While
some patients (known as “good copers”) demonstrate optimism, practicality, resourcefulness,
awareness, and flexibility, others (known as “bad copers”) present with a variety of defensive styles
in response to their diagnosis. These more “primitive” defenses include suppression or isolation of
affect, projection, noncompliance, avoidance, and denial, which may be manifest as a deliberate
delay in treatment or as a disagreement between the patient and the physician about the presence,
implications, or likely outcome of disease.

A study of 189 individuals with cancer linked cognitive avoidance with poor psychological
adjustment (to living with cancer) and suggested that the degree of deterioration in one's physical
impairment correlates directly with one's levels of psychological distress. When associated with
noncompliance, incidents of avoidance and denial become dangerous; noncompliance remains
the number one modifiable risk factor for unfavourable outcomes in psychopharmacology.

Dignity:
For dying patients, a primary illness-related concern is the preservation of dignity, broadly defined in
terms of being worthy of honor, respect, and esteem. For many patients, dignity is directly related to

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the level of independence and autonomy retained through the course of illness. In a case series of 50
patients in an urban hospital diagnosed with advanced-stage cancers, Chochinov and
colleagues found that a variety of factors were necessary for preserving dignity in the terminally ill.
These factors included functional capacity, cognitive acuity, symptom management, and alleviation
of psychological distress.

Furthermore, anguish about medical uncertainty (i.e., not knowing, or being unaware of, aspects of
one's health status or treatment) and anxiety specifically associated with the process or anticipation of
death and dying worsened a patient's sense of dignity. Another study involving 213 terminally ill
patients from 2 palliative care units suggested that loss of dignity is closely associated with certain
types of distress (such as the loss of independence for inpatients confined to the hospital,
deterioration of physical appearance, and a sense of being burdensome to others) common among the
terminally ill. When coupled with heightened depression and a sense of hopelessness, the loss of
dignity may lessen a patient's desire to continue living in the face of imminent death.

5.4.13 THE MANY FACES OF DEATH

Death is biological face; but it also has social, cultural, historical, religious, legal, psychological,
development, medical and ethical aspects, and often these are closely interwined.

Although death and loss are universal experiences, they have a cultural context. Cultural and
religious attitudes toward death and dying affect psychological and developmental aspects of death:
how people of various ages face their own death and the deaths of those close to them.

Death is generally considered to be the cessation of bodily processes. However, criteria for death
have become more complex with the development of medical apparatus that can prolong basic signs
of life. These medical developments have raised questions about whether or when life supports may
be withheld or removed and whose judgement should prevail. In some places, the claim of a “right to
die” has led to laws either permitting of forbidding physicians to help a terminally ill person end a
life that has become a burden.

5.4.14 THE MORALITY REVOLUTION

Reading little women is a vivid reminder of the great historical changes regarding death and dying
that have taken place since the late nineteenth century. Especially in developed countries, advances in
medicine and sanitation, new treatments for many once-fatal illness, and a better-educated, more
health-conscious have brought about a “mortality revolution”. Women today are less likely to die in
childbirth, infants are more likely to survive their first year, children are more likely to grow to
adulthood, young adults like Alcott’s sister Lizzie are more likely to reach old age, and older people
often can overcome illness they grew up regarding as fatal.

As death increasingly became a phenomenon of late adulthood, it became “invisible and abstract”.
Many older people lived and died in retirement communities. Care of the dying and dead became
largely a task for professionals. Such social conventions as placing the dying person in a hospital or
nursing home and refusing to openly discuss his or her condition reflected and perpetuated attitudes
of avoidance and denial of death. Death even of the very old came to be regarded as a failure of
medical treatment rather than as a natural end to life.

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5.4.15 FACING DEATH AND LOSS: PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES

What changes do people undergo shortly before death? How do they come to terms with its
imminence? How do people deal with grief? The answers may differ for different people.

Confronting One’s Own Death

In the absence of any identifiable illness, people around the age of 100 close to the present limit of
the human life span usually suffer cognitive and other functional declines, lose interest in eating and
drinking, and die a natural death. Such changes also have been noted in younger people whose death
is near. Some people who have come close to death have had “near death” experiences, often
involving a sense of being out of the body and visions of bright lights or mystical encounters. These
are sometimes interpreted as resulting from physiological changes that accompany the process of
dying or psychological responses to the perceived threat of death.

Kubler Ross (1969, 1970) outlined five stages in coming terms with death: (1) denial (refusal to
accept the reality of what is happening); (2) anger; (3) bargaining for extra time; (4) depression; and
ultimately (5) acceptance. She also proposed a similar progression in the feelings of people facing
imminent bereavement.

Kubler-Ross’s model has been criticized and modified by other professionals who work with dying
patients. Although the emotions she described are common, not person may go back and forth
between anger and depression, for example, or may feel both at once. Unfortunately, some health
professionals assume that these stages are inevitable and universal, and others feel that they have
failed if they cannot bring a patient to the final stages of acceptance.
Dying, like living, is an individual experience. For some people, denial or anger may be a healthier
way to face death than the clam acceptance that beth seemed exemplify in Little Women. Kubler-
Ross’s description, useful as it may be in helping us understand the feelings of those who are facing
the end of life, should not be considered a model or a criterion for a “good life”.

5.4.16 PATTERNS OF GRIEVING

Bereavement the loss of someone to whom a person feels close and the process of adjusting to it can
affect practically all aspects of a survivor’s life. Bereavement often brings a change in status and role
(for example, from a wife to a widow or from a son or daughter to an orphan). It may have social
and economic consequences a loss of friends and sometimes of income. But first there is grief the
emotional response experienced in the early phases of bereavement.

Grief, like dying, is a highly personal experience. Today research has challenged earlier notions of a
single, “normal” pattern of grieving and a “normal” timetable for recovery. A widow talking to her
late husband might once have been considered emotionally disturbed; now this is recognized as a
common and helpful behavior. Although some people recover fairly quickly after bereavement,
others never do.

Perhaps the most widely studied pattern of grief is a three-stage one, in which the bereaved person
accepts the painful reality of the loss, gradually lets go of the bond with the dead person, and
readjusts to life by developing new interests and relationships. This process of grief work, the
working out of psychological issues connected with grief, generally takes the following path though
as with Kubler-Ross’s stages it may vary (J. T. Brown & Stoudemire, 1983; R. Schulz, 1978).
1. Shock and disbelief: immediately following a death, survivors often feel lost and confused. As
awareness of the loss sinks in, the initial numbness gives way to overwhelming feelings of

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 sadness and frequent crying. This first stage may last several weeks, especially after a sudden or
unexpected death.
2. Preoccupation with the memory of the dead person: In the second stage, which may last six
months or longer, the survivor tries to come to terms with the death but cannot yet accept it. A
widow may relive her husband’s death and their entire relationship. From time to time, she may
be seized by a feeling that her dead husband is present. These experiences diminish with time,
though they may recur perhaps for years on such occasions as the anniversary of the marriage or
of the death.
3. Resolution: The final stage has arrived when the bereaved person renews interest in everyday
activities. Memories of the dead person bring fond feelings mingled with sadness, rather than
sharp pain and longings.
Although the pattern of grief work just described is common, grieving does not necessarily follow a
straight line from shock to resolution. One team of psychologists (Wortman & Silver, 1989) reviewed
studies of reactions to major losses: the death of a loved one or the loss of mobility due to spinal
injury. These researchers found some common assumptions to be more myth than fact.

Death Anxiety

Although largely unconscious, the awareness of our finite existence, the fact that we all must die, has
a profound impact on our thoughts, feelings, and behavior. The fear and emotional anguish associated
with anticipating the end of life are so painful that we must protect ourselves. People find it difficult
to tolerate facing their mortality directly. Therefore, they repress the full realization of death and
dying, and develop various defenses to keep the suppressed material at bay. As existential
psychologists Victor Florian and Mario Mikulincer (2004) rightly observed, “The paralyzing terror
produced by the awareness of one’s mortality leads to the denial of death awareness and the
repression of death-related thoughts”

Most people would say they rarely think about death. Nevertheless, on an unconscious level,
cognizance of our eventual demise arouses feelings of death anxiety that influence significant aspects
of our lives and motivate many of our actions. Empirical studies by Terror Management
Theory (TMT) researchers have demonstrated that people alter their behavioral responses and
increase their reliance on specific defense mechanisms when their death salience is experimentally
aroused.

In one experiment, after subjects were subliminally presented with the word “death,” they more
strongly endorsed the worldview of their own ethnic group or nation while, at the same time, they
denigrated members of other groups whose worldviews differed from their own. (Solomon, et al,
2015). In another, judges who were exposed to the word “death” administered more punitive
sentences than judges in the control group who were not exposed. If the single word “death”
introduced subliminally in an experimental setting can produce significant changes in subjects’
attitudes and actions, one can only imagine the powerful effect of countless events in the real world
that remind people of their mortality.

When their death anxiety is aroused, people tend to become increasingly defensive in ways that are
harmful to themselves and often to others as well. Even though they may initially respond positively
by embracing life more fully, over time, most people usually retreat to a more defended posture. As
they deny death to protect themselves, they lose perspective, giving importance to insignificant issues
in their lives while failing to value other relevant and meaningful influences. Many people tend to
live life as though they will never die and can afford to squander their most valuable experiences.

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Defensive reactions to death have a demoralizing effect on the individual. Tragically, many people
end up losing their spirit and excitement toward life. They gradually become more rigid and
controlling, thereby diminishing their range of experiences. They begin to entertain cynical or hateful
attitudes toward self and others, give up interests that once excited them, and become progressively
less joyful and more depressed and futile about life.

Most people embrace a religious dogma to maintain the hope or promise of an afterlife. In fact, belief
in religion represents the most powerful denial of death. Some individuals over-intellectualize about
the subject of death, taking a more philosophical position to keep themselves one step removed from
feeling about their own mortality. Others find yet another solution: they believe that someone will
ultimately save them a relationship partner, a guru, or a political figure.

Some defenses against death anxiety have beneficial side effects; for example, the symbolic
immortality that is fostered by the imagination of living on through creative works in art, literature,
and science. Finding lasting meaning in devotion to family, friends, and people at large, and
attempting to leave a positive legacy generally has a good effect. Other defenses, such as living on
through one’s children, have a generally negative effect. Many children have suffered in their
development from their parents’ efforts to make them into carbon copies of themselves.

5.4.17 DEATH AND BEREAVEMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN

There is no single way of viewing death at any age; people’s attitude towards it reflect their
personality and experience, as well as how close they believe they are to dying. Still broad
developmental differences apply. As the timing-of-events model suggests, death probably does not
mean the same thing to an 85-year-old man with excruciatingly painful arthritis, a 56-year-old
woman at the height of a brilliant legal career who discovers she has breast cancer, and a 15-year-old
who dies of an overdose of drugs. Typical changes in attitudes toward death across the life span
development and on the normative or nonnormative timing of the event.

5.4.18 CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE

Not until sometime between the age of 5 and 7 do most children understand that death is irreversible
that a dead person, animal, or flower cannot come to life again. At about the same age, children
realize two other important concepts about death: first, that it is universal (all living things die) and
therefore inevitable; and second, that a dead person is non-functional (all life functions end at death).
Before then, children may believe that certain groups of people (say, teachers, parents and children)
do not die, that a person who is smart enough or lucky enough can void death, and that they
themselves will be able to live forever. They also may believe that a dead person still can think and
feel. The concept of irreversibility, universality and cessation of functions usually develop at the
time. When according to Piaget, children move from preoperational to concrete operational thinking
(Speece & Brent, 1984). During this period concepts of causation also become more sophisticated.

Methods for Coping with Death Anxiety:

Because there is no ultimate solution to the conundrum of death, when existential fears surface,
people would ideally take time to face the reality of their mortality, identify and express the
accompanying emotions of fear, sadness, and anger, and find a way to communicate their attitudes
and thoughts with others. My associates and I suggest that talking about death anxiety with a friend
or colleague while allowing a free flow of feelings can be especially helpful. Nevertheless, this may
be difficult or largely unavailable because so many people are intolerant of the subject. Fortunately, it
is possible to address the issue in psychology and philosophy courses, organized seminars and
workshops, and in individual and group psychotherapy sessions.

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 As people expand their awareness of aloneness and existential issues of life and death, contemplate
the essential dilemma and mystery of existence, and face their emotional pain, they generally develop
a deeper and more abiding respect for other people’s feelings and well-being, as well as their own.
These sentiments are translated into acts of kindness, sensitivity, and compassion toward other people
who cross their path. When we challenge our defensive reactions to death anxiety, we are better able
to confront death with equanimity, feel more aware, live in the present, and experience both the joy
and pain of existence without resorting to fantasy and illusion. In becoming more open and
vulnerable, we are able to more fully embrace love and the spirit of life.

5.5 SUMMARY

Death anxiety is not defined as a distinct disorder, but it may be linked to other depression or anxiety
disorders. These include:
 post-traumatic stress disorder or PTSD
 panic disorders and panic attacks
 illness anxiety disorders, previously called hypochondriasis
Thanatophobia is different from necrophobia, which is a general fear of dead or dying things, or
things associated with death.
Preparing for retirement and old age mentally well in advance is the most appropriate thing to do.
Going through old age when someone is not mentally prepared will suffer that person. To have a
peaceful old age, one should settle everything before time like pensions, health check, etc.

Old age is the closing period in the life span. Age sixty is usually considered the dividing line
between middle and old age. Chronological age is a poor criterion to use in marking off the
beginning of old age because there are such marked differences among individuals in the age and
better aging actually begins. Because of better living conditions health care, most men and women
today do not show the mental and physical signs of aging until early seventies. The characteristics of
old age are far more likely to lead to poor adjustment than to good and to unhappiness rather than to
happiness. That is why old age is even more dreaded than middle age.

Developmental tasks explain about how the problems are faced by us in all stages of life and he
explains them really well. We can all relate that biology has some kind of effects in our development,
as well as psychology and society.

As strength declines, the various organs and organ systems slow down. Diabetes, heart conditions,
osteoporosis and such diseases arc common during old age. Disabilities in walking, seeing, hearing
etc restrict the person in several ways. These disabilities make the person dependent on others.
An old person is often isolated. The disease and disabilities produce a strong feeling of inadequacy
and the dependence makes the person feel worse. They are given to depression and moodiness. Death
of the spouse plunges the person into despair making him/her feel totally at a loss. Memory fails the
old person which creates further problems. Fear of death can be a dominant emotion. Worries about
whether he/she would be invalid, a burden to others is very common.

The old age people should develop the mentally of moving well with others. They should not try to
find fault with anybody. Some people will expect respect from others, and they think that they should
be consulted for each and everything. This attitude is wrong. Instead, they can spend their time in
useful ways, by engaging themselves in some activity. Old age can be gold age, if our attitude is
correct. Old age is not at all a problem that spends their young age and middle age by helping other.

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Getting older can seem daunting greying hair, wrinkles, forgetting where you parked the car. Aging
can bring about unique health issues. With seniors accounting for 12 percent of the world’s
population–and rapidly increasing to over 22 percent by 2050–it’s important to understand the
challenges faced by people as they age and recognize that there are preventive measures that can
place yourself (or a loved one) on a path to healthy aging.
Social and biological theories play an important role in aging of an individual. They study how an
individual, who is aging, copes up with his/her surroundings through these theories.

5.6 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Write a note on old age.

2. Write a note on characteristics of old age.
3. Write a note on developmental tasks.
4. Write a note on physical changes.
5. Write a note on psychological changes.
6. Write a note on adjustment to self in old age.
7. Write a note on adjustment to retirement in old age.
8. Write a note on adjustment to family in old age.
9. Write a note on adjustment to singleness.
10. Write a note on hazards of old age.
11. Write a note on biological theories of aging.
12. Write a note on social theories of aging.
13. Define death
14. Write a note on death anxiety.

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 MODULE-I
INTRODUCTION AND BEGINNING OF LIFE
STRUCTURE

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Early Approaches
1.3 Study of Life Span
1.4 Characteristics of life span perspective
1.5 What is Development?
1.5.1 What causes to develop?
1.5.2 What goals do developmentalists purse?
1.5.3 Development process change and stability
1.5.4 Domains of development
1.5.5 Periods of Life Span
1.5.6 Influences on development
1.6 Heredity, Environment and Maturation
1.7 Conceiving new life
1.8 How fertilization takes place
1.9 What causes multiple birth?
1.10Mechanisms of heredity
1.11Prenatal development
1.12 Developmental issues theories of development (Psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioural,
sociocognitive and Ethological and Ecological
1.13 The role of conflict
1.14 Theories of development-Cognitive
1.14.1 Behavioral
1.14.2 Socio Cognitive
1.14.3 Ethological and Ecological
1.15 Process of birth (Stages of birth Transition from foetus to new born)
1.16 Strategies for child birth
1.17 Methods of delivery
1.18 Research methods in child & Adolescent development
1.19 Summary
1.20 Suggested Questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To understand the life span perspective,

• To know the process and stages of a new born.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Lifespan development involves the exploration of biological, cognitive, and psychosocial changes
and constancies that occur throughout the entire course of life. It has been presented as a theoretical
perspective, proposing several fundamental, theoretical, and methodological principles about the
nature of human development. An attempt by researchers has been made to examine whether
research on the nature of development suggests a specific metatheoretical worldview. Several beliefs,
taken together, form the “family of perspectives” that contribute to this particular view.

From the moment of conception, human beings undergo processes of development. The field of
human development is the scientific study of those processes. Developmental scientists-
3
 professionals who study human development are interested in the ways in which people change
throughout life, as well as in characteristics that remain fairly stable. The formal study of human
development is a relatively new field of scientific inquiry. Since the early nineteenth century, when
Itard studied Victor, efforts to understand children’s development have gradually expanded to include
the whole life span.

1.2 EARLY APPROACHES

Early forerunners of the scientific study of development were baby biographies, journals kept to
record the early development of a child. One early journal, published in 1787 in Germany, contained
Dietrich Tidemann’s (1897/1787) observations of his son’s sensory, moto, language and cognitive
behaviour during the first 2 and half years. Typical of the speculative nature of such observations was
Tiedemann’s erroneous conclusion, after watching the infant suck more on a cloth tied around
something sweet than on a nurse’s finger, that sucking appeared to be “not instinctive, but acquired’.

It was Charles Darwin, originator of the theory of evolution, who first emphasized the development
nature of infant behaviour. In 1877 Darwin published notes on his son Doody’s sensory, cognitive
and emotional development during the first twelve months. Darwin journal gave “baby biographies”
scientific respectability; about thirty more were published during the next three decades.

By the end of the nineteenth century, several important trends in the western world were preparing
the way for the scientific study of development. Scientific study of development. Scientists had
unlocked the mystery of conception and (as in the case of the wild boy of Averyron) were arguing
about the relative importance of “nature” and “nuture” (inborn characteristics and experiential
influences). The discovery of germs and immunization made it possible for many children to survive
infancy. Laws protecting children from long workdays let them spend more time in school, and
parents and teachers became more concerned with identifying and meeting children’s developmental
needs. The new science of psychology taught that people could understand themselves by learning
what had influenced them as children. Still, this new discipline had far to go.

1.3 STUDYING THE LIFE SPAN

Today most developmental scientists recognize that development goes on throughout life. This
concept of a lifelong process of development that can be studied scientifically known as life-span
development.

Life span studies in the United States grew out of research designed to follow children through
adulthood. The Stanford studies of Gifted Children (begun in 1921 under the direction of Lewis M.
Terman) trace the development of people (now in oldage) who were identified as unusually
intelligent in childhood. Other major studies that began around 1930 the Fels Research Institute
Study, the Berkeley Growth and Guidance Studies, and the Oakland (Adolescent) Growth study have
given us much information on long-term development.

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE

German psychologist Paul Baltes, a leading expert on lifespan development and aging, developed one
of the approaches to studying development called the lifespan perspective. This approach is based
on several key principles:
 Development occurs across one’s entire life or is lifelong.
 Development is multidimensional, meaning it involves the dynamic interaction of factors like
physical, emotional, and psychosocial development

4
 Development is multidirectional and results in gains and losses throughout life
 Development is plastic, meaning that characteristics are malleable or changeable.
 Development is influenced by contextual and socio-cultural influences.
 Development is multidisciplinary.

Development is lifelong
Lifelong development means that development is not completed in infancy or childhood or at any
specific age; it encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to death. The study of development
traditionally focused almost exclusively on the changes occurring from conception to adolescence
and the gradual decline in old age; it was believed that the five or six decades after adolescence
yielded little to no developmental change at all. The current view reflects the possibility that specific
changes in development can occur later in life, without having been established at birth. The early
events of one’s childhood can be transformed by later events in one’s life. This belief clearly
emphasizes that all stages of the lifespan contribute to the regulation of the nature of human
development.

Many diverse patterns of change, such as direction, timing, and order, can vary among individuals
and affect the ways in which they develop. For example, the developmental timing of events can
affect individuals in different ways because of their current level of maturity and understanding. As
individuals move through life, they are faced with many challenges, opportunities, and situations that
impact their development. Remembering that development is a lifelong process helps us gain a wider
perspective on the meaning and impact of each event.

Development is multidimensional
By multidimensionality, Baltes is referring to the fact that a complex interplay of factors influence
development across the lifespan, including biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes. Baltes
argues that a dynamic interaction of these factors is what influences an individual’s development.

For example, in adolescence, puberty consists of physiological and physical changes with changes in
hormone levels, the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics, alterations in height
and weight, and several other bodily changes. But these are not the only types of changes taking
place; there are also cognitive changes, including the development of advanced cognitive faculties
such as the ability to think abstractly.

There are also emotional and social changes involving regulating emotions, interacting with peers,
and possibly dating. The fact that the term puberty encompasses such a broad range of domains
illustrates the multidimensionality component of development (think back to the physical, cognitive,
and psychosocial domains of human development we discussed earlier in this module).

Development is multidirectional
Baltes states that the development of a particular domain does not occur in a strictly linear fashion,
but that development of certain traits can be characterized as having the capacity for both an increase
and decrease in efficacy over the course of an individual’s life.

If we use the example of puberty again, we can see that certain domains may improve or decline in
effectiveness during this time. For example, self-regulation is one domain of puberty which
undergoes profound multidirectional changes during the adolescent period. During childhood,
individuals have difficulty effectively regulating their actions and impulsive behaviours. Scholars
have noted that this lack of effective regulation often results in children engaging in behaviours
without fully considering the consequences of their actions. Over the course of puberty, neuronal

5
changes modify this unregulated behaviour by increasing the ability to regulate emotions and
impulses.

Inversely, the ability for adolescents to engage in spontaneous activity and creativity, both domains
commonly associated with impulse behaviour, decrease over the adolescent period in response to
changes in cognition. Neuronal changes to the limbic system and prefrontal cortex of the brain,
which begin in puberty lead to the development of self-regulation, and the ability to consider the
consequences of one’s actions (though recent brain research reveals that this connection will continue
to develop into early adulthood).

Extending on the premise of multidirectionality, Baltes also argued that development is influenced by
the “joint expression of features of growth (gain) and decline (loss)”This relation between
developmental gains and losses occurs in a direction to selectively optimize particular capacities.
This requires the sacrificing of other functions, a process known as selective optimization with
compensation. According to the process of selective optimization, individuals prioritize particular
functions above others, reducing the adaptive capacity of particulars for specialization and improved
efficacy of other modalities.

The acquisition of effective self-regulation in adolescents illustrates this gain/loss concept. As

adolescents gain the ability to effectively regulate their actions, they may be forced to sacrifice other
features to selectively optimize their reactions. For example, individuals may sacrifice their capacity
to be spontaneous or creative if they are constantly required to make thoughtful decisions and
regulate their emotions. Adolescents may also be forced to sacrifice their fast reaction times toward
processing stimuli in favour of being able to fully consider the consequences of their actions.

Development is plastic
Plasticity denotes intrapersonal variability and focuses heavily on the potentials and limits of the
nature of human development. The notion of plasticity emphasizes that there are many possible
developmental outcomes and that the nature of human development is much more open and
pluralistic than originally implied by traditional views; there is no single pathway that must be taken
in an individual’s development across the lifespan. Plasticity is imperative to current research
because the potential for intervention is derived from the notion of plasticity in development.
Undesired development or behaviours could potentially be prevented or changed.
As an example, recently researchers have been analysing how other senses compensate for the loss of
vision in blind individuals. Without visual input, blind humans have demonstrated that tactile and
auditory functions still fully develop, and they can use tactile and auditory cues to perceive the world
around them.

One experiment designed by Röder and colleagues (1999) compared the auditory localization skills
of people who are blind with people who are sighted by having participants locate sounds presented
either centrally or peripherally (lateral) to them. Both congenitally blind adults and sighted adults
could locate a sound presented in front of them with precision but people who are blind were clearly
superior in locating sounds presented laterally. Currently, brain-imaging studies have revealed that
the sensory cortices in the brain are reorganized after visual deprivation. These findings suggest that
when vision is absent in development, the auditory cortices in the brain recruit areas that are normally
devoted to vision, thus becoming further refined.

A significant aspect of the aging process is cognitive decline. The dimensions of cognitive decline
are partially reversible, however, because the brain retains the lifelong capacity for plasticity and
reorganization of cortical tissue. Mahncke and colleagues developed a brain plasticity-based training
program that induced learning in mature adults experiencing age-related decline. This training

6
program focused intensively on aural language reception accuracy and cognitively demanding
exercises that have been proven to partially reverse the age-related losses in memory.

It included highly rewarding novel tasks that required attention control and became progressively
more difficult to perform. In comparison to the control group, who received no training and showed
no significant change in memory function, the experimental training group displayed a marked
enhancement in memory that was sustained at the 3-month follow-up period. These findings suggest
that cognitive function, particularly memory, can be significantly improved in mature adults with
age-related cognitive decline by using brain plasticity-based training methods.

Development is contextual
In Baltes’ theory, the paradigm of contextualism refers to the idea that three systems of biological
and environmental influences work together to influence development. Development occurs in
context and varies from person to person, depending on factors such as a person’s biology, family,
school, church, profession, nationality, and ethnicity. Baltes identified three types of influences that
operate throughout the life course: normative age-graded influences, normative history-graded
influences, and nonnormative influences. Baltes wrote that these three influences operate throughout
the life course, their effects accumulate with time, and, as a dynamic package, they are responsible
for how lives develop.

Normative age-graded influences are those biological and environmental factors that have a strong
correlation with chronological age, such as puberty or menopause, or age-based social practices such
as beginning school or entering retirement. Normative history-graded influences are associated
with a specific time period that defines the broader environmental and cultural context in which an
individual develops. For example, development and identity are influenced by historical events of the
people who experience them, such as the Great Depression, WWII, Vietnam, the Cold War, the War
on Terror, or advances in technology.

This has been exemplified in numerous studies, including Nesselroade and Baltes’, showing that the
level and direction of change in adolescent personality development was influenced as strongly by
the socio-cultural settings at the time (in this case, the Vietnam War) as age-related factors. The study
involved individuals of four different adolescent age groups who all showed significant personality
development in the same direction (a tendency to occupy themselves with ethical, moral, and
political issues rather than cognitive achievement). Similarly, Elder showed that the Great Depression
was a setting that significantly affected the development of adolescents and their corresponding adult
personalities, by showing a similar common personality development across age groups. Baltes’
theory also states that the historical socio-cultural setting had an effect on the development of an
individual’s intelligence.

The areas of influence that Baltes thought most important to the development of intelligence were
health, education, and work. The first two areas, health and education significantly affect adolescent
development because healthy children who are educated effectively will tend to develop a higher
level of intelligence. The environmental factors, health and education, have been suggested by Neiss
and Rowe to have as much effect on intelligence as inherited intelligence.

Nonnormative influences are unpredictable and not tied to a certain developmental time in a
person’s development or to a historical period. They are the unique experiences of an individual,
whether biological or environmental, that shape the development process. These could include
milestones like earning a master’s degree or getting a certain job offer or other events like going
through a divorce or coping with the death of a child.

7
The most important aspect of contextualism as a paradigm is that the three systems of influence work
together to affect development. Concerning adolescent development, the age-graded influences
would help to explain the similarities within a cohort, the history-graded influences would help to
explain the differences between cohorts, and the nonnormative influences would explain the
idiosyncrasies of each adolescent’s individual development. When all influences are considered
together, it provides a broader explanation of an adolescent’s development.

Other Contextual Influences on Development: Cohort, Socioeconomic Status, and Culture

What is meant by the word “context”? It means that we are influenced by when and where we live.
Our actions, beliefs, and values are a response to the circumstances surrounding us. Sternberg
describes contextual intelligence as the ability to understand what is called for in a situation
(Sternberg, 1996). The key here is to understand that behaviours, motivations, emotions, and choices
are all part of a bigger picture. Our concerns are such because of who we are socially, where we live,
and when we live; they are part of a social climate and set of realities that surround us. Important
social factors include cohort, social class, gender, race, ethnicity, and age. Let’s begin by exploring
two of these: cohort and social class.

A cohort is a group of people who are born at roughly the same time period in a particular
society. Cohorts share histories and contexts for living. Members of a cohort have experienced the
same historical events and cultural climates which have an impact on the values, priorities, and goals
that may guide their lives.

Another context that influences our lives is our social standing, socioeconomic status, or social
class. Socioeconomic status is a way to identify families and households based on their shared levels
of education, income, and occupation. While there is certainly individual variation, members of a
social class tend to share similar lifestyles, patterns of consumption, parenting styles, stressors,
religious preferences, and other aspects of daily life.

Culture is often referred to as a blueprint or guideline shared by a group of people that specifies how
to live. It includes ideas about what is right and wrong, what to strive for, what to eat, how to speak,
what is valued, as well as what kinds of emotions are called for in certain situations. Culture teaches
us how to live in a society and allows us to advance because each new generation can benefit from
the solutions found and passed down from previous generations.

Culture is learned from parents, schools, churches, media, friends, and others throughout
a lifetime. The kinds of traditions and values that evolve in a particular culture serve to help members
function in their own society and to value their own society. We tend to believe that our own
culture’s practices and expectations are the right ones. This belief that our own culture is superior is
called ethnocentrism and is a normal by-product of growing up in a culture. It becomes a road
MODULE, however, when it inhibits understanding of cultural practices from other societies.
Cultural relativity is an appreciation for cultural differences and the understanding that cultural
practices are best understood from the standpoint of that particular culture.

Culture is an extremely important context for human development and understanding development
requires being able to identify which features of development are culturally based. This
understanding is somewhat new and still being explored. So much of what developmental theorists
have described in the past has been culturally bound and difficult to apply to various cultural
contexts. For example, Erikson’s theory that teenagers struggle with identity assumes that all
teenagers live in a society in which they have many options and must make an individual
choice about their future. In many parts of the world, one’s identity is determined by family status or
society’s dictates. In other words, there is no choice to make.

8
Even the most biological events can be viewed in cultural contexts that are extremely
varied. Consider two very different cultural responses to menstruation in young girls. In the United
States, girls in public school often receive information on menstruation around 5th grade, get a kit
containing feminine hygiene products, and receive some sort of education about sexual
health. Contrast this with some developing countries where menstruation is not publicly addressed, or
where girls on their period are forced to miss school due to limited access to feminine products or
unjust attitudes about menstruation.

Development is Multidisciplinary
Any single discipline’s account of development across the lifespan would not be able to express all
aspects of this theoretical framework. That is why it is suggested explicitly by lifespan researchers
that a combination of disciplines is necessary to understand development. Psychologists, sociologists,
neuroscientists, anthropologists, educators, economists, historians, medical researchers, and others
may all be interested and involved in research related to the normative age-graded, normative history-
graded, and no normative influences that help shape development. Many disciplines are able to
contribute important concepts that integrate knowledge, which may ultimately result in the formation
of a new and enriched understanding of development across the lifespan.

1.5 WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?

Development refers to systematic continuities and changes in the individual that occur between
conception (when the father’s sperm penetrates the mother’s ovum, creating a new organism) and
death. By describing changes as “systematic” we imply that they are orderly, patterned, and relatively
enduring, so that temporary mood swings and other transitory changes in our appearances, thoughts,
and behaviors are therefore excluded. We are also interested in “continuities” in development, or
ways in which we remain the same or continue to reflect our past. If development represents the
continuities and changes an individual experiences from “womb to tomb,” the developmental
sciences refer to the study of these phenomena and are a multidisciplinary enterprise. Although
developmental psychology is the largest of these disciplines, many biologists, sociologists,
anthropologists, educators, physicians, and even historians share an interest in developmental
continuity and change and have contributed in important ways to our understanding of both human
and animal development. Because the science of development is multidisciplinary, we use the term
developmentalist to refer to any scholar regardless of discipline who seeks to understand the
developmental process.

1.5.1 WHAT CAUSES US TO DEVELOP?

To grasp the meaning of development, we must understand two important processes that underlie
developmental change: maturation and learning. Maturation refers to the biological unfolding of the
individual according to species-typical biological inheritance and an individual person’s biological
inheritance. Just as seeds become mature plants, assuming that they receive adequate moisture and
nourishment, human beings grow within the womb. The human maturational (or species-typical)
biological program calls for us to become capable of walking and uttering our first meaningful words
at about 1 year of age, to reach sexual maturity between ages 11 and 15, and then to age and die on
roughly similar schedules. Maturation is partly responsible for psychological changes such as our
increasing ability to concentrate, solve problems, and understand another person’s thoughts or
feelings. So one reason that we humans are so similar in many important respects is that our common
species heredity guides all of us through many of the same developmental changes at about the same
points in our lives. The second critical developmental process is learning the process through which
our experiences produce relatively permanent changes in our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Let’s

9
consider a very simple example. Although a certain degree of physical maturation is necessary before
a grade-school child can become reasonably proficient at dribbling a basketball, careful instruction
and many, many hours of practice are essential if this child is ever to approximate the ball-handling
skills of a professional basketball player. Many of our abilities and habits do not simply unfold as
part of maturation; we often learn to feel, think, and behave in new ways from our observations of
and interactions with parents, teachers, and other important people in our lives, as well as from events
that we experience. This means that we change in response to our environments particularly in
response to the actions and reactions of the people around us. Of course, most developmental changes
are the product of both maturation and learning. And as we will see throughout this book, some of the
more lively debates about human development are arguments about which of these processes
contributes most to particular developmental changes.

1.5.2 WHAT GOALS DO DEVELOPMENTALISTS PURSUE?

Three major goals of the developmental sciences are to describe, to explain, and to optimize
development (Baltes, Reese, & Lipsitt, 1980). In pursuing the goal of description, human
developmentalists carefully observe the behavior of people of different ages, seeking to specify how
people change over time. Although there are typical pathways of development that virtually all
people follow, no two persons are exactly alike. Even when raised in the same home, children often
display very different interests, values, abilities, and behaviors. Thus, to adequately describe
development, it is necessary to focus both on typical patterns of change (or normative development)
and on individual variations in patterns of change (or ideographic development).

So, developmentalists seek to understand the important ways that developing humans resemble each
other and how they are likely to differ as they proceed through life. Adequate description provides us
with the “facts” about development, but it is only the starting point. Developmentalists next seek to
explain the changes they have observed. In pursuing this goal of explanation, developmentalists hope
to determine why people develop as they typically do and why some people develop differently than
others. Explanation centers both on normative changes within individuals and variations in
development between individuals. As we will see throughout the text, it is often easier to describe
development than to conclusively explain how it occurs. Finally, developmentalists hope to optimize
development by applying what they have learned in attempts to help people develop in positive
directions.

This is a practical side to the study of human development that has led to such breakthroughs as ways
to: ■ promote strong affectional ties between fussy, unresponsive infants and their frustrated parents;
■ assist children with learning difficulties to succeed at school; and ■ help socially unskilled children
and adolescents to prevent the emotional difficulties that could result from having no close friends
and being rejected by peers. Many believe that such optimization goals will increasingly influence
research agendas in the 21st century (Fabes et al., 2000; Lerner, Fisher, & Weinberg, 2000) as
developmentalists show greater interest in solving real problems and communicating the practical
implications of their findings to the public and policymakers (APA Presidential Task Force on
Evidence-Based Practice, 2006; Kratochwill, 2007; McCall & Groark, 2000; Schoenwald, Chapman,
Kelleher, Hoagwood, Landsverk, & Stevens et al., 2008). Yet, this heavier focus on applied issues in
no way implies that traditional descriptive and explanatory goals are any less important, because
optimization goals often cannot be achieved until researchers have adequately described and
explained normal and idiopathic pathways of development (Schwebel, Plumert, & Pick, 2000).
Some Basic Observations about the Character of Development Now that we have defined
development and talked very briefly about the goals that developmentalists pursue, let’s consider
some of the conclusions they have drawn about the character of development.

10
A Continual and Cumulative Process. Although no one can specify precisely what adulthood holds in
store from even the most meticulous examination of a person’s childhood, developmentalists have
learned that the first 12 years are extremely important years that sets the stage for adolescence and
adulthood. Who we are as adolescents and adults also depends on the experiences we have later in
life. Obviously, you are not the same person you were at age 10 or at age 15. You have probably
grown somewhat, acquired new academic skills, and developed very different interests and
aspirations from those you had as a fifth-grader or a high-school sophomore. And the path of such
developmental change stretches ever onward, through middle age and beyond, culminating in the
final change that occurs when we die. In sum, human development is best described as a continual
and cumulative process.

The one constant is change, and the changes that occur at each major phase of life can have important
implications for the future. Table 1.1 presents a chronological overview of the life span as
developmentalists see it. Our focus in this text is on development during the first five periods of life
prenatal development, infancy and toddlerhood, preschool, middle childhood, and adolescence. By
examining how children develop from the moment they are conceived until they reach young
adulthood, we will learn about ourselves and the determinants of our behavior. Our survey will also
provide some insight as to why no two individuals are ever exactly alike. Our survey won’t provide
answers to every important question you may have about developing children and adolescent.

A CHRONOLOGICAL OVERVIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Period of life Approximate age range

Prenatal period Conception to birth

Infancy Birth to 18 months old

Toddlerhood 18 months old to 3 years old

Preschool period 3 to 5 years of age

Middle childhood 5 to 12 or so years of age (until the onset of puberty)

Adolescence 12 or so to 20 years of age (many developmentalists define the end of adolescence

as the point at which the individual begins to work and is reasonably independent
of parental sanctions)
Young adulthood 20 to 40 years of age

Middle age 40 to 65 years of age

Old age 65 years of age or older

TABLE1.1

The study of human development is still a relatively young discipline with many unresolved issues.
But as we proceed, it should become quite clear that developmentalists have provided an enormous
amount of very practical information about young people that can help us to become better educators,
child/adolescent practitioners, and parents.

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A Holistic Process: It was once fashionable to divide developmentalists into three camps: (1) those
who studied physical growth and development, including bodily changes and the sequencing of
motor skills; (2) those who studied cognitive aspects of development, including perception, language,
learning, and thinking; and (3) those who concentrated on psychosocial aspects of development,
including emotions, personality, and the growth of interpersonal relationships. Today we know that
this classification is misleading, for researchers who work in any of these areas have found that
changes in one aspect of development have important implications for other aspects. Let’s consider
an example. What determines a person’s popularity with peers? If you were to say that social skills
are important, you would be right. Social skills such as warmth, friendliness, and willingness to
cooperate are characteristics that popular children typically display. Yet there is much more to
popularity than meets the eye.

We now have some indication that the age at which a child reaches puberty, an important milestone
in physical development, has an effect on social life. For example, boys who reach puberty early
enjoy better relations with their peers than do boys who reach puberty later (Livson & Peskin, 1980).
Children who do well in school also tend to be more popular with their peers than children who
perform somewhat less well in school. We see, then, that popularity depends not only on the growth
of social skills but also on various aspects of both cognitive and physical development. As this
example illustrates, development is not piecemeal but holistic humans are physical, cognitive, and
social beings, and each of these components of self depends, in part, on changes taking place in other
areas of development. Many researchers now incorporate this holistic theme into their theories and
research. For example, in reviewing the literature on sex differences in science and mathematics,
Halpern and her colleagues adopted a biopsychosocial approach in which they considered all aspects
of the child in understanding sex differences and similarities (Halpern, Benbow, Geary, Cur, Hyde, &
Gernsbacher, 2007). This holistic perspective is one of the dominant themes of human development
today, around which this book is organized.

Plasticity. Plasticity refers to a capacity for change in response to positive or negative life
experiences. Although we have described development as a continual and cumulative process and
noted that past events often have implications for the future, developmentalists know that the course
of development can change abruptly if important aspects of one’s life change. For example, somber
babies living in barren, understaffed orphanages often become quite cheerful and affectionate when
placed in socially stimulating adoptive homes (Rutter, 1981). Highly aggressive children who are
intensely disliked by peers often improve their social status after learning and practicing the social
skills that popular children display (Mize & Ladd, 1990; Shure, 1989). It is indeed fortunate that
human development is so plastic, for children who have horrible starts can often be helped to
overcome their deficiencies.

Historical/Cultural Context: No single portrait of development is accurate for all cultures, social
classes, or racial and ethnic groups. Each culture, subculture, and social class transmits a particular
pattern of beliefs, values, customs, and skills to its younger generations, and the content of this
cultural socialization has a strong influence on the attributes and competencies that individuals
display. Development is also influenced by societal changes: historical events such as wars,
technological breakthroughs such as the development of the Internet, and social causes such as the
gay and lesbian rights movement. Each generation develops in its own way, and each generation
changes the world for succeeding generations.

1.5.3 DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES: CHANGE AND STABILITY

Development scientists are interested in two kinds of developmental change; quantitative and
qualitative. Quantitative change is a change in number or amount, such as growth in height, weight,

12
vocabulary, aggressive behavior or frequency of communication. Qualitative change is a change in
kind, structure, or organization. It is marked by the emergency of new phenomena that cannot easily
be anticipated on the basis of earlier functioning, such as the change from an embryo to a baby, or
from a nonverbal child to one who understands words and can communicate verbally.

Developmental scientists also are interested in the underlying stability, or constancy, of personality
and behavior. For example, about 10 to 15% of children are consistently shy, and another 10 to 15%
are very bold. Although various influences can modify these traits somewhat, they seem to persist to
a moderate degree, especially in children at one extreme or the other. Broad dimensions of
personality, such as conscientiousness and openness to new experiences, seem to stabilize before or
during young adulthood. Which characteristics are most likely to endure? Which are likely to
change, and why? These are among the basic questions that the study of human development seeks to
answer. They are questions we address repeatedly throughout this book.

1.5.4 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT

Change and stability occur in various domains, or dimensions of the self. Developmental scientists
talk separately about physical development, cognitive development, and psychosocial development.
Actually, though, these domains are interwined. Throughout life, each affetcs the others, and each
domain is important throughtout life.

Growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills, and health are part of physical
development and may influence other domains of development. For example, a child with frequent
ear infections may develop language more slowly than a child without this problem. During puberty,
dramatic physical and hormonal changes affect the developing sense of self. And, in some older
adults, physical changes in the brain may lead to intellectual and personality deterioration.

Change and stability in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking,
reasoning and creativity constitute cognitive development. Cognitive advances are closely related to
physical and emotional growth. The ability to speak depends on the physical development of the
mouth and brain. A child who has difficult expressing herself in words may evoke negative reactions
in others, influencing her popularity and sense of self-worth.

Change and stability in emotions, personality and social relationships together constitute
psychosocial development, and this can affect cognitive and physical functioning. For example,
anxiety about taking a test can impair performance. Social support can help people cope with the
potentially negative effects of stress on physical and mental health.

1.5.5 PERIODS OF THE LIFE SPAN

The concept of a division of the life span into periods is a social construction: an idea about the
nature of reality that is widely accepted by members of a society at a particular time, on the basis of
shared of shared subjective perceptions or assumptions. In reality, days flow into years without any
demarcation expect one that people impose. There is no objectively definable moment when a child
becomes an adult, or young person becomes old.

The concept of childhood can be viewed as a social construction. Some controversial evidence
suggests that children in earlier times were regarded and treated much like small adults. Even now, in
many developing countries, children labor alongside their elders, doing the same kinds of work for
equally long hours.

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1.5.6 INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT

Students of development are interested in universal processes of development, but they also want to
know about individual differences, both in influences on development and in its outcome. People
differ in sex, height, weight, and body build; in constitutional factors such as health and energy level;
in intelligence; and in personality characteristics and emotional reactions. The contexts of their lives
and lifestyles differ, too; the homes, communities, and societies they live in, the relationships they
have, the kinds of schools they go to and how they spend their free time.

14
1.6 HEREDITY, ENIVRONMENT AND MATURATION

Some influences on development originate primarily with heredity: the genetic endownment inherited
from a person’s biological parents at conception. Other influences come largely from the inner and
outer environment: the world outside the self-beginning in the womb, and the learning that comes
from experience. Individual differences increase as people grow older. Many typical changes of
infancy and early childhood seem to be tied to maturation of the body and brain the unfolding of a
natural sequence of physical changes and behaviour patterns, including readiness to master new
abilities such as walking and talking. As children grow into adolescents and then into adults,
differences in innate characteristics and life experience play a greater role.

15
Even in processes that all people go through, rates and timing of development vary. Throughout this
book, we talk about certain milestones, or landmarks of development average ages for the occurrence
of certain events, such as the first word, the first step, the first menstruation or wet dream, the
development of logical thought, and menopause. But these ages are merely averages. Only when
deviation from the average is extreme should we consider development exceptionally advanced or
delayed.

In trying to understand the similarities and differences in development, then, we need to look at the
inherited characteristics that give each person a special start in life. We also need to consider the
many environmental, or experiential, factors that affect people, especially such major contexts s
family, neighborhood, socioeconomics status, ethnicity, and culture. We need to look at influences
that affect many or most people at a certain age or a certain time in history, and also at those that
affect only certain individuals. Finally, we need to look at how timing can affect the impact of certain
influences.

1.7 CONCEIVING NEW LIFE

Most adults and even most children in developed countries, have a reasonably accurate idea of where
babies come from. Yet only a generation or two ago, many parents told their children that a stork had
brought them. The folk belief that children came from well, springs or rocks was common in north
and central Europe as late as the beginning of the twentieth century. Conception was believed to be
influenced by cosmic forces. A baby conceived under a new moon would be a boy; during the moon
last quarter, a girl.

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a debate raged between two schools of biological
thought. The animalculists (so named because the male sperm were then called animalcules) claimed
that fully formed “little people” were contained in the heads of sperm, ready to grow when deposited
in the nurturing environment of the womb. The ovists, inspired by the influential work of the English
Physician William Harvey, held an opposite but equally incorrect view: that a female’s ovaries
contained tiny, already formed humans whose growth was activated by the male’s sperm. Finally, in
the late eighteenth century, the German-born anatomist Kaspar Friedrich Wolff demonstrated that
embroys are not performed in either parent and that both contribute equally to the formation of a new
being.

1.8 HOW FERTILIZATION TAKES PLACE

Fertilization, or conception, is the process by which sperm and ovum the male and female gametes,
or sex cells combine to create a single cell called a zygote, which then duplicates itself again and
again by cell division to become a baby. At birth, a girl has all the ova (plural of ovum) she will ever
have about 400,000. These immature ova are in her two ovaries. Each ovum in its own small sac, or
follicle. In a sexually mature woman, ovulation rupture of a mature follicle in either ovary and
expulsion of its own occurs about once every 28 days until menopause. The ovum is swept along
through the fallopian tube by tiny hair cells, called cilia, toward the uterus, or womb. Fertilization
normally occurs during the brief time the ovum is passing through the fallopian tube. Sperm
produced in the testicles (testes), or reproductive glands of a mature male at a rate of several hundred
million a day and are ejaculated in the semen at sexual climax. They enter the vagina and try to swim
through the cervix (the opening of the uterus) and into the fallopian tubes, but only a tiny fraction
make it that far.

16
Fertilization is most likely if intercourse occurs on the day of ovulation or during the five days
before. If fertilization does not occur, the ovum and any sperm cells in the woman’s body die. The
sperm are absorbed by the woman’s white blood cells, and the ovum passes through the uterus and
exits through the vagina.

1.9 WHAT CAUSES MUTIPLE BIRTHS?

Multiple births occur in two ways. Most commonly, the mother’s body releases two ova within a
short time (or sometimes, perhaps, a single unfertilized ovum splits) and then both are fertilized. The
resulting babies are dizygotic (two-egg) twins, commonly called fraternal twins. The second way is
for a single fertilized ovum to split into two. The babies that result from this cell division are
monozygotic (one-egg) twins, commonly called identical twins. Triplets, quadruplets, and other
multiple births can result from either of these processes or a combination of both.

17
Monozygotic twins have the same hereditary makeup and are the same, sex but in part because of
differences in prenatal as well as postnatal experience they differ in some respects. They may not be
identical in temperament (disposition, or style of approaching and reacting to situations). In some
physical caharteristics, such as hair whorls, dental patterns, and handedness, they may be mirror
images of each other; one may be left-handed and the other right-handed. Dizygotic twins, who are
created from different sperms cells and usually from different ova, are no more alike in hereditary
makeup than any other siblings and may be the same sex or different sexes.

1.10 MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY

The science of genetics is the study of heredity the inborn factors, inherited from the biological
parents, that affect development. When ovum and sperm unite, they endow the baby-to-be with a
genetic makeup that influences a wide range of characteristics from color of eyes and hair to health,
intellect and personality.

The Genetic Code

The basis of heredity is a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains all the
inherited material passed from biological parents to children. DNA carries the biochemical
instructions that direct the formation of each cell in the body and tell the cells how to make the
proteins that enable them to carry out specific bogy functions.

The structure of DNA resembles a long, spiraling ladder made of four chemical units called bases.
The bases adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine are known by their initials: A, T, C and G. They
pair up in four combinations AT, TA, CG and GC and coil around each other. The sequences of 3
billion base pairs constitutes the genetic code, which determines all inherited characteristics.

Within each cell nucleus are chromosomes, coils of DNA that contain smaller segments called genes,
the functional units of heredity. Each gene is a small unit of DNA, located in a definite position on its

18
chromosomes, and each gene contains the “instructions” for building a specific protein. A typical
gene contains thousands of base pairs.

The complete sequence of genes in human body constitutes the human genome. The genome
specifies the order in which genes are expressed, or activated. In 2001, two teams of scientists
completed the mapping of the human genome, which is estimated to contain between 30,000 and
40,000 genes, far fewer than the 80,000 to 100,000 previously estimated. Most human genes seem to
be similar to those of other animals; all but 300 human genes have counterparts in mice.

Every cell in the normal human body except the sex cells has 23 pairs of chromosomes-46 in all.
Through a type of cell division called meiosis, each sex cell, or gamete (sperm or ovum), ends up
with only 23 chromosomes one from each pair. Thus, when sperm and ovum fuse at conception, they
produce a zygote with 46 chromosomes, 23 from the father and 23 from the mother.

At conception, then, the single-celled zygote has all the biological information needed to guide its
development into a human baby. This happens through mitosis, a process by which the cells divide in
half over and over again. When a cell divides, the DNA spirals replicate themselves, so that each
newly formed cell has the same DNA structures as all the others. Thus, each cell division creates a
duplicate of the original cell, with the same hereditary information. When development normal, each
cell (expect the gametes) continues to have 46 chromosomes identical to those in the original zygote.

As the cells divide and the child grows and develops, the cells differentiate, specializing in a variety
of complex bodily functions. Genes do not do their work automatically. They spring into action
when conditions call for the information they can provide. Genetic action that growth of body and
brain is often regulated by hormonal levels, which are affected by such environmental conditions as
nutrition and stress. Thus, from the start, heredity and environment are interrelated.

19
1.11 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH

If you mention pregnancy in a room full of women, each one who has borne a child will have a story
to tell. There will be laughter about food cravings, body shape, and balance issues. There will be tales
of babies who arrived early and attended their own showers, as well as recollections of induced
labors that jettisoned infants who were reluctant to leave the womb. There will be complaints about
advice from the medical world that was later discovered to be prenatally hazardous. Young, healthy
women who had never smoked or ingested alcohol, who carefully consumed a nutrient-rich variety of
fruits, vegetables, and other foods, who made sure they were well rested, and who enjoyed the
support of spouse, friends, and family may talk about miscarriage, premature births, or other life-
threatening complications that accompanied their pregnancies.

Older mothers, or those who inadvertently or intentionally drank alcohol, smoked cigarettes or
marijuana, and paid little heed to their diets, will boast about plump, Gerber-baby newborns are now
at the top of their high-school classes. While these women express relief that their offspring seem to
have dodged the bullets that they themselves fi red, others speak of how they deal with consequences
they might have avoided. A few of the women in the room may sit quietly and reflect upon what it

20
was like to be pregnant as a teenager, a single parent, or a widow. As an observer, you will note that
nearly every woman in the room was, or has become, keenly aware that a mother’s behavioral
choices during pregnancy may affect the outcome for her child.

From Conception to Birth

The development begins in the fallopian tube when a sperm penetrates the wall of an ovum, forming
a zygote. From the moment of conception, it will take approximately 266 days for this tiny, one-
celled zygote to become a fetus of some 200 billion cells that is ready to be born. Prenatal
development is often divided into three major phases. The first phase, called the period of the zygote,
lasts from conception through implantation, when the developing zygote becomes firmly attached to
the wall of the uterus. The period of the zygote normally lasts about 10 to 14 days (Leese, 1994). The
second phase of prenatal development, the period of the embryo, lasts from the beginning of the third
week through the end of the eighth. This is the time when virtually all the major organs are formed
and the heart begins to beat (Corsini, 1994). The third phase, the period of the fetus, lasts from the
ninth week of pregnancy until the baby is born. During this phase, all the major organ systems begin
to function, and the developing organism grows rapidly (Malas et al., 2004).

The Period of the Zygote

As the fertilized ovum, or zygote, moves down the fallopian tube toward the uterus, it divides by
mitosis into two cells. These two cells and all the resulting cells continue to divide, forming a ball-
like structure, or blastocyst, that will contain 60 to 80 cells within 4 days of conception. Cell
differentiation has already begun. The inner layer of the blastocyst will become the embryo, and the
outer layer of cells will develop into tissues that protect and nourish the embryo.

Implantation As the blastocyst approaches the uterus 6 to 10 days after conception, small, burrlike
tendrils emerge from its outer surface. When the blastocyst reaches the uterine wall, these tendrils
burrow inward, tapping the pregnant woman’s blood supply. This is implantation. Implantation is
quite a development in itself. There is a specific “window of implantation” during which the
blastocyst must communicate (biologically) with the uterine wall, position itself, attach, and invade.
This implantation choreography takes about 48 hours and occurs 7 to 10 days after ovulation, with
the entire process being completed about 10 to 14 days after ovulation (Hoozemans et al., 2004).
Once the blastocyst is implanted it looks like a small translucent blister on the wall of the uterus.

Development of Support Systems: Once implanted, the blastocyst’s outer layer rapidly forms four
major support structures that protect and nourish the developing organism (Sadler, 1996). One
membrane, the amnion, is a watertight sac that fills with fluid from the pregnant woman’s tissues.
The purposes of this sac and its amniotic fluid are to cushion the developing organism against blows,
regulate its temperature, and provide a weightless environment that will make it easier for the embryo
to move. Floating in this watery environment is a balloon-shaped yolk sac that produces blood cells
until the embryo is capable of producing its own. This yolk sac is attached to a third membrane, the
chorion, which surrounds the amnion and eventually becomes the lining of the placenta—a
multipurpose organ that we will discuss in detail. A fourth membrane, the allantois, forms the
embryo’s umbilical cord.

Purpose of the Placenta: Once developed, the placenta is fed by blood vessels from the pregnant
woman and the embryo, although its hairlike villi act as a barrier that prevents these two
bloodstreams from mixing. This placental barrier is semipermeable, meaning that it allows some
substances to pass through but not others. Gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, salts, and
various nutrients such as sugars, proteins, and fats are small enough to cross the placental barrier.
However, blood cells are too large (Gude et al., 2004). Maternal blood fl owing into the placenta
delivers oxygen and nutrients into the embryo’s bloodstream by means of the umbilical cord, which

21
connects the embryo to the placenta. The umbilical cord also transports carbon dioxide and metabolic
wastes from the embryo. These waste products then cross the placental barrier, enter the pregnant
woman’s bloodstream, and are eventually expelled from the pregnant woman’s body along with her
own metabolic wastes. Thus, the placenta plays a crucial role in prenatal development because this
organ is the site of all metabolic transactions that sustain the embryo.

The Period of the Embryo

The period of the embryo lasts from implantation (roughly the third week) through the eighth week
of pregnancy (see Figure 4.3). By the third week, the embryonic disk is rapidly differentiating into
three cell layers. The outer layer, or ectoderm, will become the nervous system, skin, and hair. The
middle layer, or mesoderm, will become the muscles, bones, and circulatory system. The inner layer,
or endoderm, will become the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and other vital organs such as
the pancreas and liver. Development proceeds at a breath taking pace during the period of the
embryo. In the third week after conception, a portion of the ectoderm folds into a neural tube that
soon becomes the brain and spinal cord. By the end of the fourth week, the heart has not only formed
but has already begun to beat. The eyes, ears, nose, and mouth are also beginning to form, and buds
that will become arms and legs suddenly appear. At this point, the embryo is only about 1/4th of an
inch long, but already 10,000 times the size of the zygote from which it developed. At no time in the
future will this organism ever grow as rapidly or change as much as it has during the first prenatal
month.

The Second Month During the second month, the embryo becomes much more human in
appearance as it grows about 1/30th of an inch per day. A primitive tail appears, but it is soon
enclosed by protective tissue and becomes the tip of the backbone, the coccyx. By the middle of the
fifth week, the eyes have corneas and lenses. By the seventh week, the ears are well formed, and the
embryo has a rudimentary skeleton. Limbs are now developing from the body outward; that is, the
upper arms appear first, followed by the forearms, hands, and then fingers. The legs follow a similar
pattern a few days later. The brain develops rapidly during the second month, and it directs the
organism’s first muscular contractions by the end of the embryonic period.

During the seventh and eighth prenatal weeks, the embryo’s sexual development begins with the
appearance of a genital ridge called the indifferent gonad. If the embryo is a male, a gene on its Y
chromosome triggers a biochemical reaction that instructs the indifferent gonad to produce testes. If
the embryo is a female, the indifferent gonad receives no such instructions and will produce ovaries.
The embryo’s circulatory system now functions on its own, for the liver and spleen have assumed the
task of producing blood cells.

By the end of the second month, the embryo is slightly more than an inch long and weighs less than
1/4th of an ounce. Yet it is already a marvelously complex being. At this point, all the major
structures of the human are formed and the organism is beginning to be recognizable as a human.

The Period of the Fetus

The last seven months of pregnancy, or period of the fetus, is a period of rapid growth (see Figure
4.4) and refinement of all organ systems. This is the time during which all major organ systems begin
to function and the fetus begins to move, sense, and behave (although not intentionally). This is also
a time when individuality emerges as different fetuses develop unique characteristics, such as
different patterns of movement and different facial expressions.

The Third Month

During the third prenatal month, organ systems that were formed earlier continue their rapid growth
and become interconnected. For example, coordination between the nervous and muscular systems

22
allows the fetus to perform many interesting maneuvers in its watery environment kicking its legs,
making fists, twisting its body although these activities are far too subtle to be felt by the pregnant
woman. The digestive and excretory systems are also working together, allowing the fetus to
swallow, digest nutrients, and urinate (El-Haddad et al., 2004; Ross & Nijland, 1998). Sexual
differentiation is progressing rapidly. The male testes secrete testosteronethe male sex hormone
responsible for the development of a penis and scrotum. In the absence of testosterone, female
genitalia form. By the end of the third month, the sex of a fetus can be detected by ultrasound and its
reproductive system already contains immature ova or sperm cells. All these detailed developments
are present after 12 weeks even though the fetus is a mere 3 inches long and still weighs less than an
ounce.

The Fourth through Sixth Months

Development continues at a rapid pace during the 13th through 24th weeks of pregnancy. At age 16
weeks, the fetus is 8 to 10 inches long and weighs about 6 ounces. From 15 or 16 weeks through
about 24 or 25 weeks, simple movements of the tongue, lips, pharynx, and larynx increase in
complexity and coordination, so that the fetus begins to suck, swallow, munch, hiccup, breathe,
cough, and snort, thus preparing itself for extrauterine life (Miller, Sonies, & Macedonia, 2003). In
fact, infants born prematurely may have difficulty breathing and suckling because they exit the womb
at an early stage in the development of these skills simply put, they haven’t had enough time to
practice (Miller, Sonies, & Macedonia, 2003). During this period the fetus also begins kicking that
may be strong enough to be felt by the pregnant woman. The fetal heartbeat can easily be heard with
a stethoscope, and as the amount of bone and cartilage increases as the skeleton hardens (Salle et al.,
2002) the skeleton can be detected by ultrasound.

By the end of the 16th week, the fetus has assumed a distinctly human appearance, although it stands
virtually no chance of surviving outside the womb. During the fifth and sixth months, the nails
harden, the skin thickens, and eyebrows, eyelashes, and scalp hair suddenly appear. At 20 weeks, the
sweat glands are functioning, and the fetal heartbeat is often strong enough to be heard by placing an
ear on the pregnant woman’s abdomen. The fetus is now covered by a white, cheesy substance called
vernix and a fi ne layer of body hair called lanugo. Vernix protects fetal skin against chapping during
its long exposure to amniotic fluid and lanugo helps vernix stick to the skin. By the end of the sixth
month, the fetus’s visual and auditory senses are clearly functional. We know this because preterm
infants born only 25 weeks after conception become alert at the sound of a loud bell and blink in
response to a bright light (Allen & Capute, 1986).

Also, magnetoencephalography (MEG) has been used to document changes in the magnetic fields
generated by the fetal brain in response to auditory stimuli. In fact, the use of MEG has revealed that
the human fetus has some ability to discriminate between sounds. This ability may indicate the
presence of a rudimentary fetal short-term memory system (Huotilainen et al., 2005). These abilities
are present 6 months after conception, when the fetus is approximately 14 to 15 inches long and
weighs about 2 pounds.

The Seventh through Ninth Months

The last 3 months of pregnancy comprise a “finishing phase” during which all organ systems mature
rapidly, preparing the fetus for birth. Indeed, somewhere between 22 and 28 weeks after conception
(usually in the seventh month), fetuses reach the age of viability the point at which survival outside
the uterus is possible (Moore & Persund, 1993). Research using fetal monitoring techniques reveals
that 28- to 32-week-old fetuses suddenly begin to show better organized and more predictable cycles
of heart rate activity, gross motor activity, and sleepiness/waking activity, findings that indicate that
their developing nervous systems are now sufficiently well organized to allow them to survive should
their birth be premature (DiPietro et al., 1996; Groome et al., 1997).

23
Nevertheless, many fetuses born this young will still require oxygen assistance because the tiny
pulmonary alveoli (air sacs) in their lungs are too immature to inflate and exchange oxygen for
carbon dioxide on their own (Moore & Persaud, 1993). By the end of the seventh month, the fetus
weighs nearly 4 pounds and is about 16 to 17 inches long. One month later, it has grown to 18 inches
and put on another 1 to 2 pounds. Much of this weight comes from a padding of fat deposited just
beneath the skin that later helps to insulate the newborn infant from changes in temperature. By the
middle of the ninth month, fetal activity slows and sleep increases (DiPietro et al., 1996; Sahni et al.,
1995).

The fetus is now so large that the most comfortable position within a restricted, pear-shaped uterus is
likely to be a head-down posture at the base of the uterus, with the limbs curled up in the so-called
fetal position. At irregular intervals over the last month of pregnancy, the pregnant woman’s uterus
contracts and then relaxes a process that tones the uterine muscles, dilates the cervix, and helps to
position the head of the fetus into the gap between the pelvic bones through which it will soon be
pushed. As the uterine contractions become stronger, more frequent, and regular, the prenatal period
draws to a close. The pregnant woman is now in the fi rst stage of labor, and within a matter of hours
she will give birth.

24
25
Potential Problems in Prenatal Development
Although the vast majority of newborn infants follow the “normal” pattern of prenatal development
just described, some encounter environmental obstacles that may channel their development along an
abnormal path. In the following sections, we will consider a number of environmental factors that can

26
 harm developing embryos and fetuses. We will also consider interventions used to prevent abnormal
outcomes.

Teratogens
The term teratogen refers to any disease, drug, or other environmental agent that can harm a
developing embryo or fetus by causing physical deformities, severely retarded growth, blindness,
brain damage, or even death. The list of known and suspected teratogens has grown frighteningly
long over the years, making many of today’s parents quite concerned about the hazards their
developing embryos and fetuses could face (FriedmanBefore considering the effects of some of the
major teratogens, let’s emphasize that about 95 percent of newborn babies are perfectly normal and
that many of those born with defects have mild, temporary, or reversible problems (Gosden,
Nicolaides, & Whitling, 1994; Heinonen, Slone, & Shapiro, 1977).

Let’s also lay out a few principles about the effects of teratogens that will aid us in interpreting the
research that follows:
■ The effects of a teratogen on a body part or organ system are worst during the period when that
structure is forming and growing most rapidly.
■ Not all embryos or fetuses are equally affected by a teratogen; susceptibility to harm is influenced
by the embryo’s or fetus’s and the pregnant woman’s genetic makeup and the quality of the prenatal
environment.
■ The same defect can be caused by different teratogens.
■ A variety of defects can result from a single teratogen.
■ The longer the exposure to or higher the “dose” of a teratogen, the more likely it is that serious
harm will be done.
■ Embryos and fetuses can be affected by fathers’ as well as by mothers’ exposure to some
teratogens.
■ The long-term effects of a teratogen often depend on the quality of the postnatal environment.
■ Some teratogens cause “sleeper effects” that may not be apparent until later in the child’s life.

1.12 DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT (PSYCHOANALYTIC,

COGNITIVE, BEHAVIOURAL, SOCIO COGNITIVE, ETHOLOGICAL & ECOLOGICAL)

Developmental psychology, a broad area of study exploring the development of humans over
time, involves the examination of the ways people develop over the course of their lifespan as
well as the evolution of cultures as a whole. Those who work in the field of developmental
psychology seek to better understand how people learn and adapt to changes over time.

Developmental psychologists might work in schools, hospitals, or assisted living facilities, and
they might also conduct research or teach in higher education or government institutes. People
seeking therapy for issues related to development may also encounter helping professionals who
have a background in developmental psychology.

There are a number of important issues that have been debated throughout the history of
developmental psychology. The major questions include the following:
 Is development due more to genetics or environment?
 Does development occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes happen in stages?
 Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development or are later events equally
important?

27
 Nature and Nuture
The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment usually referred to as
the nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in both philosophy and psychology.
Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas are inborn. On the other
hand, thinkers such as John Locke argued for the concept of tabula rasa—a belief that the mind is a
blank slate at birth, with experience determining our knowledge.
Some aspects of development are distinctly biological, such as puberty. However, the onset of
puberty can be affected by environmental factors such as diet and nutrition.

Early Experience and Later Experience

A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the relative importance of
early experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are we more affected by events that occur in
early childhood, or do later events play an equally important role?
Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that occur in early childhood. According to Freud,
much of a child's personality is completely established by the age of five. If this is indeed the case,
those who have experienced deprived or abusive childhoods might never adjust or develop normally.
In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood events does not
necessarily have a dominating effect over behaviour throughout life. Many people with less-than-
perfect childhoods go on to develop normally into well-adjusted adults.

Continuity and Discontinuity

A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity. Does change occur smoothly
over time, or through a series of predetermined steps?
Some theories of development argue that changes are simply a matter of quantity; children
display more of certain skills as they grow older. Other theories outline a series of sequential stages
in which skills emerge at certain points of development.
Most theories of development fall under three broad areas:
1. Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the
importance of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud's contribution to
developmental theory was his proposal that development occurs through a series of psychosexual
stages.
Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by proposing a stage theory of psychosocial
development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts that arise at different stages of development and,
unlike Freud's theory, Erikson described development throughout the lifespan.
2. Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behaviour. Important learning processes
include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. In each case, behaviour
is shaped by the interaction between the individual and the environment.
3. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities. Examples of
cognitive theories include Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
Abnormal Behaviour and Individual Differences
One of the biggest concerns of many parents is whether or not their child is developing normally.
Developmental milestones offer guidelines for the ages at which certain skills and abilities typically
emerge but can create concern when a child falls slightly behind the norm. While developmental
theories have historically focused upon deficits in behaviour, focus on individual differences in
development is becoming more common.

Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally focused upon abnormal behaviour, so developmental

theories in this area tend to describe deficits in behaviour. Learning theories rely more on the
environment's unique impact on an individual, so individual differences are an important component
of these theories. Today, psychologists look at both norms and individual differences when
describing child development.

28
 Theories of development (psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioural, socio cognitive, ethological &
ecological)
Development is the series of age-related changes that happen over the course of a life span. Several
famous psychologists, including Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, and Lawrence Kohlberg,
describe development as a series of stages. A Stage is a period in development in which people
exhibit typical behaviour patterns and establish particular capacities. The various stage theories share
three assumptions:
1. People pass through stages in a specific order, with each stage building on capacities developed in the
previous stage.
2. Stages are related to age.
3. Development is discontinuous, with qualitatively different capacities emerging in each stage.

Theories of development - Psychoanalytic

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behaviour is the result of
the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. This theory,
known as Freud’s structural theory of personality, places great emphasis on the role of unconscious
psychological conflicts in shaping behaviour and personality. Dynamic interactions among these
fundamental parts of the mind are thought to progress through five distinct psychosexual stages of
development. Over the last century, however, Freud’s ideas have since been met with criticism, in
part because of his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human personality development.

Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind

According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he proposed as the
three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego. Conflicts among these
three structures, and our efforts to find balance among what each of them “desires,” determines how
we behave and approach the world. What balance we strike in any given situation determines how we
will resolve the conflict between two overarching behavioural tendencies: our biological aggressive
and pleasure-seeking drives vs. our socialized internal control over those drives.

Freud’s psychosexual theory of development

Freud’s psychosexual theory of development suggests that children develop through a series of stages
related to erogenous zones.

Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was a Viennese physician who developed his psychosexual theory of development
through his work with emotionally troubled adults. Now considered controversial and largely
outdated, his theory is based on the idea that parents play a crucial role in managing their children’s
sexual and aggressive drives during the first few years of life in order to foster their proper
development.

Freud’s Structural Model

Freud believed that the human personality consisted of three interworking parts: the id, the ego, and
the superego. According to his theory, these parts become unified as a child works through the five
stages of psychosexual development. The id, the largest part of the mind, is related to desires and
impulses and is the main source of basic biological needs. The ego is related to reasoning and is the
conscious, rational part of the personality; it monitors behaviour in order to satisfy basic desires
without suffering negative consequences. The superego, or conscience, develops through interactions
with others (mainly parents) who want the child to conform to the norms of society. The superego
restricts the desires of the id by applying morals and values from society. Freud believed that a

29
struggle existed between these levels of consciousness, influencing personality development and
psychopathology.

The id, ego, and superego: Freud believed that we are only aware of a small amount of our mind’s
activities and that most of it remains hidden from us in our unconscious. The information in our
unconscious affects our behaviour, although we are unaware of it.

1.13 THE ROLE OF CONFLICT

Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved before
the individual can successfully advance to the next stage.
The resolution of each of these conflicts requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more
energy that is expended at a particular stage, the more the important characteristics of that stage
remain with the individual as he/she matures psychologically.

To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the march. As the troops advance,
they are met by opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful in winning the battle (resolving
the conflict), then most of the troops (libido) will be able to move on to the next battle (stage).
But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the greater the need for troops to
remain behind to fight and thus the fewer that will be able to go on to the next confrontation.

Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation

Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason for
this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have been
adequately met in which case there is frustration.

Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the
psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.
Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what
psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage.

Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been permanently
'invested' in a particular stage of his development.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-
seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is
characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation. During the five

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 psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital stages, the erogenous zone
associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early
experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behaviour later in
life.

Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle development,
depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a
healthy personality is the result.
If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a
persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will
remain "stuck" in this stage.

A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may
seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

 The Oral Stage (Age Range: Birth to 1 Year)

Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the
rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant
derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child),
the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon
caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with
dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or
nail-biting.

The Anal Stage (Age Range: 1 to 3 years)

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder
and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to
control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and
independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet
training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage
positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that positive
experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to become competent, productive,
and creative adults.

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 However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage.
Some parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents. According to Freud,
inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is
too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual
has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too
early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent,
orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The Phallic Stage (Age Range: 3 to 6 Years)

Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At
this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The
Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace
the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a
fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young
girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing
the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that
all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this
theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men
experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to
as womb envy.

The Latent Period (Age Range: 6 to Puberty)

Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children
develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family.
The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around
the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies,
and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or dormant. This
energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social
interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-
confidence.
As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to become
fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form
fulfilling relationships as an adult.

 The Genital Stage (Age Range: Puberty to Death)

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of
psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This
stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others
grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.

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 Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and superego were
fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands
immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants. Teens in the genital stage of development
are able to balance their most basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and
social norms.

1.14 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT – COGNITIVE

Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development

The Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget is one of the most influential figures in the study of child
development. He developed his cognitive-developmental theory based on the idea that children
actively construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the world around them. Piaget was
interested in the development of “thinking” and how it relates to development throughout childhood.
His theory of four stages of cognitive development, first presented in the mid-20th century, is one of
the most famous and widely-accepted theories in child cognitive development to this day.

Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of
the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait and regarded cognitive
development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the
environment.

Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French
versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reason’s children
gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these
incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.

Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His
contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of
cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems
as a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental
concepts like the very idea of number, time, quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged.
Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less
competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways
compared to adults.

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and
evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based.
The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the
child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of
biological maturation and environmental experience.

Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies
between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.
There are three basic components to Piaget's Cognitive Theory:
1. Schemas (Building blocks of knowledge).
2. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium, assimilation
and accommodation)
3. Stages of Cognitive Development:
 Sensorimotor,

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 Preoperational,
 Concrete operational,
 Formal operational.

SCHEMAS

Imagine what it would be like if you did not have a mental model of your world. It would mean that
you would not be able to make so much use of information from your past experience or to plan
future actions.

Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models and enable us to form a mental
representation of the world. Piaget defined a schema as:
"a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected
and governed by a core meaning."

In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building MODULE of intelligent behaviour.
A way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of knowledge,
each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical)
concepts.

Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as 'index cards' filed
in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information.
When Piaget talked about the development of a person's mental processes, he was referring to
increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learned.
When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to
be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e., mental) balance.
Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development and described how they were
developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the
world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store
these mental representations and apply them when needed.

For example, a person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a
stored form of the pattern of behaviour which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and
paying the bill. This is an example of a type of schema called a 'script.' Whenever they are in a
restaurant, they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation.

The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this - especially those used by infants. He
described how - as a child gets older - his or her schemas become more numerous and elaborate.
Piaget believed that newborn babies have a small number of innate schemas - even before they have
had many opportunities to experience the world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures
underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes are genetically programmed into us.
For example, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby's lips.
A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that
the baby has a 'sucking schema.'
Similarly, the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a baby's hand, or
the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, are
innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas, grasping and shaking.

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 Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process
of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through:
 Assimilation
– Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
 Accommodation
– This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work and needs to be changed to
deal with a new object or situation.
 Equilibration
– This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that cognitive
development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.

Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation.
However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into
existing schemas (assimilation).
Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will
seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information
is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time, we
need to make an adjustment to it.

Example of Assimilation
A 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To
his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown” (Siegler et al., 2003).
Example of Accommodation
In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that
even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly
things to make people laugh.
With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit
better to a standard concept of “clown”.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget believed that as children grow and their brains develop, they move through four distinct stages
that are characterized by differences in thought processing. In his research, he carefully observed
children and presented them with problems to solve that were related to object permanence,
reversibility, deductive reasoning, transitivity, and assimilation (described below). Each stage builds
upon knowledge learned in the previous stage. Piaget’s four stages correspond with the age of the

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children and are the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal
operational stages.

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 years)

The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to age 2. It is characterized by the idea that infants “think”
by manipulating the world around them. This is done by using all five senses: seeing, hearing,
touching, tasting, and smelling. Children figure out ways to elicit responses by “doing”, such as
pulling a lever on a music box to hear a sound, placing a MODULE in a bucket and pulling it back
out, or throwing an object to see what happens. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child
develops object permanence, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still
exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000). For example, a child learns that even though his
mother leaves the room, she has not ceased to exist; similarly, a ball does not disappear because a
bucket is placed over it.

By the end of this stage, children are able to engage in what Piaget termed deferred imitation. This
involves the ability to reproduce or repeat a previously-witnessed action later on; rather than copying
it right away, the child is able to produce a mental representation of it and repeat the behaviour later
on. By 24 months, infants are able to imitate behaviours after a delay of up to three months.

Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years)

The preoperational stage occurs from age 2 to age 7. During this stage, children can use symbols to
represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A
child’s arms might become airplane wings as she zooms around the room, or a child with a stick
might become a brave knight with a sword. Language development and make-believe play begin
during this stage. Logical thinking is still not present, so children cannot rationalize or understand
more complex ideas. Children at this stage are very egocentric, meaning they focus on themselves
and how actions will impact them, rather than others. They are not able to take on the perspective of
others, and they think that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just like they do.

Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 years)

The concrete operational stage occurs from age 7 to age 11. It is characterized by the idea that
children’s reasoning becomes focused and logical. Children demonstrate a logical understanding
of conservation principles, the ability to recognize that key properties of a substance do not change
even as their physical appearance may be altered. For example, a child who understands the
principles of conservation will recognize that identical quantities of liquid will remain the same
despite the size of the container in which they are poured. Children who do not yet grasp
conservation and logical thinking will believe that the taller or larger glass must contain more liquid.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and over)

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and lasts into adulthood. During this
time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses.
Piaget (1952) did not explicitly relate his theory to education, although later researchers have
explained how features of Piaget's theory can be applied to teaching and learning.

Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching practice. For
example, a review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on
Piaget’s theory. The result of this review led to the publication of the Plowden report (1967).
Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring - was seen
as central to the transformation of the primary school curriculum.

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 'The report's recurring themes are individual learning, flexibility in the curriculum, the centrality of
play in children's learning, the use of the environment, learning by discovery and the importance of
the evaluation of children's progress - teachers should 'not assume that only what is measurable is
valuable.'
Because Piaget's theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the notion of 'readiness' is
important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught. According to
Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate
stage of cognitive development.

According to Piaget (1958), assimilation and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive
one, because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered.
Within the classroom learning should be student-centered and accomplished through active discovery
learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition. Therefore, teachers
should encourage the following within the classroom:
 Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it.
 Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths."
 Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other).
 Devising situations that present useful problems and create disequilibrium in the child.
 Evaluate the level of the child's development so suitable tasks can be set.

Critical Evaluation of Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development:

 The influence of Piaget’s ideas in developmental psychology has been enormous. He changed how
people viewed the child’s world and their methods of studying children.
He was an inspiration to many who came after and took up his ideas. Piaget's ideas have generated a
huge amount of research which has increased our understanding of cognitive development.
 His ideas have been of practical use in understanding and communicating with children, particularly
in the field of education (re: Discovery Learning).

1.14.1 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT – BEHAVIOURAL

During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought known as behaviourism rose to
become a dominant force within psychology. Behaviourists believed that psychology needed to focus
only on observable and quantifiable behaviours in order to become a more scientific discipline.
According to the behavioural perspective, all human behaviour can be described in terms of
environmental influences. Some behaviourists, such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, insisted
that learning occurs purely through processes of association and reinforcement.

Behavioural theories of child development focus on how environmental interaction influences

behaviour and is based on the theories of theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F.
Skinner. These theories deal only with observable behaviours. Development is considered a reaction
to rewards, punishments, stimuli, and reinforcement.

This theory differs considerably from other child development theories because it gives no
consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it focuses purely on how experience shapes
who we are.

Two important types of learning that emerged from this approach to development are classical
conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning by pairing a naturally
occurring stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement
and punishment to modify behaviours.

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Behaviourism is a learning theory that focuses on observable behaviours. It is broken into two areas
of conditioning – classic and behavioural or operant. Most are familiar with operant conditioning,
where one learns through reward what behaviour is desired. B.F. Skinner spent lots of time exploring
operant conditioning through research with animals, which proved that behaviour is a learned
response. Classic conditioning is a natural reflex or response to stimuli. When a child feels
apprehension at the thought of taking a test, she’s exhibiting classic conditioning.

Skinner’s research determined the brain was not a part of conditioning, and learning was through
environmental factors, differentiating his ideas from others such as John Watson, and coining his
theories as radical behaviourism. All actions required a reaction, positive or negative, which modified
behaviour. With basic behaviourism theories, it is thought that the individual is passive and
behaviour is molded through positive and negative reinforcement. This means that a child’s
behaviour can be changed and modified through reinforcement, but which type of reinforcement is
best? Positive or negative?

Rewarding behaviour
Yes, incentives do seem to reap positive rewards. Many of us resort to offering rewards for desired
behaviour. If a child performs well on her next test, she is promised a new toy. When she is loudly
complaining at the supermarket, she is offered a tasty-treat to stop screaming. This means the child is
rewarded for both her positive and negative behaviours sending a confusing message, which results
in a child learning through her behaviours that she can receive the same outcome.

Behaviourism has even hit the mainstream with several television shows setting almost impossible
examples of how children can and should behave with the proper attention. Alfie Kohn finds
that behaviourism is as American as apple pie, applying techniques for a quick response without
consideration for the future. According to Kohn, instead of tossing kids in time-out, spending time
reasoning with children in a warm and compassionate manor offers better response resulting in future
well-adjusted and loving adults.

Modifying behaviour
As adults, we can work to model positive behaviours to encourage the same behaviour from our
children along with not offering incentives when unnecessary or overly praising. Our gut reaction is
to offer a “good job” when a child behaves in a promising way. This raises the child’s psyche but
doesn’t offer them necessary important incentive to continue the behaviour. The child also does not
understand specifically what behaviour caused the adult to praise her, causing disregard. The blanket
phrase “good job” becomes insignificant and doesn’t promote continued positive behaviour.
When specific praise is provided, such as turning that “good job” into “I like the way you explained
the answer to that question,” with the praise focused on growth, learning, and development, the
child’s behaviour is positively acknowledged and encouraged. It also gives the adult a chance to
think about what actually excited them about the child’s behaviour, making it a win-win on both
ends. The child feels supported and motivated in a nurturing way, and the adult has identified the
specific behaviour they are proud of.

Along with offering specific and well-defined praise, adults can model positive behaviours to inspire
the same in a child. Communication is key along with having realistic expectations. A parent can’t
assume their two-year-old child will be able to sit through a family meal without some difficulty.
But, when the behaviour is modeled and expectations are communicated clearly to the child, the
desired behaviour can be achieved – potentially. And, instead of becoming frustrated when the
behaviour starts breaking down, redirect the child and offer assistance if necessary. Why not
encourage the child to finish her meal with a puzzle at her side to help her stay motivated while at the
table.

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 Consistent and realistic consequences are essential when dealing with behaviours. This can be a
tricky area and children may manipulate the situation. Feedback, or consequences, are a large aspect
of behaviourism. When feedback is given after a desired behaviour, learning has been set in place.
Selecting appropriate rewards is important so that they can be offered consistently.

When a child works hard to perform in a positive way and then not rewarded as expected, her self-
esteem drops, and she is not motivated to continue the behaviour. When she behaves negatively,
instead of placing her in time-out, removing a reward is an option. Rewards could include items that
are decided together. The child can take ownership of her behaviour when she is able to take part in
the decision-making process. Working with kids in a nurturing way is the best step toward positive
behaviour – and a healthy and happy relationship.

1.14.2 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT – SOCIO COGNITIVE

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert
Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a
dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The unique feature of
SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social
reinforcement.

SCT considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and maintain behavior, while also
considering the social environment in which individuals perform the behavior. The theory takes into
account a person's past experiences, which factor into whether behavioral action will occur. These
past experiences influence reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape
whether a person will engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that
behavior.

Many theories of behavior used in health promotion do not consider maintenance of behavior, but
rather focus on initiating behavior. This is unfortunate as maintenance of behavior, and not just
initiation of behavior, is the true goal in public health. The goal of SCT is to explain how people
regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can
be maintained over time. The first five constructs were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of
self-efficacy was added when the theory evolved into SCT.

1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the dynamic and
reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned experiences), environment (external
social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve goals).
2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a behavior through essential
knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a person must know what to do
and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of their behavior, which also affects the
environment in which they live.
3. Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior conducted by
others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often exhibited through "modeling" of behaviors. If
individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior, they can also complete the behavior
successfully.
4. Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's behavior that affect the
likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior. Reinforcements can be self-initiated or in the
environment, and reinforcements can be positive or negative. This is the construct of SCT that most
closely ties to the reciprocal relationship between behavior and environment.

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5. Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior. Outcome
expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the consequences of their
actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated consequences can influence successful
completion of the behavior. Expectations derive largely from previous experience. While
expectancies also derive from previous experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on
the outcome and are subjective to the individual.
6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to successfully
perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories have added this construct
at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's
specific capabilities and other individual factors, as well as by environmental factors (barriers and
facilitators).

1.14.3 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT – ETHOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL

Ethological Theory:
When we observe children in natural settings we are impressed by the diversity of their physical size
and shape and the vast individual differences in their behavior. Charles
Darwin (1809-82), an English naturalist, studied various species of plants and animals in different
parts of the world and concluded that diversity was a universal characteristic of all species of plants
and animals, including humans. Darwin came to believe that the variation among the members of a
species is essential to survival of the species in natural environments.

In The Origin of Species (1859), Darwin presented the theory of evolution--a theory with profound
implications for the study of child development. Darwin viewed each species of living things in a
"struggle for survival" within its natural environment. He viewed the natural environment in terms of
risk and opportunity for survival: predators, disease, and natural disasters threaten survival; the
availability of food, shelter, and favorable climate promote survival. Darwin proposed that only those
members of a species with the most adaptive traits would be likely to live long enough to reproduce
and pass these traits on to successive generations. Greater diversity in traits among members of a
species increases the likelihood that adaptive traits will be available to overcome any risk to survival.
Adaptive traits are thus "selected" into the species across generations. Darwin proposed that a
species' survival is dependent on this process, which he called natural selection.

Darwin's theory implies that the course of development has evolved as a solution to the problem of
survival of the species. Moreover, the development of each individual may be thought of as a unique
"experiment" in survival: a unique combination of genetic traits confronting the ongoing process of
natural selection. Ethology is the scientific study of behavior and development in evolutionary
perspective. Its purpose is to identify behavior patterns that have had, and may continue to have,
significant impact on the survival of a species.

The study of ethology as a distinct discipline derives from the work of Niko Tinbergen and Konrad
Lorenz in the 1930's. Lorenz (1937) proposed that certain behaviour patterns are inherited, much as
physical structures are inherited. Innate behaviors appear in the form of reflexes and fixed action
patterns. Reflexes are "wired-in" responses to specific forms of stimulation. Infants, for example, will
grasp your finger when you press it into their palm. Fixed action patterns are more complex
behaviors that are necessary for survival, such as foraging for food, searching for mates, and
attacking or running.

Important ethological contributions to the study of child development have come from studies of
animals in their natural environment. Lorenz (1952) observed that in a certain

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species of birds, there is a brief critical period of time during which the newborn is particularly
sensitive to certain forms of learning. For instance, if geese are exposed to their mothers shortly after
birth, they learn to recognize their mothers and to follow them.

Exposure after the end of the second day will be ineffective. Lorenz referred to this biological
readiness for learning as imprinting. Lorenz soon discovered that geese's predisposition to imprint
was so powerful that they would imprint on virtually any moving form (including Lorenz himself),
that he exposed them to during that critical period.

John Bowlby (1969, 1989) incorporated aspects of the ethological view into his theory of how the
human infant develops emotional ties to its mother. Bowlby believed that infants and their caregivers
are biologically predisposed to form an emotional relationship that promotes staying close together.
Consistent with ethological principles, staying close together would serve to protect the infant from
threats to survival such as predators and accidental injury. Bowlby's important contribution to our
understanding of early emotional development will be revisited in later chapters.

Ethological theory contradicts learning theory by suggesting that behavior is not always learned
through conditioning. Some forms of behavior, particularly behavior that promotes survival, may be
built into the species and elicited only under special environmental circumstances. Aggression, for
example, may be expressed when the individual is threatened, regardless of prior learning
experiences. Similarly, some forms of learning may not be controlled by the principles of classical or
operant conditioning. Ethologists suggest that humans may be predisposed to certain forms of
learning during critical periods of development.

In practical terms, it would seem prudent to consider all aspects of behavior and development in
evolutionary perspective. For instance, some infants in the first few weeks of life experience colic -
prolonged bouts of crying, intestinal upset, and an inability to be soothed. Scientists have failed to
find a physiological or environmental for colic. In ethological perspective, colic may a genetic
holdover from a much earlier period in evolution when intense crying may have been needed to elicit
caregiving from mothers who may have been less responsive to their offspring.

Ethological theory also suggests that the degree of risk or opportunity raised by a developmental
event may depend on when the event happens. For example, whereas a staircase may place a 8-
month-old at risk for injury, it is a challenging opportunity for a toddler to develop his or her motor
skills. This perspective also suggests that certain forms of learning can take place only if a certain
quality of experience is provided. For instance, infants raised in institutions typically show deficits in
motor and language development (Dennis, 1973) and in social and emotional development (Spitz,
1945, 1946).

Ethological theory has helped expand the way we think about the causes of human behavior.
Ethological theory finds explanation of development in the evolution of the species. These
explanations help us to understand why certain behaviors are universal, and why other behaviors vary
enormously from one social context to another. It also helps us to accept that there may be limits to
our ability to change certain aspects of human behavior. It has also heightened our awareness of the
concept of readiness, warning us that while timing may not be everything in development, it often
influences the magnitude of our effects on children's behavior and development.

Ecological Theory:
American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain
how the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to influence how they grow and

41
develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple
environments, also known as ecological systems, in the attempt to understand their development.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find themselves
enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological system to the larger school
system, and then to the most expansive system which includes society and culture. Each of these
ecological systems inevitably interact with and influence each other in all aspects of the children’s
lives.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model organizes contexts of development into five levels of external
influence. These levels are categorized from the most intimate level to the broadest.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most immediate
environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or
daycare, peer group and community environment of the children.
Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members,
classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals interact with the children will
affect how they grow.

Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they treat the
children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships will
understandably foster they children’s improved development.
One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of ecological
systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same ecological system to
experience very different environments.

Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible for the
development of them to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular personality traits, such
as temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand
in how he/she is treated by others.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Mesosystem

The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children find
themselves in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between
home and school, between peer group and family, and between family and community.

42
According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved in the friendships of
their child, for example they invite their child’s friends over to their house from time to time and
spend time with them, then the child’s development is affected positively through harmony and like-
mindedness.

However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the child
experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative development.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Ecosystem

The ecosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which
may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless.

Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not directly interact
with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people may include the parents’
workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood the children live in.

For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the
workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at home.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macrosystem

The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that
still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is composed of the children’s
cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and
economic systems.

For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development than children
in peaceful environments.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which
demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the children’s environments. The
chronosystem may include a change in family structure, address, parents’ employment status, as well
as immense society changes such as economic cycles and wars.

By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory is able to
demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on children’s development. Awareness of the
contexts that children are in can sensitize us to variations in the way children may act in different
settings.

For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the role of a
terrified victim at home. Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with the care of a
particular child should pay close attention to his/her behavior in different settings, as well as to the
quality and type of connections that exist between these settings.

1.15 PROCESS OF BIRTH (STAGES OF BIRTH, TRANSITION FROM FOETUS TO NEW

BORN)

Development happens quickly during the Prenatal Period, which is the time between conception
and birth. This period is generally divided into three stages: the germinal stage, the embryonic stage,
and the fetal stage.

43
Let's take a closer look at the major stages and events that take place during the prenatal period of
development. The process of prenatal development occurs in three main stages.
The first two weeks after conception are known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth
week is known as the embryonic period, and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the
fetal period.

Process of birth
There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and foetal. Let’s take a look at
what happens to the developing baby in each of these stages.

Germinal stage- (weeks 1–2)

In the discussion of biopsychology earlier in the book, you learned about genetics and DNA. A
mother and father’s DNA are passed on to the child at the moment of conception. Conception occurs
when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote. A zygote begins as a one-cell structure that is
created when a sperm and egg merge.

The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at this point. During the first week after conception,
the zygote divides and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two cells, then four cells, then
eight cells, and so on. This process of cell division is called mitosis. Mitosis is a fragile process, and
fewer than one-half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks (Hall, 2004). After 5 days of
mitosis there are 100 cells, and after 9 months there are billions of cells. As the cells divide, they
become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts. In the germinal stage, the mass of
cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of the mother’s uterus. Once it does, the next stage begins.

Embryonic stage- (weeks 3–8)

After the zygote divides for about 7–10 days and has 150 cells, it travels down the fallopian tubes and
implants itself in the lining of the uterus. Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called
an embryo. Now blood vessels grow, forming the placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to
the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the
umbilical cord. Basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head,
chest, and abdomen. During the embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat, and organs form and begin
to function. The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and
brain.

Fetal stage- (weeks 9–40)

When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is
about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being as the
“tail” begins to disappear.

From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate. At about 16 weeks, the fetus is
approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible. By
the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it weighs up to 1.4 pounds.
Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs, such as the lungs,
heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a
chance to survive outside of the mother’s womb. Throughout the fetal stage the brain continues to
grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from weeks 16 to 28. Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost
ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long, and by week 37 all of the
fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it could survive outside the mother’s uterus without
many of the risks associated with premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in
length until approximately 40 weeks. By then, the fetus has very little room to move around and birth
becomes imminent.

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Infancy
The average newborn weighs approximately 7.5 pounds. Although small, a newborn is not
completely helpless because his reflexes and sensory capacities help him interact with the
environment from the moment of birth. All healthy babies are born with newborn reflexes: inborn
automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. Reflexes help the newborn survive until it is
capable of more complex behaviors these reflexes are crucial to survival.

They are present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually disappear around 4–5
months old. Let’s take a look at some of these newborn reflexes. The rooting reflex is the newborn’s
response to anything that touches her cheek: When you stroke a baby’s cheek, she naturally turns her
head in that direction and begins to suck. The sucking reflex is the automatic, unlearned, sucking
motions that infants do with their mouths. Several other interesting newborn reflexes can be
observed.

For instance, if you put your finger into a newborn’s hand, you will witness the grasping reflex, in
which a baby automatically grasps anything that touches his palms. The Moro reflex is the newborn’s
response when she feels like she is falling. The baby spreads her arms, pulls them back in, and then
(usually) cries.

1.16 STRATEGIES FOR CHILD BIRTH (CHILD BIRTH SETTING AND ATTENDANTS,
METHODS OF DELIVERY)

Childbirth is challenging and complications occur, but women’s bodies are designed to give birth.
The shape of the pelvis, hormones, powerful muscles and more all work together to help you bring
your baby into the world - before, during and after childbirth.

Child birth Settings

Hospital Birth
The vast majority of women in the U.S. give birth in a hospital. If you have a high-risk pregnancy or want
to try having a vaginal birth after a caesarean delivery (VBAC), then a hospital is the safest -- and often
the only -- place you can deliver your baby. Even if you have a low-risk pregnancy, you may want to give
birth in a hospital where you have ready access to the latest in medical technology.
Fortunately, the old stereotype of delivering your baby in a cold hospital room with your feet up in
stirrups is long gone. Now, many hospitals provide options that range from practical to plush in order to
make the labor and delivery experience more comfortable.

Traditional hospital birth. In some hospitals, you may move from one room to another depending on
what stage of labor you are in. For example, you may go through labor and delivery in one room, recover
in another, and then move to a semiprivate room. Your baby may be brought to your room for feedings
and visits but stay in the hospital nursery the rest of the time. Not all hospitals follow the same routine, so
ask what you can expect during your stay.

Family-centered care. Many hospitals now offer private rooms where you can go through labor,
delivery, and recovery all in the same room. Often your partner can stay with you. These rooms are often
decorated with pictures on the walls, soothing colors, and cabinets that hide medical equipment when it's
not in use. After birth, your baby stays in your room with you.

Many studies highlight how health is influenced by the settings in which people live, work, and
receive health care. In particular, the setting in which childbirth takes place is highly influential. The
physiological processes of women's labor and birth are enhanced in optimal ("salutogenic," or health

45
 promoting) environments. Settings can also make a difference in the way maternity staff practice.
This paper focuses on how positive examples of Italian birth places incorporate principles of healthy
settings. The "Margherita" Birth Center in Florence and the Maternity Home "Il Nido" in Bologna
were purposively selected as cases where the physical-environmental setting seemed to reflect an
embedded model of care that promotes health in the context of childbirth. Narrative accounts of the
project design were collected from lead professional and direct inspections performed to elicit the
key salutogenic components of the physical layout.

Comparisons between cases with a standard hospital labor ward layout were performed. Cross-case
similarities emerged. The physical characteristics mostly related to optimal settings were a result of
collaborative design decisions with stakeholders and users, and the resulting local intention to
maximize safe physiological birth, psychosocial wellbeing, facilitate movement and relaxation,
prioritize space for privacy, intimacy, and favor human contact and relationships.

Attendants:
The presence of a skilled health professional (doctor, nurse or midwife) during delivery is crucial in
reducing maternal and child deaths. In 2010 approximately 287 000 women died while pregnant or
giving birth and 3.1 million newborns die in the neonatal period.
The proportion of births attended by skilled personnel– is above 90% in three of the six WHO
regions. However, increased coverage is needed in certain regions, such as Africa where the figure
remains less than 50%.

These services require “an accredited health professional such as a midwife, doctor or nurse – who
has been educated and trained to proficiency in the skills needed to manage normal (uncomplicated)
pregnancies, childbirth and the immediate postnatal period, and in the identification, management
and referral of complications in women and newborns”. (1) In addition to the appropriate skills, these
health professionals should be motivated and located in the right place at the right time, they need to
be supported by appropriate policies, essential supplies including medicines and operating under
appropriate regulatory frameworks.

1.17 METHODS OF DELIVERY

Bringing a baby into this world is a monumental feat and cannot be achieved easily. Although normal
vaginal delivery is commonly referred as the typical way of birthing, New techniques help labouring
women in many ways, either by dampening their pain or smoothening the delivery process.
Advancements in medical sciences have discovered various methods so that delivery can be made
successful even in the face of any complications or risks.

Most Common Methods of Childbirth are:

Expecting mothers can look forward to the following delivery options.
1. Vaginal Delivery: When a baby is born through the birth canal of a woman’s body, the delivery is
termed as a vaginal delivery. It may or may not be assisted with epidurals or pain-relieving
medication. The exact time of birth cannot be predicted in such a case, but most vaginal births tend to
happen once 40 weeks of pregnancy have been completed. Most doctors recommend a vaginal birth
if there is a possibility for it and advise against going for caesarean delivery.

2. During the stress of labour pains, the baby secretes hormones for the development of its brain and
lungs; moreover, passaging through the birth canal squeezes the baby’s chest to clear all amniotic
fluid and expand its lungs effectively. For mothers planning to have multiple children, vaginal births
are highly recommended. When done with an incision above the anal area, the procedure is
called episiotomy. With vaginal deliveries, mothers can recover from the stress of delivery quicker

46
 and return home sooner with their babies. The chances of infection in such cases are lower than
others. The baby too has a lower chance of suffering from any breathing problems if born via the
vagina.

3. Natural Childbirth: This is one of the types of birth that is steadily gaining popularity. In this
method, there are no medical procedures or invasive therapies involved, and the process takes place
in the most natural manner possible. This is mostly a personal choice and the mother needs to be
committed throughout the way. Various exercises and positions are taken into account while carrying
out delivery in natural ways. A midwife usually stays with the mother to ensure the delivery is
successful and the mother is in good spirits.

The delivery can take place at the hospital or even at home, with all preparations done beforehand.
Water birthing or pool birthing with the help of upthurst (buoyancy) pressure of water can alleviate
labour pain in this procedure. Water birthing is the most natural and painless way of bringing new
life to the world. Natural birth can be extremely empowering for a mother. Having skin-to-skin
contact with the baby immediately after delivery can foster a strong bond between the mother and the
child. It also triggers hormones in the body that start producing milk in the breasts right away.

4. Caesarean Section: Things don’t always go according to plan. A mother might want to undertake
vaginal delivery but if complications arise, caesarean delivery is an option that might have to be
taken. In this method, the baby is delivered by opening up the abdomen of the mother and surgically
opening the uterus to remove the baby. The name is derived from the Latin word ‘caedare’, which
means ‘to cut’. Hence, this type of the cut is called a C-section that’s how the delivery method gets
its name.

Many mothers decide to have a caesarean delivery in advance, which allows the hospital and doctors
to start making preparations accordingly. This could be out of choice or even after a sonography has
revealed certain parameters which make it necessary to undertake a C-section, such as the presence
of twins or triplets, breech or transverse presentation, or a very large baby. In other cases, if vaginal
delivery fails even after a good trial of labour or if any complication arises, such as breech position
while delivering, meconium stained liquor or obstruction in the birth canal, the doctors will have to
quickly resort to undertaking a C-section and removing the baby out of the uterus in time.

5. Forceps Delivery: This is a rather peculiar type of delivery method and is required in certain cases of
vaginal birth. This is an assistance to the usual vaginal delivery when the baby is on its way via the
birth canal but fails to fully emerge out. This could be because of small obstructions, or the mother
being tired and exhausted and hence being unable to push the baby out. In these cases, the doctor
makes use of specially created tongs which resemble forceps and inserts them slowly into the birth
canal. These are then used to gently grab the baby’s head and guide it outwards through the canal.

6. Vacuum Extraction: Similar to the forceps delivery method, this delivery technique is used in the
case of a vaginal birth. For example, if the baby is on its way out but has stopped moving further
down the canal, the vacuum extraction method is applied. The doctors make use of a specialized
vacuum pump which is inserted up to the baby via the canal. The vacuum end has a soft cup which is
placed on the top of the baby’s head. Vacuum is created so that the cup holds the head, and the baby
is gently guided outwards through the canal.

7. Vaginal Birth After Cesarean (VBAC): Most of the time, once a woman has had a caesarean
delivery, her chances of having a vaginal delivery after that are pretty much nullified. But in recent
times, certain techniques are making it possible for women to have successful vaginal deliveries even

47
after the previous delivery method has been a C-section. This is termed as vaginal birth after
caesarean (VBAC).

1.18 RESEARCH METHODS IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Our focus in this section is on the methods researchers use to gather information about developing
children and adolescents. Our first task is to understand why developmentalists consider it absolutely
essential to collect all these facts. We will then discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different
fact-finding strategies: self-report methodologies, systematic observation, case studies, ethnography,
and psychophysiological methods. Finally, we will consider the ways developmentalists might design
their research to detect and explain age-related changes in children’s feelings, thoughts, abilities, and
behaviors.

The Scientific Method Modern developmental psychology is appropriately labeled a scientific

enterprise because those who study development have adopted the scientific method, which guides
their attempts at understanding. There is nothing mysterious about the scientific method. It refers to
the use of objective and replicable methods to gather data for the purpose of testing a theory or
hypothesis. By objective we mean that everyone who examines the data will come to the same
conclusions, that is, it is not a subjective opinion. By replicable we mean that every time the method
is used, it results in the same data and conclusions. Thus, the scientific method dictates that, above
all, investigators must be objective and must allow their data to decide the merits of their thinking. In
earlier eras, people assumed that great minds always had great insights. Experts or common beliefs
guided child-rearing practices (for example, “spare the rod, spoil the child,” “children should be seen
and not heard,” and “never pick up a crying baby”). Very few individuals questioned the word of
well-known scholars and common knowledge because the scientific method was not yet a widely
accepted criterion for evaluating knowledge.

The intent here is not to criticize the early developmentalists and parents. However, great minds may
on occasion produce miserable ideas that can do a great deal of harm if those ideas are uncritically
accepted and influence the way people are treated. The scientific method, then, is a valuable
safeguard that helps to protect the scientific community and society at large against fl awed reasoning
(Machado & Silva, 2007). Protection is provided by the practice of evaluating the merits of various
theoretical pronouncements against the objective record, rather than simply relying on the academic,
political, or social credibility of the theorist. Of course, this also means that the theorist whose ideas
are being evaluated must be equally objective and willing to discard pet notions when there is suffi
cient evidence against them. Today, developmentalists use the scientific method to draw conclusions
about development. This doesn’t magically resolve differences of opinion, however. For example, for
every “expert” who believes that psychological differences between males and females are largely
biological in origin, there is likely to be another “expert” who just as firmly insists that boys and girls
differ because they are raised differently. (See Burchinal & ClarkeStewart, 2007, for a modern
example of such a controversy.) Who are we to believe? It is in the spirit of the scientific method to
believe the data such as research findings regarding the effects of sexist and nonsexist learning
experiences on the interests, activities, and personality traits of girls and boys.

The scientific method involves a process of generating ideas and testing them by making research
observations. Often, casual observations provide the starting point for a scientist. Sigmund Freud, for
instance, carefully observed the psychologically disturbed adults whom he treated and began to
believe that many of their problems stemmed from experiences in early childhood. Ultimately, he
used these observations to formulate his psychoanalytic theory of development.

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 1.19 SUMMARY

Development of the lifespan is a matter that begun a long time ago but is still an area that enjoys
social and scientific research. Children are normally born, and they grow to develop their
understanding and perception of their environment. We realize that lifespan is multidimensional, life-
long, multidirectional, plastic, historically-embedded, multidisciplinary and contextual. The major
human domains are biological, cognitive and psychological. Lifespan development can be divided
into eight major periods that range from infancy to late adulthood.

Developmental psychology is concerned with the many factors that influence human
development. The question of nature vs. nurture has long been an important one in the field of
psychology. Most theorists agree that both biological and environmental factors influence how an
individual develops,

Life is a series of changes. Beginning as tiny, two-celled organisms, people eventually become
babies, children, teenagers, and adults. Countless new skills, both simple and complicated,
accompany each new stage. Babies learn how to smile and laugh, children learn how to count and
spell, and college students learn how to set their own schedules and wash their own clothes.

All the changes that mark our lives make up a process called development, which is the series of age-
related changes that happen over the course of a life span. Many factors influence development,
including genes, parental upbringing, parents’ educational and economic backgrounds, and life
experiences. Even historical events over which we have no control can influence our development.

While prenatal development usually follows this normal pattern, there are times when problems or
deviations occur. Learn more about some of the problems with prenatal development. Disease,
malnutrition, and other prenatal influences can have a powerful impact on how the brain develops
during this critical period.

But brain development does not end at birth. There is a considerable amount of brain development
that takes place postnatally including growing in size and volume while changing in structure. The
brain grows by about four times the size between birth and preschool. As children learn and have
new experiences, some networks in the brain are strengthened while other connections are pruned.

The childbirth setting is important to be considered before giving birth to a baby. The surroundings
should be in a clean condition and safe for the mother and the baby. Birth techniques have their own
advantages and disadvantages. The focus should always be on ensuring that the baby is delivered
safely, the baby comes out healthy into the world, and the mother stays safe throughout the entire
process of delivery. When it comes to a delivery method you want to choose versus one that your
doctor recommends for you, it is always best to go with the doctor’s recommendation to avoid any
complications in the future.

1.20 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Explain the characteristics of Life Span Perspective.

2. Write a note on developmental issues.
3. Explain the psychoanalytic theory of development.
4. Explain the cognitive theory of development.
5. Explain the socio cognitive theory of development.
6. Explain the behaviour theory of development.
7. Explain the ethological and ecological theories of development.

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8. Explain the process of birth.
9. Write a note on childbirth setting and attendants.
10. Explain the methods of delivery.

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 MODULE-II
INFANCY, EARLY, MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD

STRUCTURE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Characteristic of infancy
2.3 Motor and sensory development, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development in infancy
2.4 Motor and sensory development, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development in
babyhood
2.5 Motor and sensory development, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development in
childhood
2.6 Motor and sensory development, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development in late
childhood
2.7 Physical development in infancy babyhood, early childhood and late childhood
2.8 Speech development
2.9 Social context of development in childhood, friendship, role of family play & leisure, role
disciplining
2.10 Social context of development in childhood, role of development
2.11 Summary
2.12 Suggested Questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To understand the social context of overall development of infancy, early, middle and late childhood.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The Newborn’s Readiness for Life: In the past, newborns were often characterized as fragile and
helpless little organisms who were simply not prepared for life outside the womb. This view may
once have been highly adaptive, helping to ease parents’ grief in earlier eras when medical
procedures were rather primitive and a fair percentage of newborns died.

Even today, in cultures where many newborns die because of poor health and medical care, parents
often do not name their newborns until they are 3 months old and have passed the critical age for
newborn death (Brazelton, 1979).

The surprising fact is that newborns are much better prepared for life than many doctors, parents, and
developmentalists had initially assumed. All of a newborn’s senses are in good working order and
she sees and hears well enough to detect what is happening around her and respond adaptively to
many of these sensations. Very young infants are also quite capable of learning and can even
remember some of the particularly vivid experiences they have had. Two other indications that
neonates are quite well adapted for life are their repertoire of inborn reflexes and their predictable
patterns, or cycles, of daily activity.

Newborn Reflexes
One of the neonate’s greatest strengths is a full set of useful reflexes. A reflex is an involuntary and
automatic response to a stimulus, as when the eye automatically blinks in response to a puff of air.
Table 5.1 describes some reflexes that healthy newborns display. Some of these graceful and
complex patterns of behavior are called survival reflexes because they have clear adaptive value
(Berne, 2003). Examples include the breathing reflex, the eye-blink reflex (which protects the eyes

51
 against bright lights or foreign particles), and the sucking and swallowing reflexes, by which the
infant takes in food. Also implicated in feeding is the rooting reflex an infant who is touched on the
cheek will turn in that direction and search for something to suck.

Major Reflexes Present in Full-Term Neonates

Name Response Development and course Significance

Survival reflexes Repetitive inhalation and expiration. Permanent Provides oxygen and expels
Breathing reflex carbon dioxide.

Eye-blink reflex Closing or blinking the eyes. Permanent Protects the eyes from bright
light or foreign objects

Pupillary reflex Constriction of pupils to bright light; Permanent Protects against bright lights;
adapts the dilation to dark or dimly lit adapts the visual system to
surroundings. low illumination

Rooting reflex bottle. Turning the head in the direction of a Disappears over the first few weeks of Orients baby to the breast or
tactile (touch) stimulus to the cheek. life and is replaced by voluntary head bottle.
turning.

Sucking reflex Sucking on objects placed (or taken) into Permanent Allows baby to take in
the mouth. nutrients

Swallowing reflex Swallowing Permanent Allows baby to take in

nutrients.

Primitive reflexes Fanning and then curling the toes when Usually disappears within the first 8 Its presence at birth and
Babinski reflex. the bottom of the foot is stroked months to 1 year of life. disappearance in. the first
year are an indication of
normal neurological
development.

Curling of the fingers around objects Disappears in first 3–4 months and is Its presence at birth and later.
Palmar grasping (such as a finger) that touch the baby’s disappearance then replaced by a are an indication of normal
reflex palm. voluntary grasp neurological

Moro reflex A loud noise or sudden change in the The arm movements and arching of Its presence at birth and later
position of the baby’s head will cause the the back disappear over the first 4–6 disappearance are an
baby to throw his or her arms outward, months; however, the child continues indication of normal
arch the back, and then bring the arms to react to unexpected noises or a loss neurological development
toward each other as if to hold onto of bodily support by showing a startle
something reflex (which does not disappear).

Swimming reflex An infant immersed in water will display Disappears in the first 4–6 months. Its presence at birth and later
active movements of the arms and legs disappearance are an
and involuntarily hold his or her breath indication of normal
(thus giving the body buoyancy); this neurological development.
swimming reflex will keep an infant
afloat for some time, allowing easy
rescue

Stepping reflex Infants held upright so that their feet Disappears in the first 8 weeks unless Its presence at birth and later
touch a fl at surface will step as if to the infant has regular opportunities to disappearance are an
walk. practice this response. indication of normal
neurological development

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 Skills such as taking a first step, smiling for the first time, and waving “bye-bye” are called
developmental milestones. Developmental milestones are things most children can do by a certain
age. Children reach milestones in how they play, learn, speak, behave, and move (like crawling,
walking, or jumping).

In the first year, babies learn to focus their vision, reach out, explore, and learn about the things that
are around them. Cognitive, or brain development means the learning process of memory, language,
thinking, and reasoning. Learning language is more than making sounds (“babble”) or saying “ma-
ma” and “da-da”. Listening, understanding, and knowing the names of people and things are all a part
of language development.

During this stage, babies also are developing bonds of love and trust with their parents and others as
part of social and emotional development. The way parents cuddle, hold, and play with their baby
will set the basis for how they will interact with them and others.

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF INFANCY

Infancy is the shortest of all Developmental period - Infancy begins with birth and ends when the
infant in approximately two weeks old. This period is divided into two namely
Period of the Partunate - from birth to fifteen to thirty minutes after birth. The infant continues to
be a parasite until the umbilical cord has been cut and tied.

Period of the Neonate - from cutting and tying of the umbilical cord to approximately the end of the
second week of postnatal life. Now the infant is an independent individual and not a parasite. During
this period, the infant must make adjustments to the new environment.

Infancy is a time of radical adjustment - although the human life span legally begins at the moment of
birth, birth is merely an interruption of the developmental pattern that started at the moment of
conception. It is the graduation from an internal to external environment.

Infancy is a plateau in development - The rapid growth and development which took place during the
prenatal period suddenly comes to a stop with birth. The halt in growth and development,
characteristic of this plateau is due to the necessity for making radical adjustment to the postnatal
environment. Once these adjustments have been made, infants resume their growth and development.
Infancy is a preview of later development. It is not possible to predict with even reasonable accuracy
what the individual's future development will be on the basis of the development at birth.

Infancy is a hazardous period - physically it is hazardous because of the difficulties of making the
necessary radical adjustment to the totally new and different environment. Psychologically infancy is
hazardous because it is the time when the attitudes of significant people towards the infant are
crystallized and change radically after the infant is born or can remain unchanged depending on
conditions at birth and on how the parents adjust. The following characteristics are:

i) The infancy period is the shortest period of whole life-span development. Its start from birth to two
years. This is the time when foetus comes into the world from the mother’s womb where he lives
almost nine critical months.
ii) Adjustment is equally important to the infant as he has to adjust with the outer surroundings. Most of
the infants complete their adjustment period in two weeks or less than two weeks. In infants whose
birth has been difficult or premature require more time for adjustment.

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iii) Infancy period is a plateau in development. The growth and development which took place during the
prenatal period suddenly come to a stop with birth. Infant loses weight after birth, is less healthy
compared to what it was at the time of birth. At the end of this period infant again starts gaining
weight.
iv) Bell, R.Q. et. al. (1971) suggested that infancy is a period of future prediction. We can start some
future prediction about the infant. Some activities show the prediction of development. It is a preview
of later development.
v) Infancy is considered a period full of hazards in terms of physical and psychological adjustment.
Physical adjustment to the new environment is difficult for the child. The attitudes of the family
members create more difficult situation for the infant. Psychologically, the attitude of significant
toward the infant gets crystallized. This attitude changes from one stage to another.

Characteristics of Babyhood
Babyhood is the stage that follows infancy and extends between two weeks to two years. The
characteristics of babyhood are as follows.
i) Development during babyhood is the foundation for the development during the entire life span.
ii) During babyhood rapid physical and intellectual development takes place as evidenced by increase in
height, weight and body proportions.
iii) Increased independence and individuality mark babyhood.
iv) Socialisation begins during babyhood as the baby shows increasing desire to be a part of the social
group of the family and extend the basic relationship with the mother or mother substitute to others as
well.
v) Sex-role typing begins during babyhood. Boys and girls are dressed sex appropriately and are treated
in subtly different ways. Culturally relevant sex-appropriate clothes, games, behaviour or even
interactions are gradually brought in.
vi) There are hazards faced by a baby which may be physical or psychological. Physical hazards such as
in illness, accidents and psychological hazards can interfere with positive development of the baby.
During babyhood, the baby is expected to learn to walk by two years, to take 1 solid foods, to gain
partial control over elimination, learn the foundation of 1 receptive and expressive speech and to
emotionally relate to parents and others.

Characteristics of Early childhood and late childhood

Early Childhood:
All parents secretly wonder if their mighty tyke is keeping up with the rest of his peers, but growth
and development are two different things when it comes to measuring up. Child development refers
to the ability to accomplish more complex tasks as your child gets older. There are a group of
characteristics that most children can accomplish during certain age ranges.
1. Some parents feel that behavioural problems of childhood period are more troublesome then physical
care of infants.
2. Some behavioural problems occur in this period such as obstinacy, stubbornness, disobedience,
negativistic and antagonistic.
3. It is a toy age because most of the time children are engaged with their toys. These toys are also
helpful to educate the children. Toys are important element of their play activities.
4. This is a period when a child is considered physically and mentally independent. This is also a school
going age.
5. Children are become more self-sufficient, independent, develop self-esteem.
6. This is the age of foundations of social behaviour. They are more organised social life they will be
required to adjust to when they enter first grade.
7. Develop physical, cognitive, emotional and social development.

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 Late Childhood:
1. Late childhood extends from 6 years to 12 years. By 12 years, the child becomes sexually mature.
For most young children, there is a major change in the pattern of their lives. While adjusting to the
new demands and expectations, most children are in a state of disequilibrium.
2. They are emotionally disturbed. Many changes take place in attitude, values and behaviour. During
the last year or two, marked physical changes take place. The physical change at the end of this stage
create disequilibrium resulting in the disturbance of accustomed life style.
3. It is a troublesome age by which the children are no longer willing to do what they are told to do.
Older children, especially boys, are careless about their clothes and other material possessions. Such
an age is called sloppy age.
4. It is at this stage that the children acquire the rudiments of knowledge that are considered as essential
for successful adjustment to adult life.
5. Physical growth gives a predictable future in body structure with reference to weight and height.
Physical growth in sex matters, become more pronounced. Puberty growth spurt a little later for boys
and girls.

2.3 MOTOR AND SENSORY DEVELOPMENT, COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL

AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

Human development characteristically passes through different stages. These stages are orderly and
sequentially linked with the preceding and succeeding t stages. Features unique to each stage, change
from stage to stage. They also vary from person to person thus making us unique in our own way. For
some of us, these factors may move on smooth1y while others may experience ups and downs. These
factors and the way they are established in each person mark the foundation of the human
personality.

Motor Development:
 At 1 month of age, babies' neck muscles are not developed enough to support their heads for
prolonged periods of time. Babies can lift their heads only briefly when lying on their stomachs.
Limb movements are influenced by newborn reflexes, such as the startle reflex, which makes a baby
throw out his or her arms and spread the fingers in response to a loud noise or other sudden,
unexpected stimulus. By 6 weeks of age, newborn reflexes begin to fade and the baby's strength and
coordination improve.

 By age 3 months, your baby can control his or her head movements. Put your baby on his or her
tummy during awake periods and closely supervise. Allowing your baby to exercise and move in this
position helps develop head and neck muscles. Around 4 months of age, babies gain control and
balance in their head, neck, and trunk. Most babies can balance their heads for short periods when in
a stable position. Around this same age, your baby starts playing with his or her hands and grasps
your finger on purpose, rather than as a reflex.

 Between 4 and 6 months of age, babies' balance and movement dramatically improve as they gain
use and coordination of large muscles. During this time, babies purposefully roll over and may be
able to sit with their hands balancing them in front (tripod position). Reaching toward an object with
both hands, babies may grasp at toys with their palms.

 Babies gain more control of their muscles between 6 and 9 months of age as the nervous system
connections continue to form. By the 7th month, babies can see almost as well as an adult. Babies
develop leg and trunk coordination, sit alone steadily, and may crawl using both their hands and feet.
Some babies even pull themselves up to a standing position, although the timing and sequence of
these milestones vary widely.
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 Around 9 to 12 months of age, babies develop more control over their hands and fingers and may be
able to grab small objects with a forefinger and thumb. The brain continues to grow, helping to refine
control over the large muscles. By now, your baby will probably be able to crawl and stand. In these
few months before babies begin to walk, they often spend hours "cruising" around the room holding
on to furniture and other objects. Cruising develops muscles and coordination and gives your baby a
chance to practice walking.
 Many toddlers start to walk around 9 to 15 months of age. Those first steps are possible because of
changes that have taken place in the brain and the spinal cord.

Sensory Development:
 Vision. At 1 month of age, babies can see about 30 cm (12 in.) in front of them. Babies this age
especially enjoy looking at the human face and bright contrasting colours. At 2 months of age, babies
begin to be able to follow a toy or other object when it is moved in front of their face. At 3 to 4
months, babies can focus on an object or your smiling face from 1 m (1.1 yd) to 2 m (2.2 yd) away
and begin to see a full range of colours. At 7 to 12 months, a baby's vision is the same as an adult's
vision.

 Hearing. At 1 month of age, babies strongly prefer the sound of the human voice. Hearing is the
same as an adult's hearing. They recognize the voice of their caregiver, even when they are in another
room. At 2 months of age, babies begin to coo and make sounds, such as ooh and ahh. At 4 months,
babies often amuse themselves with babbling and are beginning to understand that tone of voice
means different things. At 6 or 7 months, babies start copying the sounds they hear spoken. Babies
may not be able to say the words they are hearing yet, but they can understand many of the words
you say. At 12 months, babies are working hard to master language, and soon they may say their first
word.

 Touch. Babies of all ages have a well-developed sense of touch. They often prefer soft, gentle
touches and cuddles.
 Smell and taste. Babies of all ages have a well-developed sense of smell and taste. They prefer sweet
smells and know the smell of their mother's breast milk. At 9 to 12 months of age, most babies like to
experience and explore objects through taste and texture, which prompts them to put almost anything
they can into their mouths.

Cognitive Development:
Cognition is a broad and inclusive concept that refers to the mental activities involved in the
acquisition, processing, organisation, and use of knowledge. The major processes under the term
cognition include detecting, interpreting, classifying and remembering information, evaluating ideas,
inferring principles and deducting rules imagining possibilities, generating, and strategies, fantasizing
and dreaming. At the infancy period children develop many elements of abilities to think and to
understand the world around them. Infants have remarkably competent organisms, even on the first
day of life.

The newborn child is ready to the basic sensations of our species. They can see, hear, and smell, and
they are sensitive to pain, touch, and changes in bodily position. Infants are not only growing
physically during the first 2 years of life, but also, they are growing cognitively (mentally). Every day
they interact with different persons and learn about their environment and pathways between nerve
cells both within their brains, and between their brains and bodies. Cognitive change and
development is a little harder to determine as clearly. Therefore, much about what experts know
about mental and cognitive development is based on the careful observation of developmental
theories, such as Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and Erikson’s psychosocial stages.
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 According to Piaget’s theory, infants interact with their environment entirely through reflexive
behaviours. They do not think about what they are going to do, but rather follow their instincts and
involuntary reactions to get what they need, such as food, air, and attention. Piaget believed that as
children begin to grow and learn about their environment through their senses, they begin to engage
in intentional, goal-directed behaviours. Jean Piaget was the most influential developmental
psychologist of the twentieth century. The work of cognition has held center stage in child
development research since 1960. His theory of cognitive growth and change is original,
comprehensive, integrative and elegant. He recorded infant’s and children’s spontaneous activities
and presented problems of thousands of children and adolescents. His ideas have been the source of
many research studies.

In Piaget’s theory, knowledge is assumed to have a specific goal or purpose to aid the person in
adapting to the environment. The child does not receive information passively, and thoughts are not
simply the product of teaching by others. Nor is the cognitive progress seen as primarily a product of
maturation of a brain. Knowledge is acquired and thought processes become more complex and
efficient as a consequence of the maturing child’s interactions with the world. The individual is
active, curious and inventive throughout the life cycle.

The theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of
human intelligence. It deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans come gradually to
acquire it, construct it, and use it. Moreover, Piaget claims that cognitive development is at the centre
of human organism and language is contingent on cognitive development. Piaget considered
cognitive development in terms of stages.
He mentioned four stages in cognitive development, that is
i) Sensory motor stage (Birth -2years)
ii) Pre operational stage (2-7 years)
iii) Concrete operational stage (7-11years)
iv) Formal operational stage (11-15 years). Let us take up these stages one by one and discuss. Sensory
Motor Stage (Birth -2 years): The first stage is the sensory motor stage which lasts from birth to
about two years old. The infant uses his or her senses and motor abilities to understand the world,
beginning with reflexes and ending with complex combinations of sensory motor skills.
This stage can be divided into six separate sub-stages as given below:
i) Reflexes (birth -1 month): The child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes
such as sucking and looking.
ii) Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months): Between one and four months, the child works on an action
of his own which serves as a stimulus to which it responds with the same action, and around and
around we go.
iii) Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): The child becomes more focused on the world and
begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment.
iv) Coordination of Secondary Reactions (8-12 months): Develop certain focuses on the demand object.
Responses become more coordinated and complex.
v) Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-24 months): Children begin a period of trial and-error
experimentation during this sub-stage.
vi) Early Representational Thought: Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in
the world in the final sensory motor sub-stage.

Social Development:
The infancy stage focuses on the infant’s basic needs, being met by the parents. If the parents expose
the child to warmth, regularly, and dependable affection, the infant’s view of the world will be one of
trust. If the parents fail to provide a secure environment and fail to meet the child’s basic need, a

57
 sense of mistrust will result. If proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue hope, the
strong beliefs that, even when things are not going well, they will work out well in the end. Failing
this, maladaptive tendency or sensory distortion may develop, and the malignant tendency of
withdrawal will develop.
Others type of social behaviour, which are discussed here:
i) Attachment: A new born baby in arms is the greatest feeling of motherhood. An infant always seek
love and attention from mother and he cries to be pick up , fed, and otherwise stimulated and often as
not he cries when put down. At six weeks, infant will smile at his mother face and grasp his cloth. At
this age infant can recognise their caretaker and his faces. He needs mother’s and father’s attention
towards him. This early attachment is called ‘indiscriminate’; the infant seeks stimulation rather than
any particular person. The concept of attachment is investigated by Ainsworth and her associates
(1978), was defined as an emotionally toned relationship or tie to the mother that led the infant to
seek mother presence and comfort, particularly when the infant was frightened or uncertain. This
indicates that all healthy infants have healthy and strong attachment with their caretakers and this
strong bonding provides the basis for healthy emotional and social development during later
childhood.

ii) Smiling: Smiling is the means of communication for infants in early years. An early smile of the
infant is just a facial exercise of the muscles. A child first passes his smile to his mother and this is at
first bestowed indiscriminately between the mother and child. The smile is an important influence on
mother - child relationship. The mother’s responsive smile is equally important to the child. It
transforms the spontaneous smile of the infant into an exchange. This may be called first real social
interaction. The social smile appears at 7 or 8 weeks of age, and by 3 months infants will smile
almost any face. This smile is important to the caretakers and child because it invites adult to interact
with the baby and therefore contributes to the attachment bonding.

iii) Anxiety: As we all know that mother and child relation is important in infancy period. The child first
recognised his mother face and infant is aware that mother is special person at this time; he is at once
in a position to lose her. An infant around 10 months may be seen crawling behind his mother, from
one room to another room. If mother is disappearing, he may be cry and scream, and watch every
door. Even his crying and searching at different places is an indication of attachment with the mother.
The increase in attachment behaviour is considered to be an indication of separation anxiety.

iv) Fear of strangers: A second anxiety that is a direct result of the infant’s first attachment is stranger
anxiety. The child is specially attached with the mother and he can be easily upset by the approach of
an unfamiliar adult, especially if his mother is not present around. The infant fixes his eyes on the
stranger and stares, unmoving, for a short time. He is likely to cry and show the signs of distress.
Stranger anxiety disappears toward the end of the first year, as the child comes in contact with a
growing number of relatives.

Emotional Development:
Babies can feel interest, distress, disgust, and happiness from birth, and can communicate these
through facial expressions and body posture. Infants begin showing a spontaneous "social smile"
around age 2 to 3 months and begin to laugh spontaneously around age 4 months. In addition,
between ages 2 and 6 months, infants express other feelings such as anger, sadness, surprise, and
fear. Between ages 5 and 6 months, babies begin to exhibit stranger anxiety. They do not like it when
other people hold or play with them, and they will show this discomfort visibly. Previously, they
would smile at anyone and allow them to hold them. However, during this time babies are learning
not only how to show their own feelings, but also how to notice others' feelings. Around age 4
months, infants can begin distinguishing the different emotional expressions of others. Later, around
age 6 months, babies begin to mimic the emotions and expressions they see in others.

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At birth, babies treat caregivers more or less interchangeably, unequipped as they are, by and large,
to distinguish among people. However, as the months of their first year go by and their perceptual
and processing abilities grow, they begin to form a powerful attachment or bond with their primary
caregivers. As babies' attachment to their primary caregivers strengthens, they become more sensitive
to the absence of their caregivers. Around age 8 to 10 months, babies start to experience separation
anxiety when separated from their primary caregivers. The intensity of this anxiety varies between
individuals and is based on baby's temperament and environment. While some babies will respond
very strongly and heatedly to caregiver absence by crying and fussing, others will respond in a more
subdued fashion through whimpers and slight agitation. It's during this period, around age 9 months
that babies first frown to show displeasure or sadness. It's also during this time that babies'
temperaments, or innate personality styles, begin to show. More will be said about temperament
shortly.

By nine months of age, babies have learned how to express a wide variety of emotions. This becomes
readily apparent between ages 9 to 10 months, as babies become highly emotional. They go from
intense happiness to intense sadness/frustration/anger quickly. This emotional lability evens out as
babies develop rudimentary strategies for regulating their emotions around age 11 months.

Babies' understanding of others' emotions grows as well. Around age 12 months, babies become
aware of not only other peoples' expressions but also their actual emotional states, especially distress.
They're beginning to make the connection that expressions match an inside feeling. It's interesting to
note some babies begin to exhibit jealousy at the end of this first year, around age 12 months.

As toddlers move into the end of the second year, they continue to build on the emotional progress
they have already made. Between the ages of 13 and 18 months, separation anxiety may subside as
object permanence develops, and they understand their caretaker isn't gone even when they can't see
them. This is also the point during which babies may also use transitional objects such as stuffed
animals or blankets to soothe and comfort themselves when the caretaker is not there. Toddlers
usually enter another emotionally rocky time between the ages of 15 to 18 months.

During this time, they can be fretful and easily frustrated, and may throw temper tantrums to
demonstrate this emotionality. Toddlers often come out of those "Terrible Twos" around age 21
months and become less fretful and more relaxed. Also, during this time, toddlers may show signs of
self-consciousness when doing certain tasks or trying new situations, looking for caretaker approval.

By age 2, toddlers can show a wide range of emotions and are becoming better at regulating and
coping with their emotions. In fact, by this age, toddlers can even fake some emotions in order to get
what they want. They know that if they fall and show behaviours of being hurt (even if they aren't
hurt), they will get attention. However, they will often still become upset at situations that disrupt
their sense of control or alter their normal routine. Also, around their second birthday, genuine
empathy appears. They become capable of recognizing when they've hurt someone somehow, and
capable of apologizing.

Moral Development:
Moral development is the process of defining the difference between right and wrong. Baby is not
born with these intuitions, though. According to doctors, a baby does not have the capacity to
understand morals outside of how he relates to what feels right and wrong to him. For example, an
infant quickly learns that hungry is "wrong" because his belly hurts when he's hungry. Likewise, he
learns that being held and comforted is "right" because it feels good to him, as opposed to the scary
feeling of being left alone in his crib.

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 Later in life, his moral development shifts from self to others. Babies do not feel a sense of
"otherness" until they are around 18 months of age. Before then, they are not able to determine
whether their actions are morally right or wrong. However, parents still have the responsibility and
opportunity to begin teaching their baby moral development from his early days. By putting simple
rules into place, such as telling baby "no" if he hits the cat or takes a toy out of another baby's hand or
deterring him when he approaches an electrical outlet, baby can understand what he is being directed
to do. In his toddler years, he begins to comprehend why those actions are right or wrong.

2.4 MOTOR, SENSORY, COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL

DEVELOPMENT OF BABYHOOD

Motor Sensory:
Rapid growth takes place during babyhood. Height and weight increase. The birth weight is doubled
by four months and tripled by one year. On an average the height of the baby at four months is 23 to
24 inches and at one year 28 to 30 inches and by two years 32 to 34 inches. Social smile which is a
response to recognizing a face is the first clear milestone which happens around 2 months. Also, the
baby car1 roll over from side to back at 2 months and from back to side at 4 months. At 6 months, it
can roll over completely. The baby begins to pull the body to a sitting position and sits ‘up without
support around 8 months. Hands and palm scoop up an object which is called palmers scoop, around
5 months. Around 9 months it can use the fingers in a pincer-grip to pick up even fine objects. The
baby hitches or moves in a sitting position around six months, crawls and creeps around 8 months.
Walks on all fours, pulls up and stands by 10 months. He/she learns to stand with support by 11
months and without support, for longer time around a year. Also, he/she learns to walk with support
initially and without support around 14 months. These milestones, which indicate movement, are also
called as motor development. The motor skills of babyhood are not integrated initially but when they
are integrated later, they are of importance to the baby and its developing personality.

Sensory Development:
Because the infant’s repertoire of responses is so limited, it is difficult to obtain exact information
about sensory acuities. However, it is possible to observe and record such behaviors as visual regard,
pupillary reflexes to light, startle, and changes in activity level to sounds and tactile stimulation.
More recently, sensory reactivity has been recorded by observing changes in EEC and in heart rate
and by such devices as observing eye nystagmus to moving striped patterns.

It is evident that the intact full-term newborn in some degree sees, hears, and responds to pressure,
touch, taste, and change in temperature. There is evidence from his behavior and from the structures
of the nervous system that of his various senses, vision is most developed.

Visio: Changes in visual acuity during the first month appear to be very slight. As observed in a
standard test of infant development, soon after birth the infant will briefly regard a large moving
object (such as a person) nearby and directly in his line of vision. A little less often he will regard a
small bright red object in motion, when it is held about eight inches above his eyes (Bayley 1933;
White, Castle, & Held 1964). At about two weeks his gaze may follow this moving object (a red
plastic ring) across his visual field right to left or the reverse (Bayley 1933).

At three weeks his eyes may follow a moving person two or three feet away. At about one month he
follows the red ring with up and down eye movements and, a little later, as it is moved slowly in a
circle (18 to 24 inches in diameter). At six or seven weeks the infant appears to inspect his
surroundings when carried in an upright position, and he turns his eyes toward the red ring at a thirty-
degree angle when it is moved into his field of vision from the side. By the fourth month the infant’s
retina is able to accommodate to objects at varying distances in an almost adult fashion.

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 Cognitive Development:
Much of modern cognitive developmental theory stems from the work of the Swiss psychologist,
Jean Piaget. In the 1920s, Piaget observed that children's reasoning and understanding capabilities
differed depending on their age. Piaget proposed that all children progress through a series of
cognitive stages of development, just as they progress through a series of physical stages of
development. According to Piaget, the rate at which children pass through these cognitive stages may
vary, but boys and girls eventually pass through all the stages, in the same order.

During Piaget's sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), infants and toddlers learn by doing: looking,
hearing, touching, grasping, and sucking. The learning process appears to begin with coordinating
movements of the body with incoming sensory data. As infants intentionally attempt to interact with
the environment, infants learn that certain actions lead to specific consequences. These experiences
are the beginning of the infants' understanding of cause‐and‐effect relationships.

Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six substages. In stage 1 (birth through month 1), infants
exclusively use their reflexes, and their cognitive capabilities are limited. In stage 2 (months 1
through 4), infants engage in behaviors that accidentally produce specific effects. Infants then repeat
the behavior to obtain the same effect. An example is the infant's learning to suck on a pacifier
following a series of trial‐and‐error attempts to use the new object. In stage 3 (months 4 through 8),
infants begin to explore the impact of their behaviors on the environment. In stage 4 (months 8
through 12), infants purposefully carry out goal‐directed behaviors.

Object permanence, or the knowledge that out‐of‐sight objects still exist, may begin to appear at
about month 9 as infants search for objects that are hidden from view. In stage 5 (months 12 through
18), toddlers explore cause‐and‐effect relationships by intentionally manipulating causes to produce
novel effects. For example, a toddler may attempt to make her parents smile by waving her hands at
them. In stage 6 (months 18 through 24), toddlers begin to exhibit representational (symbolic)
thought, demonstrating that they have started to internalize symbols as objects, such as people,
places, and things. The child at this stage, for instance, uses words to refer to specific items, such as
milk, dog, papa, or mama.

Piaget's model introduces several other important concepts. Piaget termed the infant's innate thinking
processes as schemas. In the sensorimotor period, these mental processes coordinate sensory,
perceptual, and motor information so that infants eventually develop mental representations. In other
words, reflexes provide the basis for schemas, which in turn provide the basis for representational
thinking. For example, a child repeatedly touches and sees its rattle and thus learns to identify the
rattle by forming an internalized image of it.

According to Piaget, cognitive development occurs from two processes: adaptation and equilibrium.
Adaptation involves children changing their behavior to meet situational demands and consists of
two sub processes: assimilation and accommodation.
 Assimilation is the application of previous concepts to new concepts, such as a child who refers to a
whale as a fish.
 Accommodation is the altering of previous concepts in the face of new information, such as a child
who discovers that some creatures living in the ocean are not fish and then correctly refers to a whale
as a mammal.
Equilibrium is Piaget's term for the basic process underlying the human ability to adapt—is the
search for balance between self and the world. Equilibrium involves the matching of children's
adaptive functioning to situational demands, such as when a child realizes that he is one member of a
family and not the centre of the world. Equilibrium, which helps remove inconsistencies between

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reality and personal perspectives, keeps children moving along the developmental pathway, allowing
them to make increasingly effective adaptations and decisions.

Social and Emotional Development:

Babyhood emotions such as joy, affection, curiosity, fear and anger are often expressed explosively
and are out of proportion to the stimuli. They are also short lived. These emotions get conditioned or
established much more in later years. Beginning with a social smile babies learn to respond to the
social environment and are the foundations of the social skills valued greatly in later years.

Moral Development:
At this age, babies do not have the ability moralize. Their idea of right and wrong stems from what
feels comfortable and what does not. It is important to understand that in the womb, the baby was
never alone, never hungry and was in constant contact with the mother. If this fails to happen in the
outside world, the infant perceives this as something ‘wrong’. Being fed, held and cuddled is what
feels naturally right for the baby.

2.5 MOTOR, SENSORY, COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL

DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

Motor Development:
Ages 2 through 6 are the early childhood years, or preschool years. Like infants and toddlers, pre-
schoolers grow quickly both physically and cognitively. A short chubby toddler who can barely talk
suddenly becomes a taller, leaner child who talks incessantly. Especially evident during early
childhood is the fact that development is truly integrated: The biological, psychological, and social
changes occurring at this time (as well as throughout the rest of the life span) are interrelated.

Motor skills are physical abilities or capacities. Gross motor skills, which include running, jumping,
hopping, turning, skipping, throwing, balancing, and dancing, involve the use of large bodily
movements. Fine motor skills, which include drawing, writing, and tying shoelaces, involve the use
of small bodily movements. Both gross and fine motor skills develop and are refined during early
childhood; however, fine motor skills develop more slowly in preschoolers. If you compare the
running abilities of a 2‐year‐old and a 6‐year‐old, for example, you may notice the limited running
skills of the 2‐year‐old. But the differences are even more striking when comparing a 2‐year‐old and
6‐year‐old who are tying shoelaces. The 2‐year‐old has difficulty grasping the concept before ever
attempting or completing the task.

Albert Bandura's theory of observational learning is applicable to preschoolers' learning gross and
fine motor skills. Bandura states that once children are biologically capable of learning certain
behaviors, children must do the following in order to develop new skills:
1. Observe the behavior in others.
2. Form a mental image of the behavior.
3. Imitate the behavior.
4. Practice the behavior.
5. Be motivated to repeat the behavior.
In other words, children must be ready, have adequate opportunities, and be interested in developing
motor skills to become competent at those skills.

Cognitive Development:
Jean Piaget described two processes of behaviour (i) assimilation and (ii) accommodation.
Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in pre-
existing cognitive structures. Let us take an example of an infant who uses a sucking schema that was

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developed by sucking on a small bottle when attempting to suck on a larger bottle. Accommodation
is the process of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment.
Both processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life. An example of
accommodation would be when the child needs to modify a sucking schema developed by sucking on
a pacifier to one that would be successful for sucking on a bottle. As schemas become increasingly
more complex (i.e., responsible for more complex behaviours) they are termed structures. As one’s
structures become more complex, they are organised in a hierarchical manner (i.e., from general to
specific).

Stages of Cognitive Development: Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development; sensory
motor stage (birth- 2 years), preoperational stage (2-7 years), concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
and formal operational stage (11-above).

At the pre-operational stage (Play age and Early Childhood) intelligence is demonstrated through the
use of symbols, language use which matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but
thinking is done in a non-logical, non-reversible manner. Egocentric thinking also predominates at
this stage. Children form stable concepts and mental reasoning begins to develop.

From 2-4 years children develop symbolic reasoning (the ability to picture an object that is not
present.). Egocentrism starts out strong in early childhood but weakens. Magical beliefs are
constructed.

Between 4-7 years of age the child develops intuitive thought (the use of primitive reasoning skills
and wondering “why”). Starting school is a major landmark for children at this age. Piaget also noted
that children feel great difficulty to accept the views of others and Piaget called this egocentrism.
Egocentrism is when children experience difficulty in experiencing others person’s perspective.

As we know that this is called a play age and many schools are adopting the Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development, which provides part of the foundation for constructive learning. Discovery
learning and supporting the developing interests of the child are two primary instructional techniques.
It is recommended that parents and teachers challenge the child’s abilities. It is also recommended
that teachers use a wide variety of concrete experiences to help the child learn (example, use of
manipulatives, group work, field trips or work, etc.).

Social and Emotional Development:

As young children leave toddlerhood behind, they also begin to mature in their ability to interact with
others socially. A baby's main social need and developmental task is bonding and connecting with
primary caregivers. In contrast, young children are starting to branch out and to create other social
relationships. When interacting with other children their age, such as peers at daycare or preschool,
sensorimotor children engage in parallel play. In parallel play, children play beside each other
without truly interacting with each other. For example, Jimmy plays with his MODULEs and builds
his structure independently while sitting by Jane, who is creating her own MODULE tower.

During the Preoperational stage, young children begin to play more cooperatively. In cooperative
play, young children engage in the same activity in a small group. Often, these first forms of
cooperative play include pretend or symbolic play. For example, Jane and Jackie may "play house"
together and assign one child to be the mother and the other to be the baby. Pretend play begins as
early as toddlerhood and then peaks for the majority of young children at ages 4 and 5 years.

As young children continue to develop socially with peers, they often enter a stage of rough and
tumble play which includes running, racing, climbing, or competitive games. Often, this is the stage

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when social skills such as learning to take turns and follow simple group rules and norms are
practiced.

Young children in the Preoperational stage often identify friends at the park or at daycare; however,
"friendship" is still a very concrete, basic relationship. At this stage of social development, friendship
usually means sharing toys and having fun playing together. Friendship at this age does not have the
associated qualities of empathy and support that older children, adolescents, and adults develop.

During the Preoperational stage, young children are also developing socially inside the family.
Families typically give young children the opportunity to interact with a variety of people in a range
of roles. Today's families take on many different forms. Young children can be raised in nuclear
families, with two opposite sex biological parents and sometimes one or more siblings.

Children are also commonly raised in "blended" families, spending time with both parents in
different homes, perhaps with step-parents and half- or step-siblings. Some young children grow up
with an extended family, living with or spending lots of time with grandparents, aunts, uncles,
cousins, etc. Still others grow up in small clusters, spending most of the time with a single parent,
and perhaps one or more siblings. Some children may be adopted into a nuclear, blended, or extended
families. Still others are raised with two homosexual parents alone or with other biological or
adopted siblings.

Moral Development:
Morality is our ability to learn the difference between right or wrong and understand how to make the
right choices. As with other facets of development, morality doesn't form independently from the
previous areas we have been discussing. Children's experiences at home, the environment around
them, and their physical, cognitive, emotional, and social skills influence their developing sense of
right vs. wrong. Between the ages of 2 and 5, many children start to show morally-based behaviors
and beliefs.

According to Piaget, children between the ages of 5 and 10 see the world through a Heteronomous
Morality. In other words, children think that authority figures such as parents and teachers have rules
that young people must follow absolutely. Rules are thought of as real, unchangeable guidelines
rather than evolving, negotiable, or situational. As they grow older, develop more abstract thinking,
and become less self-focused, children become capable of forming more flexible rules and applying
them selectively for the sake of shared objectives and a desire to co-operate.

Contemporary research has provided us with additional information about how young children
understand morals. Children between the ages 5 and 6 typically think in terms of distributive justice,
or the idea that material goods or "stuff" should be fairly shared. In other words, everyone should get
his or her exact "fair share." For example, Sally may think that it's only fair if each child gets exactly
2 cookies and the same amount of milk in their glass.

Other factors, such as need or effort, are not considered. Sally wouldn't think that Susie should get an
additional cookie because her lunch fell on the floor. By age 6 or 7, children begin to consider what
people have earned or worked for when thinking about distributive justice. Children can also reason
that some people should get more because they worked harder. For example, Jane begins to
understand that Jill should earn a bigger prize because she sold more Girl Scout cookies.

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2.5 MOTOR, SENSORY, COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL
DEVELOPMENT OF LATE CHILDHOOD

Motor Development:
Motor skills are behavioral abilities or capacities. Gross motor skills involve the use of large bodily
movements, and fine motor skills involve the use of small bodily movements. Both gross and fine
motor skills continue to refine during middle childhood.

Children love to run, jump, leap, throw, catch, climb, and balance. Children play baseball, ride bikes,
roller skate, take karate lessons, take ballet lessons, and participate in gymnastics. As school‐age
children grow physically, they become faster, stronger, and better coordinated. Consequently, during
middle childhood, children become more adept at gross motor activities.

Children enjoy using their hands in detailed ways, too. From early in preschool, children learn and
practice fine motor skills. Preschool children cut, paste, mold, shape, draw, paint, create, and write.
These children also learn such skills as tying shoelaces, untying knots, and flossing their teeth. Some
fortunate children are able to take music lessons for piano, violin, flute, or other instruments.
Learning to play an instrument helps children to further develop their fine motor skills. In short,
along with the physical growth of children comes the development of fine motor skills, including the
sense of competence and confidence to use these skills.

Cognitive Development:
School‐age children think systematically about multiple topics more easily than preschoolers. Older
children have keener metacognition, a sense of their own inner world. These children become
increasingly skilled at problem solving.

Piaget referred to the cognitive development occurring between ages 7 and 11 as the concrete
operations stage. Piaget used the term operations to refer to reversible abilities that the child has not
yet developed. By reversible, Piaget referred to mental or physical actions that can occur in more
than one way, or in differing directions. While in the concrete operations stage, older children cannot
think both logically and abstractly. School‐age children are limited to thinking concretely—in
tangible, definite, exact, and uni‐directional terms based on real and concrete experiences rather than
on abstractions. Older children do not use magical thinking and are not as easily misled as younger
children. Unlike preschoolers, school‐age children know better than to ask their parents to take them
flying in the air just like the birds do.

Piaget noted that children's thinking processes change significantly during the concrete operations
stage. School‐age children can engage in classification, or the ability to group according to features,
and serial ordering, or the ability to group according to logical progression. Older children come to
understand cause‐and‐effect relationships and become adept at mathematics and science.
Comprehending the concept of stable identity that one's self remains consistent even when
circumstances change is another concept grasped by older children. For example, older children
understand the stable identity concept of a father maintaining a male identity regardless of what he
wears or how old he becomes.

In Piaget’s view, children at the beginning of the concrete operations stage demonstrate conservation,
or the ability to see how physical properties remain constant as appearance and form change. Unlike
preschoolers, school‐age children understand that the same amount of clay moulded into different
shapes remains the same amount. A concrete operational child will tell you that five golf balls are the
same number as five marbles, but the golf balls are larger and take up more space than the marbles.

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Piaget believed that preoperational cognitive abilities are limited by egocentrism the inability to
understand the point of view of others. But egocentrism is not found in children in the concrete
operations stage. By the school years, children have usually learned that other people have their own
views, feelings, and desires.

Piaget's model of cognitive development has come under increasing attacks in recent years. Modern
developmentalists have frequently referred to experimental research that contradicts certain aspects
of Piaget's theories. For example, cognitive theorists like Robert Siegler have explained the
phenomenon of conservation as a slow, progressive change in the rules that children use to solve
problems, rather than a sudden change in cognitive capacities and schemas. Other researchers have
shown that younger and older children develop by progressing through a continuum of capacities
rather than a series of discrete stages.

In addition, these researchers believe that children understand far more than Piaget theorized. With
training, for instance, younger children may perform many of the same tasks as older children.
Researchers have also found that children are not as egocentric, suggestible, magical, or concrete as
Piaget held, and that their cognitive development is largely determined by biological and cultural
influences.

School‐age children are better at the skill of remembering than are younger children. Experiencing
more of the world, older children have more to draw upon when encoding and recalling information.
In school, older children also learn how to use mnemonic devices, or memory strategies. Creating
humorous lyrics, devising acronyms, chunking facts (breaking long lists of items into groups of
three's and four's), and rehearsing facts (repeating them many times) help children memorize
increasingly complicated amounts and types of information.

Youngsters may remember more when participating in cooperative learning, in which adult‐
supervised education relies on peers interacting, sharing, planning, and supporting each other.
Develop‐mentalists disagree on the relative value of cooperative learning versus didactic
learning, in which a teacher lectures to students.

Social and Emotional Development:

The older child shows strong desire to be an accepted member of the peer. Group. Staying at home or
playing with siblings are disliked by them. The gangs are not delinquent groups but play groups.
Their main activity is to play games, sports or simply chatting. The gangs are also strictly segregated,
that is, members of a gang often come from the same sex. Those who are accepted by the gang
members gain social status and feel self-confident while the opposite is true of those who are
rejected.

Older children learn to control emotional outbursts as these are looked down upon by peer members,
as immature and inappropriate behaviour. Happy and pleasant expressions on the other hand are
expressed freely as seen in laughing, giggling or jumping. While the child tends to curtail expressions
of negative emotions, he/she may show moodiness or resort to sulking. In expressing emotions, sex
appropriateness can be noticed. Boys tend to show anger 'or curiosity while girls experience fears,
worries and feelings of affection.

Moral Development:
This is the age when children begin to understand that adults probably don’t have everything figured
out! Although they still obey authority, they are capable of judging the fairness of rules and identify
the concept of equality. At this age, they will have a strong idea about what should be done and what

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needs to be shunned. They will also come to believe that children have opinions that need to be heard
too.

The code of conduct and morality learnt at home is now extended to the social group. The child
makes a conscious choice to be part of the peer group. Moral code is developed on the basis of
general rather than specific situations. Discipline also helps in this process. Use of rewards,
punishment and consistent application of rules enable the child to develop moral behaviour.

2.7 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY, BABYHOOD, EARLY CHILDHOOD AND

LATE CHILDHOOD

Infancy: The first year of infant is characterised by rapid physical growth. A normal baby doubles its
birth weight in six months and triples it in a year. During that time, there is great expansion of the
head and chest, thus permitting development of the brain, heart, and lungs, the organs most vital to
survival. The bones, which are relatively soft at birth, begin to harden, and the fontanelles, the soft
parts of the newborn skull, begin to calcify, the small one at the back of the head at about 3 months,
the larger one in front at varying ages up to 18 months.

Brain weight also increases rapidly during infancy: by the end of the second year, the brain has
already reached 75% of its adult weight. Growth and size depend on environmental conditions as
well as genetic endowment. For example, severe nutritional deficiency during the mother’s
pregnancy and in infancy are likely to result in an irreversible impairment of growth and intellectual
development, while overfed, fat infants are predisposed to become obese later in life.

Human milk provides the basic nutritional elements necessary for growth; however, in Western
cultures supplemental foods are generally added to the diet during the first year. The newborn infant
sleeps almost constantly, awakening only for feedings, but the number and length of waking periods
gradually increases. By the age of three months, most infants have acquired a fairly regular schedule
for sleeping, feeding, and bowel movements. By the end of the first year, sleeping and waking hours
are divided about equally.

Babyhood: Rapid growth takes place during babyhood. Height and weight increase. The birth weight
is doubled by four months and tripled by one year. On an average the height of the baby at four
months is 23 to 24 inches and at one year 28 to 30 inches and by two years 32 to 34 inches. Social
smile which is a response to recognizing a face is the first clear milestone which happens around 2
months. Also, the baby car1 roll over from side to back at 2 months and from back to side at 4
months. At 6 months, it can roll over completely.

The baby begins to pull the body to a sitting position and sits ‘up without support around 8 months.
Hands and palm scoop up an object which is called palmers scoop, around 5 months. Around 9
months it can use the fingers in a pincer-grip to pick up even fine objects. The baby hitches or moves
in a sitting position around six months, crawls and creeps around 8 months. Walks on all fours, pulls
up and stands by 10 months. He/she learns to stand with support by 11 months and without support,
for longer time around a year. Also, he/she learns to walk with support initially and without support
around 14 months.

These milestones, which indicate movement, are also called as motor development. The motor skills
of babyhood are not integrated initially but when they are integrated later, they are of importance to
the baby and it's developing personality.

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Early Childhood: Children begin to lose their baby fat, or chubbiness, around age 3. Toddlers soon
acquire the leaner, more athletic look associated with childhood. The child's trunk and limbs grow
longer, and the abdominal muscles form, tightening the appearance of the stomach. Even at this early
stage of life, boys tend to have more muscle mass than girls. The preschoolers' physical proportions
also continue to change, with their heads still being disproportionately large, but less so than in
toddlerhood.

Three‐year‐old preschoolers may grow to be about 38 inches tall and weigh about 32 pounds. For the
next 3 years, healthy preschoolers grow an additional 2 to 3 inches and gain from 4 to 6 pounds per
year. By age 6, children reach a height of about 46 inches and weigh about 46 pounds. Of course,
these figures are averages and differ from child to child, depending on socioeconomic status,
nourishment, health, and heredity factors.

Late Childhood: By the beginning of late childhood, children typically have acquired a leaner, more
athletic appearance. Girls and boys still have similar body shapes and proportions until both sexes
reach puberty, the process whereby children sexually mature into teenagers and adults. After
puberty, secondary sexual characteristics breasts and curves in females, deeper voice and broad
shoulders in males make distinguishing females from males much easier.

Girls and boys grow about 2 to 3 inches and gain about 7 pounds per year until puberty. Skeletal
bones and muscles broaden and lengthen, which may cause children (and adolescents) to experience
growing pains. Skeletal growth in middle childhood is also associated with losing the deciduous
teeth, or baby teeth.

Throughout most of middle childhood, girls are smaller than boys and have less muscle mass. As
girls enter puberty, however, they may be considerably larger than boys of the same age, who enter
puberty a few years later. Once boys begin sexually maturing, their heights and weights eventually
surpass the heights and weights of girls of the same age.

2.8 SPEECH DEVELOPMENT

In babyhood, as the baby develops, the important bridge into the world of other is also developed in
the form of speech which aids communication. It has two aspects: receptive speech to understand
what others are communicating and expressive speech to make oneself understood. The baby begins
to babble or produces several sounds. Then she moves on to the stage of monosyllables (Eg: Ma,
Ma,Da,Da.Na, Na etc.) which gives way to two-syllables stage. Before two years, the baby speaks
with words made of two syllables formed in a sentence which typically has no grammar.

During early childhood, both receptive and expressive communication improve as babbling of
babyhood and crying are largely reduced. Normal speech development gains significant strides where
they learn proper pronunciation, making of sentences (even though with poor grammar) and building
of vocabulary. Also, the content of speech takes a tum. From talking about self, self-interests and self
needs the child moves on to socialized speech around six years wherein others and their concerns are
spoken of.

Older children are increasingly aware of speech.as a tool for being accepted by their peer group
members. Therefore, speech is consciously improved from immature, unacceptable ways of
communication such as crying and gesturing which are avoided. Proper pronunciation and grammar
are learnt. Children take interest in telling jokes or narrating events or riddles. Parents and teachers
also contribute to speech improvement by encouraging them. Radio and television serve as models
for speech. There is marked improvement in vocabulary as names of colours, numbers, money

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concepts, time concepts are included. Secret codes used by the gang often become part of older
child's communication pattern.

2.9 SOCIAL CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD: FRIENDSHIPS, ROLE OF

FAMILY, PLAY AND LEISURE, ROLE OF DISCIPLINING.

The period of late childhood ranges from 6 years to the attainment of sexual maturity, around 12- 13
years. During this stage children develop marked negativism and because of their desire for
independence seldom obey the parents. The child begins going to school and learns the rudiments of
knowledge essential for successful adult life. The peer group assumes great significance and children
of this age 'crowd together or 'gang up', thus earning the name gang age'.

Social context of development in childhood: friendships

Friendships:
Friends are vital to school-age children’s healthy development. Research has found that children who
lack friends can suffer from emotional and mental difficulties later in life. Friendships provide
children with more than just fun playmates. Friendships help children develop emotionally and
morally. In interacting with friends, children learn many social skills, such as how to communicate,
cooperate, and solve problems.

They practice controlling their emotions and responding to the emotions of others. They develop the
ability to think through and negotiate different situations that arise in their relationships. Having
friends even affects children’s school performance. Children tend to have better attitudes about
school and learning when they have friends there. In short, children benefit greatly from having
friends.

Parents play a crucial role in their child’s social development. A child is not born with social skills.
He needs parents who take an active role in preparing him to interact successfully with his peers. The
most important thing parents can do for their child is to develop a loving, accepting, and respectful
relationship with him.

This warm relationship sets the stage for all future relationships, including friendships. It helps the
child develop the basic trust and self-confidence necessary to go out and meet others. It provides a
firm foundation on which the child can develop social skills. Parents also teach their child various
social skills by being a good role model.

That is, a child learns from how his parents interact with him and other people. He learns how to
meet people and talk to them, to tell stories and jokes, and to cooperate with others and ask for
favors. He learns how to win or lose well, to apologize and accept apologies. He learns to accept
compliments graciously and to show admiration and appreciation. Furthermore, he learns to be
patient, respectful, and considerate. Parents help their child learn how to be a person other like to be
around by showing him with their own actions.

Social context of development in childhood: family

Family:
Family is the single most important influence in a child's life. From their first moments of life,
children depend on parents and family to protect them and provide for their needs. Parents and family
form a child's first relationships. They are a child's first teachers and act as role models in how to act
and how to experience the world around them.

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By nurturing and teaching children during their early years, families play an important role in making
sure children are ready to learn when they enter school. Children thrive when parents are able to
actively promote their positive growth and development. Every parent knows that it's sometimes
difficult to do this important work without help, support, and additional resources.

Relationship with Significant Others

Parental relationship: Children experience it with their father and mother or parent-substitute. Poor
relationships lead to devastating effects since young children depend on parents to a great extent.
Besides the security of the child is centered around the parents.

Therefore, poor relationship with parents, or their absence or death can severely traumatize the young
child and affect the developing personality. Sibling relations tip: The child progressively moves on to
independence and is no longer the 'baby'. Siblings often start frictions when a young child wants
his/her way. This is called sibling rivalry.

However, siblings may also enjoy a good relationship. Especially when the older children serve as
role models for the young children to learn socially approved and sex appropriate behaviour through
imitation.

Social context of development in childhood: play

Play: The beginning of early childhood finds children playing extensively with toys but slowly they
grow out of it towards the completion of this stage. The number of toys or play equipment, the
opportunities for manipulation, well developed motor skills, creativity, higher IQ-all these factors or
their lack influence the pattern of playing. Play includes a great deal of imitation and dramatizing.
For example, young children behave like mothers, teachers and others. The imaginative play often
merges reality and fantasy and is enjoyed by young children.

Play is one of the main ways in which children learn and develop. It helps to build self-worth by
giving a child a sense of his or her own abilities and to feel good about themselves. Because it’s fun,
children often become very absorbed in what they are doing.

Play is very important to a child's development, it is an integral part of a child's Early Years
Foundation Stage and supports their learning journey too. Young children can develop many skills
through the power of play. They may develop their language skills, emotions, creativity and social
skills. Play helps to nurture imagination and give a child a sense of adventure. Through this, they can
learn essential skills such as problem solving, working with others, sharing and much more.

It's important that learning is fun at this age. It needs to be about doing things with them that they
like. They might find unusual ways of doing things - for a toddler, building MODULEs aren't just for
making towers, and paint can be used without a brush! Show them how things work, but if they want
to experiment, let them.

Children learn through all their senses through taste, touch, vision, hearing and smelling. They will
watch those around them and copy language and behaviour.
Don't push your child too hard. Children develop in their own ways and in their own time. Try not to
compare them to other children. You can also encourage reading, by reading to and with them. Look
at the pictures together; this will help younger children make sense of the words.

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2.10 SOCIAL CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD: ROLE OF DISCIPLINE

Discipline isn't just about giving kids consequences. Instead, it ensures children are gaining the skills
they need to become responsible adults.

There are many types of discipline and various approaches to parenting. But ultimately, regardless of
the type of discipline a parent uses, discipline offers kids many benefits.

Discipline helps kids manage anxiety

Believe it or not, kids don’t want to be in charge. They often test limits just to make sure that their
caregivers can keep them safe. When adults offer positive and negative consequences, kids grow and
learn.

Kids who have overly permissive parents often experience anxiety because they have to make adult
decisions. The lack of guidance and the absence of leadership can be very unsettling for kids.

Discipline teaches kids to make good choices

Appropriate discipline teaches kids how to make good choices. For example, when a child loses his
bicycle privileges for riding into the road, he learns how to make safer choices next time.
Healthy discipline teaches kids alternative ways to get their needs met. Kids need to learn problem-
solving skills, impulse control, and self-regulation skills from appropriate training.

It is important to distinguish the difference between consequences and punishments. When kids are
disciplined with appropriate consequences they learn from their mistakes. Punishments, however,
tend to mean that kids quickly learn how to not get caught when they misbehave.

Discipline teaches kids to manage emotions

When a child receives a time-out after hitting his brother, he learns skills that will help him manage
his anger better in the future. The goal of time-out should be to teach your child to place himself in
time-out or step away from the situation when he's getting upset before he gets into trouble.

Other discipline strategies such as praise, can also teach kids how to deal with feelings. When you
say, “You are working so hard to build that tower even though it is really hard to do. Keep up the
good work,” your child learns about the importance of tolerating frustration.

Ignoring mild misbehaviour can teach kids socially appropriate ways to manage their frustration as
well. If you refuse to give in to a temper tantrum, your child will learn that's not a good way to get his
needs met. When you ignore whining, your child will learn that whining won't change your behavior.

Discipline keeps kids safe

The ultimate goal of discipline should be to keep kids safe. This includes major safety issues, such as
looking both ways before crossing the road. There should be consequences when your child doesn't
take appropriate safety precautions.

Discipline should also address other health risks, such as preventing obesity. If you let your child eat
whatever she wants, they may experience serious health risks. It's important to set healthy limits and
offer education to help your child learn to make healthy choices.

Explain the underlying reasons for rules so your child will understand the safety issues. Instead of
saying, “Stop jumping,” when your child is jumping on the bed, tell them why it's a problem. Say,
"You could fall and hit your head. That's not safe."

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When your child learns about the reasons for your rules, and he understands the specific safety risks,
they will be more likely to consider the safety risks when you're not there to tell them what to do.

2.11 SUMMARY

The period of infancy covers approximately the first two weeks of life. There are five important
characteristics in the infancy period. This is the shortest period of life span; it is the time of
adjustment; a plateau in development and consists of hazards filled event in life. Childhood begins
when the infancy period is over approximately two years of the age group. Childhood period is
divided into two age groups (i) early childhood, 2-6 years (ii) late childhood, 6- to the time the child
becomes sexually mature. Early childhood period is called as a conclusion of the infancy period.

In human development, infancy, babyhood, early and late childhood. In each stage we have examined
the characteristics, the milestones, the physical and psychosocial development.

If one is concerned about their child making enough friends, stop to consider whether he just has a
different social style than you do. For example, a child may prefer one or two close friends rather
than a wide circle of friends. One style is not better than another. What matters is that the child is
comfortable and happy with his friends. If it seems that the child has no friends, talk to the child’s
teacher, school or family counsellor, or paediatrician for additional guidance and resources.

2.12 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Explain the characteristics of infancy.

2. Explain the characteristics of babyhood.
3. Explain the characteristics of early childhood.
4. Explain the characteristics of late childhood.
5. Explain motor, sensory, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development of infancy.
6. Explain motor, sensory, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development of babyhood.
7. Explain motor, sensory, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development of early childhood.
8. Explain motor, sensory, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development of late childhood.
9. Explain the physical development in infancy, babyhood, early childhood and late childhood.
10. Write a note on speech development.
11. Explain the role of friendships in a child’s development.
12. Explain the role of family in a child’s development.
13. Explain the role of play in a child’s development.
14. Explain the role of discipline in a child’s development.

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 MODULE-III
PUBERTY AND ADOLESCENCE

STRUCTURE

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Characteristics of Puberty and Adolescence
3.3 Physical development, cognitive, social, emotional & moral development in adolescence
3.4 Emerging of sexuality
3.5 Social context adolescent peer relationships
3.6 Social context, role of family
3.7 Social context: Attraction towards members of the other sex
3.8 Summary
3.9 Suggested Questions

OBJECTIVES:

• To understand the outline of physical process of puberty in terms of human development

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Adolescence literally means 'to grow to maturity'. It is an intermediary stage between childhood and
adulthood characteristically possessing qualities of both stages, although not fully in either of them.
The age range is from 12-19 years. It is the threshold to adulthood. There are rapid physical changes
taking place including sexual maturity which is attained during adolescence. Consequently, there are
also psychological and social changes. Adolescence is a crucial stage for the person. In addition, it
usually encounters problems of different kinds. Adolescents are very sensitive. This must be
understood and handled with utmost responsibility

3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBERTY AND ADOLESCENCE

Rapid Physical Development: Adolescence is first of all a period of physical changes and
development. Physiological development primarily converts the boy into a man and the girl into a
woman and provides the basic for emotional, social, intellectual and economic maturity. The most
important changes occur in the glandular system which has great influence not only on the physical
development but also in the behavior and personality development of the adolescents.

Bio-chemical changes in the body make the endocrine glands more active and there is increase in
height, weight, changes in voice muscular growth, appearance of pubic hair, growth of hair on the
face arms, legs etc. The most striking physical change in this growth period is attainment of puberty
which leads to development of reproductive capacity. Respiratory, circulatory and digestive system
are also developed that give more physical energy and vigour. All these changes often lead to
confusion, feeling of inadequacy, insecurity and in some cases abnormal behavior. You must
understand the fact that all the aspects of adolescent development are basically conditioned by
physical changes.

Mental Development: Mental Development in adolescence accelerates in many intellectual fronts.

As compared with children, adolescents develop greater insight, better understanding and can
perceive relationship more easily. They develop the ability to generalize and can think of the solution
of more difficult problems. This indicates that the thought process becomes more logical, scientific

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and systematic during adolescence. It is an accepted fact that the ability of intelligence reaches its
maximum at the age of 16 and 17 years.

Memory power also develops tremendously, and adolescents can retain facts for a longer period.
They can anticipate the future needs and can plan for it. Another important change in intellectual
orientation is the adolescent’s ability to identity with the circumstances and people outside his own
immediate environment. The imitative tendency of childhood disappears during adolescence. The
adolescents develop certain amount of independence in thinking and can critically examine the things
to make the decision of his own.

Emotional immaturity: We have already said that adolescence is a period of “storm and stress.”
Psychologists have regarded it as a period of heightened emotionality. Continuous physical changes
mainly give rise to emotional uncertainty and instability. Emotions of anger, fear, shame, disgust
give rise to variation in moods, nervousness, sensitiveness, stubbornness, disobedience etc.

Sex drive is also a prolific source of emotional disturbance in adolescence. Beside these, adolescent’s
striving for independence gives rise to emotional conflicts. Their ideas and views often appear
contradictory with that of their parents and other members of the society. At many times, therefore,
the adolescent suffers from emotional detachment from their parents and other members of the
society. So, they are very pone to emotional maladjustment.

Social Consciousness: The period of adolescence is pre-eminently a period of social development

and adjustment. The most important social development during this period is the increased influence
of the peer group. The type of peer group shapes the behaviour of the adolescent to a great extent.
His interests, attitudes and values are influenced by his peers.

The adolescent boys and girls become self-conscious about their place in society and they gradually
enlarge their spheres of social activities and conducts. The adolescent tries to act in an independent
manner, but the parents often refuse to treat them like grownups which may lead to difficulties. An
adolescent also develops sense of patriotism in his mind and wants to join any type of social services.

Moral Consciousness: The development of morality contributes a great to the general development
of personality. Family is the main place where the adolescent receives the moral training, and which
exerts influence on his attitudes and behaviour. As the child grows older his capacity for independent
thinking develops. He can distinguish between right and wrong, true and false, virtue and vice and
the desirable and the undesirable. Adolescents in general, cannot tolerate immoral or illegal
activities. Interest in their own religion also develops.

Their moral senses may make them God fearing but sometimes they also develop religions doubts,
conflicts uncertainties regarding religious beliefs and practices etc. This may puzzle the thinking of
the adolescents.

Hero-worshipping: Hero-worshipping is a tendency of the adolescent stage. It means that the

adolescents start to identify themselves with an ideal hero, whom they obey and follow. They admire
and respect him. They organize their thoughts and activities in conformity with the ideal of the hero.

The hero becomes the source of inspiration for the adolescents to aim for their future. For this
reason, the adolescent should be encouraged to study biographies of great man so that they can shape
their own life following the ideals of these great men.

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Hetero-sexuality: Hetero-sexuality is another important characteristic of the adolescents. It means
the attraction for the opposite sex. Both the sexes develop greater interest for the opposite sex.
Adolescents become very much eager to know about the opposite sex. But unfortunately, the
knowledge which they may receive be harmful for their mental and physical health. Many boys and
girls suffer from worries because of the wrong information about sex and lack of proper guidance.
All teachers, social workers and psychologists agree that sex education should be provided to the
adolescents.

Creative imagination: During adolescence the imaginative faculty of an individual undergoes

considerable development. Imagination added with intellectual elements become artistic and creative
and finds expression in literature, art, poetry, fiction and even musical and artistic creations,
indicating the power of their creative imagination. Imagination thus enriches and transforms
experience and contributes to artistic appreciation and production during adolescence. Adolescents’
should be provided with opportunities for the development of their creative talents through music,
dance, art and culture. Divergent thinking should be encouraged.

Development of personal Independence: One of the most important things that an adolescent want
is independence from the adult authority. It becomes important for the young persons to establish
convictions about their identity. They develop faith in their own capability of doing things and
demand self-respect from the elder members of the society. They want psychological freedom and do
not like adult interference in their own personal business and they want to take decision themselves.
A sense of dignity, honour and freedom prevails in their thought, attitude and behaviour.

3.3 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT, COGNITIVE, SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL

DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

Adolescence, the transition between childhood and adulthood, is a stressful period of life
characterised by discernible physical, mental, emotional, social and behavioural changes.
Adolescence has been described as the transition period in life when an individual is no longer a
child, but not yet an adult. It is a period in which an individual undergoes enormous physical and
psychological changes. In addition, the adolescent experiences changes in social expectations and
perceptions. Physical growth and development are accompanied by sexual maturation, often leading
to intimate relationships. The individual’s capacity for abstract and critical thought also develops,
along with a sense of self-awareness when social expectations require emotional maturity.

Physical development
Adolescence the transition period between childhood and adulthood encompasses ages 12 to 19. It is
a time of tremendous change and discovery. During these years, physical, emotional, and intellectual
growth occurs at a dizzying speed, challenging the teenager to adjust to a new body, social identity,
and expanding world view. Perhaps no aspect of adolescence is as noticeable as the physical changes
that teenagers experience. Within the span of a few years, a dependent child becomes an independent
and contributing adult member of society. The start of adolescence also marks the beginning of
Freud's final stage of psychosexual development, the genital stage, which pertains to both
adolescence and adulthood.

Puberty is the time of rapid physical development, signalling the end of childhood and the beginning
of sexual maturity. Although puberty may begin at different times for different people, by its
completion girls and boys without any developmental problems will be structurally and hormonally
prepared for sexual reproduction. The speed at which adolescents sexually mature varies; the
beginning of puberty in both genders falls within a range of 6 to 7 years. In any grouping of 14‐year‐

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olds, for example, one is likely to see teenagers in assorted stages of development some appearing as
older children and others as fully mature adolescents. Eventually, though, everyone catches up.

Hormones are responsible for the development of both primary sex characteristics (structures
directly responsible for reproduction) and secondary sex characteristics (structures indirectly
responsible for reproduction). Examples of primary sex characteristics are the penis in boys and the
uterus in females. An example of secondary sex characteristics is the growth of pubic hair in both
genders.

During childhood, males and females produce roughly equal amounts of male (androgen) and female
(estrogen) hormones. At the onset of puberty, the pituitary gland stimulates hormonal changes
throughout the body, including in the adrenal, endocrine, and sexual glands. The timing of puberty
seems to result from a combination of genetic, environmental, and health factors.

An early sign of maturation is the adolescent growth spurt, or a noticeable increase in height and
weight. The female growth spurt usually begins between ages 10 and 14 and ends by age 16. The
male growth spurt usually begins between ages 10 and 16 and ends by age 18.

Girls generally begin puberty a few years earlier than boys, somewhere around ages 11 to 12.
Increasing levels of estrogen trigger the onset of puberty in girls. They grow taller; their hips widen;
their breasts become rounder and larger; hair grows on the legs, under the arms, and around the
genitals; the labia thicken; the clitoris elongates; and the uterus enlarges. Around the age of 12 or 13,
most girls today begin menstruating, or having menstrual periods and flow. The onset of
menstruation is termed menarche. At this time, females can become pregnant.

Increasing levels of the hormone testosterone trigger the onset of puberty in boys around ages 12 to
14. Boys become taller, heavier, and stronger; their voices deepen; their shoulders broaden; hair
grows under the arms, on the face, around the genitals, and on other parts of the body; the testes
produce sperm; and the penis and other reproductive organs enlarge. At this time, boys can
impregnate sexually mature girls. Teenage boys may also experience the harmless release of semen
during sleep, termed nocturnal emissions (wet dreams).

The resulting changes of puberty can have wide‐ranging effects on teenagers' bodies. For both
adolescent girls and boys, differences in height and weight, general awkwardness, emotional ups‐
and‐downs, and skin problems (acne vulgaris, or pimples) are common. These and other changes,
including the timing of sexual maturation, can be sources of great anxiety and frustration for the
blossoming youth.

Cognitive development
Most adolescents reach Piaget's stage of formal operations (ages 12 and older), in which they
develop new tools for manipulating information. Previously, as children, they could only think
concretely, but in the formal operations stage they can think abstractly and deductively. Adolescents
in this stage can also consider future possibilities, search for answers, deal flexibly with problems,
test hypotheses, and draw conclusions about events they have not experienced first-hand.

Cognitive maturity occurs as the brain matures and the social network expands, which offers more
opportunities for experimenting with life. Because this worldly experience plays a large role in
attaining formal operations, not all adolescents enter this stage of cognitive development. Studies
indicate, however, that abstract and critical reasoning skills are teachable. For example, everyday
reasoning improves between the first and last years of college, which suggests the value of education
in cognitive maturation.

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Intellectual development
According to Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory, intelligence is comprised of three
aspects: componential (the critical aspect), experiential (the insightful aspect), and contextual (the
practical aspect). Most intelligence tests only measure componential intelligence, although all three
are needed to predict a person's eventual success in life. Ultimately, adolescents must learn to use
these three types of intelligence.

Componential intelligence is the ability to use internal information‐processing strategies when

identifying and thinking about solving a problem, including evaluating results. Individuals who are
strong in componential intelligence do well on standardized mental tests. Also involved in
componential intelligence is metacognition, which is the awareness of one's own cognitive processes
an ability some experts claim is vital to solving problems.

Experiential intelligence is the ability to transfer learning effectively to new skills. In other words, it
is the ability to compare old and new information, and to put facts together in original ways.
Individuals who are strong in experiential intelligence cope well with novelty and quickly learn to
make new tasks automatic.

Contextual intelligence is the ability to apply intelligence practically, including taking into account
social, cultural, and historical contexts. Individuals who are strong in contextual intelligence easily
adapt to their environments, can change to other environments, and are willing to fix their
environments when necessary.

An important part of contextual intelligence is tacit knowledge, or savvy, which is not directly
taught. Tacit knowledge is the ability to work the system to one's advantage. Examples are knowing
how to cut through institutional red tape and manoeuvring through educational systems with the least
amount of hassle. People with tacit knowledge are often thought of as street‐smart.

Social development
Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson referred to the task
of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s
main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Some adolescents adopt the values and
roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their
parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer relationships become a central focus in
adolescents’ lives.

As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group
becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time
with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman,
& Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with positive
child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as
well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005).

It appears that most teens don’t experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree once famously
suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers
of teens have major conflicts with their parents (Steinberg & Morris, 2001), and most disagreements
are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and
ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework,
money, curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens
develop (Galambos & Almeida, 1992).

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Although peers take on greater importance during adolescence, family relationships remain important
too. One of the key changes during adolescence involves a renegotiation of parent–child
relationships. As adolescents strive for more independence and autonomy during this time, different
aspects of parenting become more salient. For example, parents’ distal supervision and monitoring
become more important as adolescents spend more time away from parents and in the presence of
peers. Parental monitoring encompasses a wide range of behaviors such as parents’ attempts to set
rules and know their adolescents’ friends, activities, and whereabouts, in addition to adolescents’
willingness to disclose information to their parents (Stattin & Kerr, 2000). Psychological control,
which involves manipulation and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world through
invalidating adolescents’ feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways (Barber, 1996), is
another aspect of parenting that becomes more salient during adolescence and is related to more
problematic adolescent adjustment.

As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and less
time with their families, and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults.
Children’s notions of friendship often focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents’ notions of
friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings.

During adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. Adolescents within
a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which has been explained as
being a function of homophily (adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend time
together in a “birds of a feather flock together” way) and influence (adolescents who spend time
together shape each other’s behavior and attitudes).

One of the most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known as deviant peer
contagion (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011), which is the process by which peers reinforce problem
behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future
problem behavior.

Influences on Social Development

Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence. Negative peer pressure can
lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behaviour than they would
alone or in the presence of their family. For example, adolescents are much more likely to drink
alcohol, use drugs, and commit crimes when they are with their friends than when they are alone or
with their family. However, peers also serve as an important source of social support and
companionship during adolescence, and adolescents with positive peer relationships are happier and
better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or have conflictual peer relationships.

Crowds are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships (which
are reciprocal dyadic relationships) and cliques (which refer to groups of individuals who interact
frequently), crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual interactions
(Brown & Larson, 2009). These crowds reflect different prototypic identities (such as jocks or brains)
and are often linked with adolescents’ social status and peers’ perceptions of their values or
behaviours.

Emotional development
Adolescents have to cope, not only with changes in their physical appearance, but also with
associated emotional changes and emerging and compelling sex urges. Bodily changes cause
emotional stress and strain as well as abrupt and rapid mood swings. Getting emotionally disturbed
by seemingly small and inconsequential matters is a common characteristic of this age group.

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Hormonal changes are likely to result in thoughts pertaining to sex, irritability, restlessness, anger
and tension. Attraction to the opposite sex leads to a desire to mix freely and interact with each other.
However, in reality, this may not always be possible, partly due to societal restrains on pre-marital
sexual expressions and also because of other priority needs in this period, viz. education,
employment, etc. Hence, it becomes almost necessary for adolescents to learn how to face and deal
patiently with the turbulence they face. It requires development of a sense of balance and self-
imposition of limits on expression of one’s needs and desires. An inability to express their needs
often leads adolescents to fantasize and daydream that helps them to at least partially fulfil their
desires.

Adolescence is also marked by development of the faculty of abstract thinking that enables them to
think and evaluate systematically and detect and question inconsistencies between rules and
behaviour. Parents as well as service providers often overlook this development, one of the basic
reasons for the popularly known ‘generation gap’.

Socially, adolescence consists in shifts from dependency to autonomy, social responses to physical
maturity, the management of sexuality, the acquisition of skills and changes in peer groupings. The
need to be a part of a gang or a large group is replaced by a preference for maintaining fewer, more
steady and binding relationships.

Moral development
As adolescents become increasingly independent, they also develop more nuanced thinking about
morality, or what is right or wrong. We all make moral judgments on a daily basis. As
adolescents’ cognitive, emotional, and social development continue to mature, their understanding of
morality expands and their behaviour becomes more closely aligned with their values and beliefs.
Therefore, moral development describes the evolution of these guiding principles and is
demonstrated by the ability to apply these guidelines in daily life. Understanding moral development
is important in this stage where individuals make so many important decisions and gain more and
more legal responsibility.

Moral development, in adolescents, means the ability to reason about right and wrong Lawrence
Kohlberg proposed a theory of moral development with three levels consisting of six stages. The first
level, preconventional morality, has to do with moral reasoning and behaviour based on rules and
fear of punishment (Stage 1) and nonempathetic self‐interest (Stage 2). The second
level, conventional morality, refers to conformity and helping others (Stage 3) and obeying the law
and keeping order (Stage 4). The third level, postconventional morality, is associated with
accepting the relative and changeable nature of rules and laws (Stage 5) and conscience‐directed
concern with human rights (Stage 6).

Moral development depends, in part, on the appearance of empathy, shame, and guilt. Internalization
of morality begins with empathy, the ability to relate to others' pain and joy. Children in their first
year begin to show signs of basic empathy in that they become distressed when those around them do
likewise. Internalization of morality also involves shame (feelings of not living up to others'
standards) and guilt (feelings of not living up to personal standards). Shame develops around age 2,
and guilt develops between ages 3 and 4. As children mature cognitively, they evidence an increasing
ability to weigh consequences in light of self‐interest and the interest of those around them.
Teenagers typically demonstrate conventional morality as they approach their 20s, although some
may take longer to gain the experience, they need to make the transition.

Influences on Moral Development

Adolescents are receptive to their culture, to the models they see at home, in school and in the mass

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media. These observations influence moral reasoning and moral behaviour. When children are
younger, their family, culture, and religion greatly influence their moral decision-making. During the
early adolescent period, peers have a much greater influence. Peer pressure can exert a powerful
influence because friends play a more significant role in teens’ lives. Furthermore, the new ability to
think abstractly enables youth to recognize that rules are simply created by other people. As a result,
teens begin to question the absolute authority of parents, schools, government, and other traditional
institutions (Vera-Estay, Dooley, & Beauchamp, 2014). By late adolescence, most teens are less
rebellious as they have begun to establish their own identity, their own belief system, and their own
place in the world.

Unfortunately, some adolescents have life experiences that may interfere with their moral
development. Traumatic experiences may cause them to view the world as unjust and unfair.
Additionally, social learning also impacts moral development. Adolescents may have observed the
adults in their lives making immoral decisions that disregarded the rights and welfare of others,
leading these youth to develop beliefs and values that are contrary to the rest of society.

That being said, adults have opportunities to support moral development by modeling the moral
character that we want to see in our children. Parents are particularly important because they are
generally the original source of moral guidance. Authoritative parenting facilitates children’s moral
growth better than other parenting styles and one of the most influential things a parent can do is to
encourage the right kind of peer relations. While parents may find this process of moral development
difficult or challenging, it is important to remember that this developmental step is essential to their
children’s well-being and ultimate success in life.

3.4 EMERGENCE OF SEXUALITY

Human sexuality is much more complex than the biological forces that initiate the sexual maturation
process. As such, the development of adolescent sexuality includes not only physical development
but also cognitive, emotional, social, and moral development. These developmental areas do not
uniformly advance at the same rate. This is particularly problematic with respect to adolescent
sexuality because poor decisions, due to a lack of cognitive and/or emotional maturity, can have dire,
life-long consequences.

Thus, it is important for caregivers to be prepared to discuss all aspects of sexuality (i.e., the physical,
cognitive, emotional, social, and moral aspects of sexuality) so that they can best assist their teens to
make wise and thoughtful decisions. When parents understand the process of adolescent sexual
development, they are in a better position to assist their children. In addition, knowledge of this
information enables caregivers to know when to intervene if necessary.

Early adolescence is a precarious period in youths' sexual development because of the inter-
relationship between sexual development, cognitive development, and emotional development.
Youth at this age lack the cognitive and emotional maturity that is necessary to make wise and
healthy decisions regarding their sexuality and are ill-prepared to cope with consequences of sexual
activity. This is particularly unfortunate as today's adolescents are becoming sexually active sooner
than previous generations. According to a survey by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
published in 2010, 46% of high school students were reported have sexual intercourse (Eaton, Kann,
Kinchen, et al., 2010).

This stands in contrast to the 1940's when only 10% of women ages 16-17 reported having had sex,
while 50-60% of men of the same age, reported having had sex (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948;

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Kinsey, Pomeroy, Martin, & Gebbard, 1953). Since sexual development begins during Puberty, the
reader may wish to review the Middle Childhood article on Puberty for more detailed information
and for specific advice regarding menstruation, erections, etc.

When teens are approximately 12-13 years of age, they begin to show a general interest in sexual
topics. Youth may try to satisfy their curiosity by reading information about sex and viewing images
with a sexual content. This may include drawings in anatomy books, photographs of naked people,
images of animal sexual behavior, and pornographic materials. Youth can readily find these images
at the library, in an older sibling's biology text book, watching certain television programs, viewing
adult magazines, or searching on the Internet. Some youth may attempt to satisfy their curiosity by
"peeping;" i.e., to secretly observe people when they are naked such as when they are bathing or
changing clothes. It is normal for youth to want to avoid the embarrassment of being discovered
doing any of these things so they may attempt to deny or conceal what they are doing.

During early adolescence boys will experience frequent erections since this is the normal response of
the male body to sexual excitement. Erections can also occur spontaneously for no apparent reason at
all as boys' bodies adjust to the extreme chemical and hormonal changes initiated during puberty.
Similarly, girls may find they produce vaginal secretions for no apparent reason, even when they're
not menstruating. Sometimes, these secretions are caused by sexual arousal, but increased vaginal
secretions can also be caused by normal hormonal fluctuations during their monthly cycle.

By ages 13-14 years, guys will have a more obvious interest in sex than girls do, but girls are
interested in sex as well. Guys will have even more frequent erections at this age. It's quite normal for
guys to experiment with their erections and their sexual arousal through masturbation. Because
sexual pleasure is a new experience, boys may want to masturbate quite frequently. Since indicators
of girls' sexual arousal are not as overtly obvious as boys' erections, girls may not masturbate as
frequently because they may be less aware of their sexual arousal.

Although sexual behavior is usually limited to masturbation at this age, both guys and girls may start
to experiment with sexual arousal through flirting, hugging, and playfully hitting or tickling other
youth they are romantically interested in. They may also start kissing or "making out" with other
teens. This may occur between two teens in private or it may occur in the context of a larger group,
such as a party, where youth might play a kissing game like spin-the-bottle.

Youth at this age may also begin to experiment with vocalizing their sexual thoughts when they are
with other teens. They may begin telling sexual jokes or using sexual double engenders, which are
comments that can have two meanings: the usual or customary meaning, and a subtly inferred sexual
meaning. Teens may also begin hinting about their own sexual activity to gauge others' reactions and
readiness to talk about sex.

Teens begin to become concerned with other people's opinions and judgments of them. Therefore, it
makes sense that both guys and girls will become more modest about their own nudity, even around
people of the same gender. For instance, a father and son may have routinely enjoyed going to the
gym together to play basketball, and comfortably dressed next to each other in the locker room. But
suddenly, the son seems highly uncomfortable with this arrangement, and may attempt to dress in
another row of the locker room or may even make excuses to avoid going to the gym altogether. This
increased sense of modesty is due to youths' own uncertainty about their new adult-like bodies and
their concerns about how others might judge their body. Family members will need to remember to
adjust to this increased need for privacy.

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3.5 SOCIAL CONTEXT: ADOLESCENT PEER RELATIONSHIPS

Parents gasp and clap in excitement as they witness their toddlers' first steps or hear them babble
their first words. Children's first day of school, their first piano recital, and their first soccer game,
can cause parents to beam with pride. However, similar developmental milestones during their
children's transition into adulthood are much less welcome. This transitional period, from childhood
to adulthood, is called Adolescence and spans the ages of 12-24 years old.
During adolescence the desire for independence and autonomy increase, and parents usually find
themselves much less thrilled with the developmental indicators of this increasing maturity. Instead
of beaming with pride when their teens question the rules or challenge authority, parents often find
themselves wanting to scream in frustration, "Why are they doing that!?"

While this developmental period certainly presents parents with many challenges, it also includes
many bittersweet moments that mark their child's increasing maturity. Some of these developmental
milestones may include graduation from high school or trade school, a teen's first romantic
relationship, a first job, or the first home-away-from-home. But along the way, a teen's normal
developmental process can certainly confound and frustrate even the most patient and understanding
parents.

Peer relationships are very influential in adolescence. During this time, when young people are
developing autonomy from their parents, peers become a significant source of social and emotional
support. The attitudes of adolescents’ friends can have both a positive and negative influence. Strong
peer attachments can enhance a young person’s wellbeing while problems in peer relationships, such
as bullying, can have significant psychological, physical, academic and social-emotional
consequences for both victims and perpetrators.

Given the significance of peer relationships for adolescents’ development, it is important to

understand the nature of these relationships. We provide a snapshot of the peer relationships of
Australian adolescents, by describing peer attachments, peer group attitudes, and peer problems as
they are reported by young people in mid adolescence.

3.6 SOCIAL CONTEXT: ROLE OF FAMILY

Developmental theories view adolescence as a period of growth in which identity formation is

addressed. Research shows, however, that ongoing positive family connections are protective factors
against a range of health risk behaviours. Although the nature of relationships is changing, the
continuity of family connections and a secure emotional base is crucial for the positive development
of young people.

Increasingly, research indicates that the role of the family context in adolescent well-being goes
beyond the importance of the direct relationship between a parent and a child. Other factors, such as
family members’ levels of engagement with each other, how much hostility or how many negative
interactions are part of family interactions, and satisfaction with relationships between parents all
play a role. For example, parents with high levels of marital satisfaction are more likely to
demonstrate good parenting practices, such as warmth, responsiveness, and affection, which in turn
can positively affect adolescent well-being.

Over 80 percent of adolescents with partnered parents have parents who report high levels of
happiness in their spousal or partner relationship.
Among adolescents with partnered parents, the majority have parents who say their relationship with
their partner or spouse is very happy or completely happy. Slightly more white, non-Hispanic and

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Hispanic adolescents have parents who report being completely/ very happy compared with black,
non-Hispanic adolescents’ parents.

Low ratings of parental happiness are also more common among adolescents in low-income
households. About one in five adolescents in poor families and families with incomes between 100
and 200 percent of poverty have parents who say they are fairly or not too happy, compared with
about one in six adolescents in families with incomes above 200 percent of poverty.

3.7 SOCIAL CONTEXT: PLAY AND LEISURE

Throughout most of history, kids have spent hour after hour playing with parents, siblings,
babysitters, and friends. Play is so important in child development that it's been recognized by the
United Nations High Commission for Human Rights as a right of every child.

But the amount of time that children spend playing each day has gone down considerably over the
last two decades. A 1989 survey taken by the National Association of Elementary School Principals
found that 96 percent of schools had at least one recess period for kids. A decade later, a similar
survey found that only 70 percent of kindergarten classes offered even one recess period each day.

The American Academy of Paediatrics’ recent report explains why children are playing less and what
the impact is on today's kids. Over the last few decades, the amount of play time has been reduced
both at school and at home, according to the AAP. Many school districts have responded to increased
government pressure about academics (including the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001) by reducing
the time committed to free play to focus more on reading and mathematics. And a child's playtime at
home has been negatively affected by the hectic lifestyles of today's working parents and the
increased focus that parents often put on the academic end of their children's education. But this all
comes at a cost.

"Play allows children to use their creativity while developing their imagination, dexterity, and
physical, cognitive, and emotional strength," according to the AAP report. It allows children to
explore the world, practice adult roles, and gain confidence. And it improves children's social skills
as well, by helping them to "learn how to work in groups, to share, to negotiate, to resolve conflicts,
and to learn self-advocacy skills."

During adolescence there are a number of cognitive, emotional, physical and attitudinal changes that
provide the basis for personality development. Teenagers are in an important transition stage where
they naturally try to break free from their parents and instead seek out new ways of doing things for
themselves. For the first time, teenagers will start to view their friends and peers’ groups as more
important and influential than their parents – often leading to conflict.

However difficult, teenagers need to be given the time and space to make decisions for themselves
and learn from their errors. Although we may worry about their choice in friends, these self-built
relationships can actually help them develop skills such as empathy, sharing and leadership, as well
as having a positive impact on them in terms of academic motivation and aspirations. Maintaining an
open dialogue is important at this age and it is crucial your child feels able to talk to you about their
new experiences and concerns.

Due to all these changes it is easy to forget that teenagers still need time to play and have fun!
Teenagers may not call it play, but the time that they spend with their friends or on their own, without
being told what to do, is their version of play. Teenage play is predominantly social, and they have
the freedom to decide for themselves or as a group how to have fun. Analysis of teenage behaviour

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during play shows that their behaviour mimics and practices being an adult, which is a positive for
their development.
However, it is still important as a parent to hold a discussion with your child to set clear boundaries
e.g. controls on the internet and phones, so that they can grow and explore their identity but still
within a safe environment.

3.8 SOCIAL CONTEXT: ATTRACTION TOWARDS MEMBERS OF OTHER SEX

A part of discovering one's total identity is the firming of sexual orientation, or sexual, emotional,
romantic, and affectionate attraction to members of the same sex, the other sex, or both. A person
who is attracted to members of the other sex is heterosexual. A person who is attracted to members
of the same sex is homosexual. Many use the term gay to refer to a male homosexual, and lesbian to
refer to a female homosexual.

A person who is attracted to members of both sexes is bisexual. In the 1940s and 1950s, Alfred
Kinsey and his associates discovered that sexual orientation exists along a continuum. Prior to
Kinsey's research into the sexual habits of United States residents, experts generally believed that
most individuals were either heterosexual or homosexual. Kinsey speculated that the categories of
sexual orientation were not so distinct. On his surveys, many Americans reported having had at least
minimal attraction to members of the same gender, although most had never acted out on this
attraction.

In short, Kinsey and colleagues brought to the attention of medical science the notion of
heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality all being separate but related sexual orientations.
The ethology of heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality continues to elude researchers.
Today's theories of sexual orientation fall into biological, psychological, social, and interactional
categories.

Academic Pressure:
School education is a very important part in an individual’s life and is also a turning point in their
academic life. At this stage, the academic performance of a student plays a crucial role in deciding the
next stage of their education, which in turn shapes their career. An excess of academic stress during
this stage can result in adverse effects that are far-reaching and prolonged.

In today’s highly competitive world, students face various academic problems including exam stress,
disinterest in attending classes and the inability to understand a subject. Academic stress involves
mental distress regarding anticipated academic challenges or failure or even the fear of the possibility
of academic failure. Academic stressors show themselves in many aspects in the students’
environment: at school, home, in their peer relations and even in their neighbourhood.

Excessive levels of academic stress can result in an increased prevalence of psychological and
physical problems like depression, anxiety, nervousness and stress related disorders, which in turn can
affect their academic results. Anxiety as a disorder is seen in about 8% of adolescents and children
worldwide. Anxiety and stress have a substantial negative effect on their social, emotional and
academic success. Depression is becoming the most common mental health problem college students
suffer these days. It is also a reflection of an individual’s academic frustration, academic conflict,
academic anxiety and academic pressure.

The four components of academic stress usually identifiable in a student are academic frustration,
academic conflicts, academic anxieties and academic pressures.

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According to most high school students, their greatest academic stressors include tests, grades,
homework, academic and achievement expectations and parental pressure. School related stresses
include inadequate instructional methods, teacher-student relationships, heavy academic workload,
poor physical classroom environments, inability to balance one’s leisure time with school, and
disorganization surrounding academic assignments and schedules. Additional sources consist of a
struggle to meet academic standards, worries about time management and concerns over grades and
scores. Students are thus, seen to be affected by the negative causes of academic stress.
The mental health of students, especially in terms of academic stress and its impact, has become a
serious issue among school and policymakers because of the increasing incidence of suicides among
students across the globe. The Lancet Report states that, India has the world’s highest suicide rates
among the youth. Parental pressure for better academic performance is found to be mostly responsible
for academic stress. Due to the constant pushing of the student by the parents in order to perform
better in both academics and extra-curricular activities, some children develop deep-rooted nervous
disorders during their childhood.

Academic and exam stress is found to be positively correlated with parental pressure and psychiatric
problems. It is important to remember that the mental constitution or coping capacities vary from one
child to another. Therefore, children with poor coping capacities become more prone to anxiety,
depression and fear of academic failure and this shows us that one should not compare one student
with another.

Career choices:
Parenting styles and parent-child relationships are linked to identity development during adolescence.
Parents who encourage their adolescent in decision making for the family tend to promote identity
achievement. Parents who do not encourage this type of decision making tend to promote identity
foreclosure. Passive and lenient parents, on the other hand, who allow their children to make their
own decisions, promote identity diffusion. Families that offer support and allow for individual
decision making allow for the advancement of the most effective atmosphere for positive identity
development (Santrock, 2007; Berzonsky, Branje, & Meeus 2007).

Other psychosocial resources, such as personal effectiveness and adaptability, are also related to
identity development, because they allow for an individual to develop a committed sense of purpose
and the capability to have control of his or her life. This commitment serves as the template for how
an individual will perform in life in everyday situations and solving problems. Individuals are likely
to have high levels of academic achievement, be capable of adapting to situations, and have low
levels of problem behaviors when they have high levels of self-regulatory resources. Psychosocial
resources are correlated with these desirable outcomes.

The socialization of work is another factor affecting occupational choice in adolescence. Long before
individuals enter the work force, they are being socialized to work by various sources. This process
of socialization continues throughout their career. People begin accumulating their knowledge about
the work force in early childhood, primarily from their parents, friends, and schools (Levine &
Hoffner, 2006). Parents are a primary source of socialization and also serve as influential factors in
their children’s career choices. In the family, children are first exposed to social and gender role
behavior through chores around the house and through the power differences amongst family
members.

This gives children information about future interactions of superior-subordinate relationships

(Levine & Hoffner, 2006). At home, children are made aware of the importance of education and
school in their household. This in turn affects the attitudes and motivation children have towards
school, which can be either positive or negative. (Koutsoulis & Campbell, 2001). According to

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 Levine and Hoffner (2006), friends are another influential socialization source for children and
adolescents. Through interactions with friends, adolescents can discuss career goals and receive
feedback on their career choices. Information on career aspirations can be shared amongst friends
who have similar interests. After-school activities, sports in particular, provide a great deal of
socialization through decision making and problem solving.

Many studies have been conducted investigating the various aspects of career development during
adolescence. One study of particular significance to the present study investigates parental
expectations and the barriers to career aspirations. According to the researchers, there are several
barriers that can affect the occupational choices of adolescents.

These barriers include socioeconomic status, family attitude, and poor school engagement (Creed,
Conlon, & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007). The researchers note that although there are barriers to
occupational choice, the relationship between these barriers and actual occupational functioning is
difficult to understand. Some individuals may be restricted by these barriers, while others use them as
motivation for achievement (2007).

The results of Creed et al.’s (2007) study demonstrated that adolescents and their parents typically
hold high career expectations; they found a correlation between the child’s individual expectations
for the career development and their parent’s expectations for the child. These findings are reflective
of previous findings indicating that parents are influential and have an impact on their children’s
future career aspirations.

3.8 SUMMARY

Adolescence has been described as the transition period in life when an individual is no longer a
child, but not yet an adult. It is a period in which an individual undergoes enormous physical and
psychological changes. In addition, the adolescent experiences changes in social expectations and
perceptions. Physical growth and development are accompanied by sexual maturation, often leading
to intimate relationships. The individual’s capacity for abstract and critical thought also develops,
along with a sense of self-awareness when social expectations require emotional maturity.

Adolescence literally means 'to grow to maturity'. It is an intermediary stage between childhood and
adulthood characteristically possessing qualities of both stages, although not fully in either of them.
The age range is from 12-19 years. It is the threshold to adulthood. There are rapid physical changes
taking place including sexual maturity which is attained during adolescence.

Adolescent sexuality has changed over the past 50 years, with adolescents now reaching physical
maturity earlier and marrying later. Puberty marks the obvious physical development in early to
middle adolescence and is seen as the time for potential onset of sexual thoughts and
experimentation.

On average, middle adolescence is a time when teens begin to be interested in more intimate
relationships and experimentation. Parental and societal concerns regarding premature sexual activity
include unplanned pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), sexual abuse, and potential
emotional consequences of sexual behaviours. These concerns underscore the importance of
providing adolescents with preventive health services and comprehensive sexual health education.

3.9 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Explain the characteristics of adolescence and puberty.

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2. Write a note on adolescent peer relationships.
3. Write a note on role of family.
4. Write a note on play and leisure.
5. Write a note on attraction towards members of the other sex.
6. Write a note on academic pressures and career choices.
7. Explain the physical development in adolescents.
8. Explain the cognitive development in adolescents.
9. Explain the social development in adolescents.
10. Explain the emotional development in adolescents.
11. Explain the moral development in adolescents.
12. Explain the emergence of sexuality in adolescents.

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 MODULE-IV
EARLY, MIDDLE AND LATE ADULTHOOD
STRUCTURE

4.1 Introduction
1. Characteristics of Adulthood
2. Summary
3. Suggested Questions

OBJECTIVES

• To learn physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs in early, middle and late
adulthood.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Adulthood is the stage where growth is complete, and the person assumes various responsibilities.
Starting around 18 years, it extends till middle age which is around 45 years. The developmental
tasks for this stage of life are as follows:
Like all earlier stages adult too has certain developmental tasks, except they are referred to as 'Vital
roles". All of us occupy status, a position, socially recognized and regularized. For example, the
status of being a son, an officer or/and a captain. According to the status one occupies, one needs to
perform certain duties or fulfil certain responsibilities, which are termed as 'roles'.

A role is the dynamic side of the status. Taking the example further, the son takes care of the parents
or the captain leads the team. The roles of the adult are so important that they are called as vital roles
and each adult performs these roles. These roles include the role of a worker. a spouse and a parent.

4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULTHOOD

There are several defining characterisations of adulthood, including independence, self-discovery and
management of a person's life. Even though some people do not experience all of the common
characterisations, most people do look forward to the independence they attain upon leaving their
childhood home.

For most people, the independence they get once they leave home is the most important characteristic
of becoming an adult. When adults have the ability to take care of each portion of their lives, this
allows them to discover who they are. However, most people make common mistakes such as
forgetting about bills or forgetting to plan for the future. Aside from the freedom that most people
seek, there are also other parts of becoming an adult.

One part is discovering who they are as a people, which is separate from their parents. Another
characteristic is the ability to manage individual parts of life, such as choosing the furniture for their
home, picking out each type of food they prepare and choosing to stay up or going to bed when they
feel like it. These simple actions separate children from adults, because once the novelty of staying
up late wears off, most adults create a schedule that works best for their needs.

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1. Capability and willingness to accept responsibility for our actions.
2. Capability and willingness to extend “care” beyond our own physical body. This care often is
directed to the other in an LTR, but may be to a family group, religious order, squad of other
soldiers, or less dramatically some secular vocations, or even to a pet.
3. Capability and willingness to self-examine, admit error and self-correct, or accept correction from
another.
4. Capability and willingness to delay gratification of immediate inclinations in favour of other values:
the welfare of another, self-control for its own sake, long-term cost, the healthy regulation of
appetites so that they do not tip into addictive behaviors, keeping the conduct that matches a desired
or an established identity.

All four of these include the ability and will to self-assess, to modify one’s behavior (including
curtailing old patterns and creating new patterns) for a variety of motivations, all of which originate
either with benefiting others, or benefitting the self in the long term.

4.3 ISSUES IN ADULTHOOD-MARRIAGE, FAMILY, CAREER, LIFE STYLES AND

PARENTING

Adulthood, the period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturity have
been attained. Adulthood is commonly thought of as beginning at age 20 or 21 years. Middle age,
commencing at about 40 years, is followed by old age at about 60 years.

An important aspect of achieving intimacy with another person is first being able to separate from
the family of origin, or family of procreation. Most young adults have some familial attachments but
are also in the process of separating from them. This process normally begins during Daniel
Levinson's early adult transition (17–22), when many young adults first leave home to attend
college or take a job in another city.

By age 22 young adults have attained at least some level of attitudinal, emotional, and physical
independence. They are ready for Levinson's entering the adult world (22–28) stage of early
adulthood, during which relationships take centre stage.

Marriage
Divorce and Remarriage
Divorce refers to the legal dissolution of a marriage. Depending on societal factors, divorce may be
more or less of an option for married couples. Despite popular belief, divorce rates in the United
States actually declined for many years during the 1980s and 1990s, and only just recently started to
climb back up landing at just below 50% of marriages ending in divorce today (Marriage & Divorce,
2016); however, it should be noted that divorce rates increase for each subsequent marriage, and
there is considerable debate about the exact divorce rate. Are there specific factors that can predict
divorce? Are certain types of people or certain types of relationships more or less at risk for breaking
up? Indeed, there are several factors that appear to be either risk factors or protective factors.

Pursuing education decreases the risk of divorce. So too does waiting until we are older to marry.
Likewise, if our parents are still married, we are less likely to divorce. Factors that increase our risk
of divorce include having a child before marriage and living with multiple partners before marriage,
known as serial cohabitation (cohabitation with one’s expected marital partner does not appear to
have the same effect). Of course, societal and religious attitudes must also be taken into account. In
societies that are more accepting of divorce, divorce rates tend to be higher. Likewise, in religions
that are less accepting of divorce, divorce rates tend to be lower. See Lyngstad & Jalovaara (2010)
for a more thorough discussion of divorce risk.

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If a couple does divorce, there are specific considerations they should take into account to help their
children cope. Parents should reassure their children that both parents will continue to love them and
that the divorce is in no way the children’s fault. Parents should also encourage open communication
with their children and be careful not to bias them against their “ex” or use them as a means of
hurting their “ex”.

Remarriage
Middle adulthood seems to be the prime time for remarriage, as the Pew Research Center reported in
2014 that of those aged between 55-64 who had previously been divorced, 67% had remarried. In
1960, it was 55%. Every other age category reported declines in the number of remarriages. Notably,
remarriage is more popular with men than women, a gender gap that not only persists, but grows
substantially in middle and later adulthood.

Cohabitation is the main way couples prepare for remarriage, but even when living together, many
important issues are still not discussed. Issues concerning money, ex-spouses, children, visitation,
future plans, previous difficulties in marriage, etc. can all pose problems later in the relationship. Few
couples engage in premarital counselling or other structured efforts to cover this ground before
entering into marriage again.

The divorce rate for second marriages is reckoned to be in excess of 60%, and for third marriages
even higher. There is little research in the area of repartnering and remarriage, and the choices and
decisions made during the process. A notable exception is that of Brown et al (2019) who offer an
overview of the little that there is, and their own conclusions. One important constraint which they
note is that men prefer younger women, at least as far as remarriage is concerned. Indeed, the gap in
age is often more pronounced in second marriages than in the first, according to Pew (2014).

Allied to the fact that women live, on average, five years longer in the USA, then the pool of
available partners shrinks for women. Brown et al (2019), also argue that this is further reinforced by
the fact that women have a preference for retaining their autonomy and not playing the role of
caregiver again. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of their research is the fact that those who
repartner tend to do so quickly, and that longer-term singles are more likely to remain so.

Reviews are mixed as to how happy remarriages are. Some say that they have found the right partner
and have learned from mistakes. But the divorce rates for remarriages are higher than for first
marriages. This is especially true in stepfamilies for reasons which we have already discussed. People
who have remarried tend to divorce more quickly than those first marriages. This may be due to the
fact that they have fewer constraints on staying married (are more financially or psychologically
independent).

Family
As young adults enter the culminating phase of early adulthood (33–45), they enter the settling
down (33–40) stage. By this time, they have established a career (at least the first one!) and found a
spouse. If the couple have not already done so, they will probably decide to have one or more
children and start a family.

People generally think that parenthood strengthens marriages, even though research indicates that
marital satisfaction often declines after the birth of the first child. This need not be the case, however.
If the marriage is already positive and the spouses share equally in parenting duties, they can
minimize the hassles of parenthood and keep it from significantly interfering with marital happiness.

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Regardless of the many joys of parenthood, new parents are not always prepared for the
responsibility and time‐commitment that raising a child requires, especially when the pregnancy is
accidental rather than planned, or when the child is “difficult” and prone to irritability and excessive
crying.
The postponement of marriage and childbearing until the 30s makes for an interesting trend in today's
world. Two advantages of waiting are the emotional maturity of both partners and the stability of
their relationship. A more mature and stable couple possesses the necessary tools for weathering the
storms of parenthood. Another advantage is financial stability due to more years on the job,
promotions, and long‐term savings.

Another interesting trend is an increase in non-traditional family units. Examples of these

include blended families (or “stepfamilies,” in which children from previous marriages are
“blended” into a new family), single‐parent families, and same‐sex families.
Some couples choose to remain childless. Couples who have children do not necessarily regard
themselves as more “fulfilled” than couples who do not. The critical factor seems to be the couples'
ability to choose their lifestyle.

Career
Career development in adulthood includes establishing a career, maintaining it, and making
adjustments in it during an adult's declining years. To be successful in finding a place in the
occupational world may involve mobility as seriously as credentials. Adult identity is largely a
function of career movements within occupations and work organizations. In the maintenance stage
the individual has made his place in the occupational world. He has developed his role in the home,
community, and job and will continue to follow that role. In the years of decline the individual
curtails, or modifies, his activities, or he may even change the type of work. Hence, the individual's
role in the occupational world changes throughout his career.

Lou Varga discusses the phenomenon of occupational floundering-that is, a time when a person is
working without a commitment to an occupational goal. Three stages of floundering are described:
initial entry into the job market, a shopping period, and the mid-career stage. Some positive aspects
of floundering are also identified. Rene V. Dawis and Lloyd H. Lofquist offer a theory regarding
work adjustment. They describe work personality styles and their relationship to work adjustment.
Harold L. Sheppard presents some patterns of individuals moving toward second careers. He suggests
a way of identifying individuals who will seek second careers and indicates some dimensions that
differentiate them from non-candidates for second careers.

There also is a trend now toward retirement preparation programs; however, there is a need to
increase counseling and planning in that area. Patricia L. Kasschau proposes that definitive retirement
preparation programs be systematically conceived, designed, and implemented. The new concerns in
vocational guidance for adulthood are second careers, changing life personality patterns as one
develops on the job, and adjusting to retirement.

Lifestyle
Stress, or the internal sense that one's resources to cope with demands will soon be depleted, is
present in all age groups, although it seems to be unavoidable during middle age. Middle adults are
faced with stressors, such as the challenges of raising a family, paying their mortgages, facing
layoffs at the office, learning to use technology that is continually changing, or dealing with chronic
health ailments.

All stressful events need not be negative (Distressors), however. Psychiatrists Holmes and Rahe note
that positive events (Eustressors), such as marriage, vacations, holidays, and winning the lottery, can

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be just stressful as negative ones. They also indicated that the higher a person's stress levels,
including the number of good or bad stresses being experienced, the more likely that person is to
develop an illness within two years.

Resistance to stress, known as hardiness, varies from person to person. Hardiness is probably due to
a combination of a person's cognitive appraisal, or interpretation, of the stresses, the degree to which
he or she feels in control of the stresses, and his or her personality type and behavioral patterns. Some
people, such as easy-going type B's, seem less bothered by stress and are thus better equipped
physically to handle both negative and positive stresses than are other personality types, such as type
A's, or more anxious people.

Most everyone considers death during middle age as being a premature occurrence. Even so, the
death rate doubles during each decade after 35, and unlike death in adolescence and young adulthood,
death during middle adulthood is more often the result of natural causes than accidents.
Socioeconomic status and race also have an impact on health and death. Typically, less educated,
urban, and poorer minorities have the worst health, frequently due to limited access to necessary
medical care. The death rate for middle‐aged black Americans is nearly twice that of their white
counterparts.

Perhaps the place where stress is most keenly felt during middle age is at work. Middle adults may
feel that their competence is in question because of their age, or middle adults may feel pressured to
compete with younger workers. Research indicates that age has less to do with predicting job success
than do tests of physical and mental abilities.

The most common sources of stress in the workplace include forced career changes, lack of expected
progress (including promotions and raises), lack of creative input into decision making, monotonous
work, lack of challenging work, inadequate pay, feelings of being underutilized, unclear procedures
and job descriptions, conflicts with the boss or supervisor, lack of quality vacation
time, workaholism (addiction to work), and sexual harassment.

Long‐term job stress can eventually result in burnout, a state of mental exhaustion characterized by
feelings of helplessness and loss of control, as well as the inability to cope with or complete assigned
work. Short of resigning, interventions to prevent burnout include using standard stress‐ reduction
techniques, such as meditation or exercise, and taking longer breaks at work and longer vacations
from work.

Most middle adults can be categorized as either successful in a stable career chosen during young
adulthood or ready for a new career. Career changes are sometimes the result of revaluation, or
a midcareer reassessment, which can certainly be stressful. Such re-examination of one's vocation
can come about for many reasons, such as feeling trapped in a career or even wanting to make more
money. One recent trend, however, is for middle adults to leave high‐paying professions to take on
more humanitarian roles, such as ministers, social workers, or counsellors.

The greatest source of job stress is unemployment, especially when termination comes suddenly.
Besides wrestling with issues of self‐esteem, unemployed workers must also deal with the financial
hardship brought about by loss of income. As may be expected, unemployed persons who have
alternative financial resources and who also cognitively reframe their situations tend to cope better
than those who do not.

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Parenting
The decision to become a parent should not be taken lightly. There are positives and negatives
associated with parenting that should be considered. Many parents report that having children
increases their well-being (White & Dolan, 2009). Researchers have also found that parents,
compared to their non-parent peers, are more positive about their lives (Nelson, Kushlev, English,
Dunn, & Lyubomirsky, 2013). On the other hand, researchers have also found that parents, compared
to non-parents, are more likely to be depressed, report lower levels of marital quality, and feel like
their relationship with their partner is more business-like than intimate (Walker, 2011).

If you do become a parent, your parenting style will impact your child’s future success in romantic
and parenting relationships. Recall from the module on early childhood that there are several
different parenting styles. Authoritative parenting, arguably the best parenting style, is both
demanding and supportive of the child (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Support refers to the amount of
affection, acceptance, and warmth a parent provides. Demandingness refers to the degree a parent
controls their child’s behavior. Children who have authoritative parents are generally happy, capable,
and successful (Maccoby, 1992).

Other, less advantageous parenting styles include authoritarian (in contrast to authoritative),
permissive, and uninvolved (Tavassolie, Dudding, Madigan, Thorvardarson, & Winsler,
2016). Authoritarian parents are low in support and high in demandingness. Arguably, this is the
parenting style used by Harry Potter’s harsh aunt and uncle, and Cinderella’s vindictive stepmother.

Children who receive authoritarian parenting are more likely to be obedient and proficient but score
lower in happiness, social competence, and self-esteem. Permissive parents are high in support and
low in demandingness. Their children rank low in happiness and self-regulation and are more likely
to have problems with authority. Uninvolved parents are low in both support and demandingness.
Children of these parents tend to rank lowest across all life domains, lack self-control, have low self-
esteem, and are less competent than their peers.

Parenting may or may not form part of adulthood. Those that do have children often report improved
relationships once the children have left home provided that they remain in contact with the
children. Those that do not have children tend to spend more time involved in companionate
activities with one another.

Most parents believe quite sincerely that their responsibility is to raise their children, to take an active
part in guiding them, or perhaps in steering them, on their way to becoming mature adults. This role
may be an easy or difficult job. Even more than the husband-wife relationship, the parent-child
relationship has this serious factor of interpersonal manipulation seemingly built into it, as though
part of the job description of mother or father.

Single Parenting
In many cases okay, most cases people are single parents because it is their best or only option. As
adolescents we thought we would all live happily ever after with our mate. In today’s world this is
not necessarily true. Many people are now single parents. It is a new way of being a family that
wasn’t so common 40 years ago. Despite what you hear in the media, single parenting is not all bad
news not at all. If the two parents, can manage to sort out the difficult issues of money, childcare, and
their relationship (if any) - single parenting can be a joy. You can gain an increased closeness with
your kid, plus the increased sense of control or the opportunity to parent from your own vision. It
may also be the best thing for the child.

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4.4 COGNITIVE, EMOTIONAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTHOOD

Cognition changes over a person’s lifespan, peaking at around age 35 and slowly declining in later
adulthood. Because we spend so many years in adulthood (more than any other stage), cognitive
changes are numerous during this period. In fact, research suggests that adult cognitive development
is a complex, ever-changing process that may be even more active than cognitive development in
infancy and early childhood (Fischer, Yan, & Stewart, 2003).

Unlike our physical abilities, which peak in our mid-20s and then begin a slow decline, our cognitive
abilities remain relatively steady throughout early and middle adulthood. Research has found that
adults who engage in mentally and physically stimulating activities experience less cognitive decline
in later adult years and have a reduced incidence of mild cognitive impairment and dementia.

According to Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the establishment of formal operational
thinking occurs during early adolescence and continues through adulthood. Unlike earlier concrete
thinking, this kind of thinking is characterized by the ability to think in abstract ways, engage in
deductive reasoning, and create hypothetical ideas to explain various concepts.

Since Piaget’s theory, other developmental psychologists have suggested a fifth stage of cognitive
development, known as postformal operational thinking (Basseches, 1984; Commons & Bresette,
2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and
circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on
contexts. This kind of thinking includes the ability to think in dialectics and differentiates between
the ways in which adults and adolescents are able to cognitively handle emotionally charged
situations.

During early adulthood, cognition begins to stabilize, reaching a peak around the age of 35. Early
adulthood is a time of relativistic thinking, in which young people begin to become aware of more
than simplistic views of right vs. wrong. They begin to look at ideas and concepts from multiple
angles and understand that a question can have more than one right (or wrong) answer. The need for
specialization results in pragmatic thinking using logic to solve real-world problems while accepting
contradiction, imperfection, and other issues. Finally, young adults develop a sort of expertise in
either education or career, which further enhances problem-solving skills and the capacity for
creativity.

Two forms of intelligence crystallized and fluid are the main focus of middle adulthood.
Our crystallized intelligence is dependent upon accumulated knowledge and experience it is the
information, skills, and strategies we have gathered throughout our lifetime. This kind of intelligence
tends to hold steady as we age in fact, it may even improve. For example, adults show relatively
stable to increasing scores on intelligence tests until their mid-30s to mid-50s (Bayley & Oden,
1955). Fluid intelligence, on the other hand, is more dependent on basic information-processing skills
and starts to decline even prior to middle adulthood. Cognitive processing speed slows down during
this stage of life, as does the ability to solve problems and divide attention.
However, practical problem-solving skills tend to increase. These skills are necessary to solve real-
world problems and figure out how to best achieve a desired goal.

Emotional development in adulthood

Emotion regulation skills appear to increase during adulthood. Older adults report fewer negative
emotions as well as more emotional stability and well-being than younger people. Older adults may
also be savvier at navigating interpersonal disagreements than younger people. They may pay

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more attention to the good and less attention to the bad and when they experience a negative emotion,
they may be able to recover more quickly than younger people.

Thus, at first glance, there seems to be an emotional “mellowing out” with maturity and an increased
and potentially deliberate ability to see the world through rose-colored glasses. Given these data, it is
interesting to learn that older adults may react with stronger emotions than younger people in some
situations.

Indeed, bad events may hit older adults harder than younger ones. In studies in which researchers try
to create a negative mood in their participants, older adults can react with stronger emotions than
younger people. This is particularly true if the investigators use negative stimuli that are relevant to
older adults, such as stimuli about loss or injustice. In my research, we find that older adults react to
films about loss with greater negativity than younger adults.

A recent study by Streubel and Kunzmann (2011) suggests that emotional arousal is a factor that
needs more attention in aging research. That is, a focus on positive and negative emotions and aging
may be too limited; rather a focus on the strength of emotions also is needed. In circumstances in
which strong emotions are aroused, older adults may not be able to regulate their emotions as well as
younger people. Indeed, in our data, where we see older adults reacting with stronger negative
emotions than younger ones, the films are very powerful and highly relevant to older people.

Changes in emotions with age are complex. Older adulthood is not simply a time of emotional well-
being and tranquillity. Strong emotions exist and reactions to important life events may increase with
age, rather than diminish. More research along these lines is needed for practitioners to learn how to
help older adults navigate emotionally powerful events in their lives.

Moral development in adulthood

Principled Conscience – This stage is the last stage and emerges in young adulthood. Unfortunately,
only a minority of adults are expected to reach this stage of moral development. Individuals in this
stage prioritize respect for individual human rights, which leads them to support systems that protect
human rights. Their primary motivation is to make choices based on the principle of respect for all
human beings and to show respect and dignity to everyone they encounter, not just family, friends, or
neighbours.

4.5 INTERESTS AND SOURCES OF RECREATION IN ADULTHOOD

As most developed nations restrict the number of hours an employer can demand that an employee
work per week, and require employers to offer paid vacation time, what do middle aged adults do
with their time off from work and duties, referred to as leisure? Around the world the most common
leisure activity in both early and middle adulthood is watching television (Marketing Charts Staff,
2014). On average, middle aged adults spend 2-3 hours per day watching TV (Gripsrud, 2007) and
watching TV accounts for more than half of all the leisure time.

There are hundreds of different ways that you can get up and get active today. Here is some fun,
productive and beneficial activities with proven benefits for both your physical and mental wellbeing.
1. Tai chi
The ancient art of Tai Chi is a useful source of exercise for people of all ages. Sometimes referred to
as “meditation in motion,” Tai Chi blends lightly strenuous exercise with stretching and mindfulness.
This practice is particularly useful as we get older. Tai Chi improves balance, flexibility and overall
fitness levels. Many practitioners of Tai Chi believe it’s also helpful to reduce pain, and some believe

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it can even reduce symptoms associated with depression. Studies have shown that Tai Chi reduces
the risk of falls for older adult practitioners by as much as 45%.
There are Tai Chi centers throughout the country that offer beginner classes in Tai Chi. You can find
a center in your area here.

2. Swimming
Another low impact source of exercise is swimming. While swimming is fun and enjoyable for just
about anybody, there are even more profound reasons for older people to head to the pool for a
dip. Swimming has been shown to ease arthritis symptoms, reduce knee, ankle and joint pain and
even reduce high blood pressure.

Plus, swimming is extremely refreshing on a hot day, and by its very nature, it eliminates the risk of
heat exhaustion or heat stroke while exercising. Almost every town in America has a swimming pool
you can access. Many gyms, health, and community centers also have pools available.

3. Walking & hiking

One of the best ways to remain active while also enjoying the great outdoors is walking or hiking. Dr.
Michael Pratt, a chief medical advisor to the CDC, suggests that walking and hiking has “very real
benefits for maintaining mobility and independence in older adults.”

It’s also a great way to take in the great outdoors. While walking is an activity that nearly anyone can
engage in right now, be sure to discuss the prospect of hiking with your doctor before hitting the
trails.

4. Gardening
Gardening is a fun and enriching activity that has plenty of cognitive and physical benefits.
Gardening can be a great way to learn new skills and regain skills you may have lost. It also helps to
improve memory and attention span while reducing stress and promoting feelings of calm and
relaxation.

Gardening also helps to foster a sense of accomplishment, as well. Perhaps best of all are the tangible
benefits of gardening. By gardening, you’re increasing the beauty of your environment.

Depending on what you decide to grow, you may even be putting food on the table in the process!
Plus, it’s an activity you can begin right away. All you’ll need to start a garden is a plot of land and
some seeds from your local home store.

5. Board games
Board games are a fun and enjoyable activity and are a great way for those of us who can’t engage in
physical activity to remain active. There’s also plenty of evidence that suggests that board games
help to prevent against dementia and cognitive decline.

Engaging in a board game is also a great way to socialize, either with friends and family members or
with complete strangers. Many of us already have everything we’ll need to get started collecting dust
in a closet. But, if you don’t have any games yet, you’ll find a wide variety of games at local stores or
online.
6. Yoga
Few things are more beneficial to the human body than yoga. Best of all, it’s not just an activity for
the young and fit. There are tons of yoga poses and practices you can incorporate into your exercise
routine regardless of how old you are. When it comes to yoga, there is such a wide range of physical
and mental benefits.

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Practicing yoga can help minimize hypertension, strengthen bones, increase balance and poise, build
strength, and reduce anxiety, just to name a few. As for practicing yoga, there are studios throughout
the country where you can practice yoga with others in a controlled environment. Many studios even
offer classes for those 55 and up.

Yoga practice isn’t limited to a studio, either. There are plenty of online classes or DVDs you can
pick up today that will allow you to create a yoga routine from the comfort of your own home.

7. Painting & drawing

Painting and drawing are another low impact activity you may want to consider incorporating into
your daily life. Not only is painting and drawing lots of fun, but there are a ton of other benefits that
you’ll enjoy if you take up the hobby. Painting and drawing help to improve fine motor skills while
increasing brain activity, concentration and mental health in general.

Many people swear by the type of therapy they experience that only art can provide. Are you
thinking about taking up art as a hobby? The good news is all you need is a pencil and paper! If you
feel like you’re in need of some more advanced tools, you’ll be able to find everything you need at
the local craft or art supply store.

8. Group trips
One of the most beautiful things about getting older is having more time to enjoy the things you love.
If you’ve always wanted to travel and see the world, now is a great time to start. Group trips are a
great way to enjoy the world as you connect with others in a social setting.
Many travel agencies specialize in planning trips for people who are 55 and older, and they can pair
you with an enthusiastic group of people that are just as ready to enjoy the rest of the world as you
are. Before you travel, there are a few things you may want to consider to make sure that
you’re traveling safely.

9. Birdwatching
Another engaging activity that’s extremely popular is birdwatching. Birdwatching helps to exercise
both your body and your mind, and it can be a great way to get up and get active. Plus, it’s one of the
most affordable activities there are.
All you’ll need to become a successful birdwatcher is a field guide and perhaps a pair of binoculars.

10. Scrapbooking & collages

Scrapbooking is another great activity that’s particularly popular among those 55 and older. It’s a
great way to connect with the past while enjoying the present. There are also many therapeutic
benefits associated with scrapbooking.
Scrapbooking helps to improve memory function while stimulating the mind, it’s also a great way to
relax, which can help to lower blood pressure as well. Scrapbooking is a self-esteem booster, and it
can also be a great way to communicate with others. Here are some fun ideas for getting started with
scrapbooking.

11. Playing an instrument

If you’re like most people, you’ve spent your entire life enjoying music. But you may be unaware of
the benefits that playing an instrument has, especially if you get older. Playing an instrument is a
great way to improve cognitive function and coordination, and it also has a positive impact on our
ability to hear and process speech.
Plus, according to The Hearing Journal, learning an instrument later in life improves our ability to
process and retain information.

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12. Cooking & baking
There’s a good chance you’ve been engaged in cooking and baking for many years. But, did you
know that cooking and baking have a strong positive effect on our mental health? Cooking helps to
stimulate our senses, it makes us (and others) happy, and it can also be a great creative outlet. If
you’re looking for a new activity to engage in, you might want to consider diving into an activity
you’ve known your entire life and head for the kitchen!

13. Knitting & crocheting

There’s a reason why these are such popular activities; Knitting and crocheting are therapeutic!
Knitting is a great way to keep your fingers dexterous as you get older. They are also a fantastic
creative outlet, and a fun way to blow off stress.
If you’re looking for an activity that will lend a sense of purpose, knitting and crocheting may be the
answer. There are tons of charitable organizations that you can help right now by knitting or
crocheting.

4.6 CHALLENGES IN MIDDLE AGE- PHYSICAL CHANGES AND ITS IMPACT

Adulthood is the time when most of us encounter death for the first time, marriage, divorce, second
families, and career changes and so on. As such, there are many challenges to be met.
The transition from adolescence to adulthood is a major developmental challenge for everyone.
While it is often successful, it sometimes fails or threatens to fail – particularly in young people with
mental illness.

Although no longer at the peak level of their young adult years, middle‐aged adults still report good
health and physical functioning, However, as a result of the passage of time, middle adults undergo
various physical changes. Decades of exposure and use take their toll on the body as wrinkles
develop, organs no longer function as efficiently as they once did, and lung and heart capacities
decrease.

Other changes include decreases in strength, coordination, reaction time, sensation (sight, hearing,
taste, smell, touch), and fine motor skills. Also common among middle adults are the conditions
of presbyopia (farsightedness or difficulty reading) and presbycusis (difficulty hearing high‐pitched
sounds). Still, none of these changes is usually so dramatic that the middle adult cannot compensate
by wearing glasses to read, taking greater care when engaging in complex motor tasks, driving more
carefully, or slowing down at the gym. Of course, people age at different rates, so some 40-year olds
may feel middle‐aged long before their 50‐year‐old counterparts. Most people, however, describe
feeling that they have reached midlife by their mid‐50s.

The biopsychosocial changes that accompany midlife specifically, menopause (the cessation of
menstruation) in women and the male climacteric (male menopause) in men appear to be major
turning points in terms of the decline that eventually typifies older adulthood. None of the biological
declines of middle and late adulthood needs to be an obstacle to enjoying all aspects of life, including
sex. For example, too often society has erroneously determined that menopause inevitably means the
end of female sexuality.

However, while menopause gives rise to uncomfortable symptoms, such as hot flashes, headaches,
irritability, dizziness, and swelling in parts of the body, post‐menopausal women frequently report
improved sexual enjoyment and desire, perhaps because they no longer worry about menstruation
and pregnancy. For these same reasons, women who have undergone a hysterectomy, or surgical
removal of the uterus, frequently report improved sexual response.

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Men also experience biological changes as they age, although none is as distinct and pronounced as
female menopause. Testosterone production lessens, which creates physical symptoms, such as
weakness, poor appetite, and inability to focus on specific tasks for extended periods. However, this
reduction in testosterone does not fully explain the psychological symptoms of anxiety and
depression that may accompany middle adulthood, indicating that the male climacteric probably has
more to do with emotional rather than physical events. During middle age, men are faced with the
realization that they are no longer 20 years old and that they are not going to accomplish all they
wanted to in life.

They may also feel less sexually attractive and appealing, as they discover that seemingly overnight,
they have gained extra weight around the waist, are balding, and are feeling less energetic than they
used to.
Because of society's emphasis on youthfulness and physical appearances, middle‐aged men and
women may sometimes suffer from diminished self‐esteem. Women, for instance, experience the
American double standard of aging: Men who are graying are perceived as distinguished, mature,
and sexy, while women who are graying are viewed as being over the hill or past their prime. This
double standard, coupled with actual physical changes and decline, does little to help middle adults
avoid a midlife crisis.

4.7 PREPARATION FOR OLD AGE AND RETIREMENT

It’s one of the last taboo subjects of modern society. Everyone’s aware of it, everyone knows it will
happen one day but even now it’s still one of those topics that dare not mention its name. Old age is a
period of decline in physical strength and social participation. It is not welcomed unlike other phases
of life. The adjustment of older people is often poor. The problems of old age stem from disability,
diseases, dependence and death.

Be organized
It’s not nice to think about but one day a loved one may have to come in and make decisions about
your care for you. Try to make things easy for them by being organized. Make sure all your financial
documents and plans are in one place. With them keep a clear list of everything coming in and out of
your household finances, any savings or investments you have, any properties you own and any debts
you might have. Knowing exactly what your finances are will be invaluable in sorting your care for
you.

Make a will
If the worst happens and you die without making a will (called dying intestate) then the law gets to
specify how your money will be divided. That means your assets might not necessarily go to those
you want them to after you’re gone. If you want to stay in control and decide who gets what then a
will is a must. While it’s possible to draw one up yourself, even a tiny, technical mistake can
invalidate it so it’s always a clever idea to get it done professionally, however it’s worth noting any
will you draw up now might be invalid if you marry/re-marry so make sure you keep it up to date by
checking it every five years or so and possibly redrafting it.

Have a what if… meeting

Just because you’ve decided to tackle your old age head on it doesn’t mean your family will be happy
to; they may think you’re being morbid or worrying about nothing but it is important you have a what
if… conversation with your nearest and dearest letting them know exactly what your wishes would be
if you became incapacitated or died.

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Make a living will
Holding a What If… meeting with your family segues nicely into the next point; living wills.
A living will is a document in which you express how you’d want to be treated in different situations
in case the time comes when you can’t make your desires known.

Organize your power of attorney

If you think you might one day need someone with the power of attorney for you then you should set
it up well in advance of when you might need it as you won’t be able to if you’re deemed not to have
‘sufficient mental capacity’ (the legal ability to make decisions for yourself). Power of attorney
doesn’t have to be expensive to set up but if a loved one is forced to handle your financial affairs
without it, it will be an even more expensive and complicated process for them.

Set a pension up now

A lot of people resent paying into a scheme for over forty years before they see any benefit from it,
particularly with the bad press some pension companies have had recently but it’s important for you
to set up a private pension.

Most financial experts state to maintain your standard of living after retirement you’ll need at least
70% of your pre-retirement salary; a figure which rises to 90% for those from lower earning
households. With that in mind it’s important to start paying in to a private pension as early as
possible and where possible keep a separate savings account for after your retirement that you pay
into regularly and that earns as much interest as possible for you.

Pay off all your debts before you retire

It may sound like an obvious point but after retirement, unless you’re super prepared, your ability to
pay off debts will be vastly reduced compared to when you were working. With that in mind make
sure you clear as many as possible while you can. They can also cause problems down the line if
you’re trying to get into a care home, but debt collection agencies are chasing you for your assets.

Plan a budget
A good idea when considering the financial implications of retiring is to make a retirement budget.
What do you plan to be doing? Will you be taking up any new hobbies? How expensive are they
likely to be on a monthly basis? Do you have a bucket list you want to work through? Calculating
how much you’ll need on a monthly and annual basis for retirement will make a multitude of other
decisions you must make easier.

Keep working
While retirement ages are always a hot topic for older voters there’s nothing to say you have to retire
at the age of 60 or 65; in fact, that decision could be completely wrong for you.
Obviously, the main question you need to consider is if you can afford to retire but there are many
other factors to consider before you make that choice, not the least of which being are you mentally
prepared to retire? While the thought of not having to get up for work every morning is enticing, it
can leave some people angry or depressed with literally no reason to get up in the morning. When
planning for retirement make sure you’ve thought about how you’ll fill your days. Will you be taking
up a hobby? That’s great, but ask yourself; does it have to wait till you retire?
Stay healthy
While the majority of the advice discussed so far has centered around your finances, they’re by no
means the only thing you need to consider. Looking after yourself by losing weight, quitting
smoking, only drinking in moderation and generally staying active will not only mean you live longer
to enjoy all your financial planning, you’ll also increase the amount of time you can remain
independent and able.

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Make friends
That might come across as a bit of a facetious statement but it’s surprising how many peoples
extended social networks resolve around either family or work or both. As you get older work friends
may drift as you lose touch with them on a day to day basis and family might move away or pass on
themselves. If you don’t have a wide network of friends, you could be setting yourself up for
isolation in your old age. Try to take stock of who you know and who you can stay in touch with
easily after you retire and extend your range of social activities to widen your social circles.

Stay mentally active

It’s not just your physical health you need to look after either. Keeping mentally alert has a range of
proven benefits from staving off depression to delaying/slowing down the onset of dementia.

You can’t control everything

Finally, you can’t control everything. People get old; it’s an inalienable fact of life and will happen to
you. Plan for what you can and then just relax and enjoy your senior years; after all you’ve earnt it!
For years, many people have looked forward to their retirement, when they can stop working and relax.
Instead of respite, however, many of today's retirees are starting to find their golden years fraught with
financial difficulties and emotional woes.

Today's retirees can expect to be considerably more on their own than their parent's generation was.
"For people near their retirement, in their late 50s and 60s, it's probably not such a radical change from
what their parents had," Hush beck explains. "The younger boomers and the people behind them face a
radically different sort of environment."

4.8 SUMMARY

As we age, our bodies change in physical ways. One can expect a variety of changes to take place
through the early- and middle-adult years. Each person experiences age-related changes based on
many factors: biological factors such as molecular and cellular changes are called primary aging,
while aging that occurs due to controllable factors, such as lack of physical exercise and poor diet, is
called secondary aging.

Growing up can certainly be taxing; but actually, having to act grown up is even more so. Life
becomes more challenging and more complicated as a young adult because there is so much change
to contend with that is suddenly upsetting and resetting the terms of their existence.

As parents and mentors, it's vital to see ourselves not as static role models but as imperfect human
beings, continually developing, in our dynamic relationships with our children, our own moral and
mentoring capacities. The subtleties of appreciating and being generous with others, acting with
fairness and integrity, and formulating mature and resilient ideals are a life's work: "There is nothing
noble in being superior to someone else," the civil rights leader Whitney Young said. "The only real
nobility is in being superior to your former self."

The transition from adolescence to adulthood represents a major developmental challenge for every-
one; while it often succeeds, it sometimes fails or threatens to fail. As adolescence and young
adulthood represent a particularly vulnerable period for the development and chronification of mental
disorders, the best possible care needs to be ensured for these age groups. The necessary transition
from adolescent-centred to adult-oriented care represents an additional challenge as regards
development related aspects.

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The psychiatric help system is faced with the challenge of organising this transition in an optimal
manner and supporting the adolescents in solving related problems. At present, however, in many
areas there are still considerable problems at the interface between the different segments of care in
childhood, adolescence and adulthood, resulting in higher treatment discontinuation rates, treatment
disruptions and other factors that have a negative impact on the course and prognosis.

4.9 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Explain the characteristics of adulthood.

2. Write a note on issues in adulthood-marriage.
3. Write a note on issues in adulthood – Family.
4. Write a note on issues in adulthood – Career.
5. Write a note on issues in adulthood -Life styles.
6. Write a note on issues in adulthood – Parenting.
7. Write a note on cognitive development in adulthood.
8. Write a note on emotional development in adulthood.
9. Write a note on moral development in adulthood.
10. Write a note on interest and sources of recreation in adulthood.
11. Write a note on Challenges in middle age – physical changes and its impact.

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 MODULE-V
OLD AGE
STRUCTURE

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Characteristics of old age
5.3 Developmental tasks
5.4 Physical changes; Psychological changes
5.4.1 Psychological changes
5.4.2 Depression
5.4.3 Memory problems or Amnesia
5.4.4 Dementia
5.4.5 Sleep related disorders
5.4.6 Alzheimer’s disease
5.4.7 Adjustment to self, Retirement , Family & Singleness
5.4.8 Hazards of old age
5.4.9 Biological & Social theories of aging
5.4.10 Biological theory
5.4.11 Social theory
5.4.12 Defining death & issues related to it, death anxiety
5.4.13 The many faces of death
5.4.14 The morality revolution
5.4.15 Facing death & loss psychological issues
5.4.16 Pattern of Grieving
5.4.17 Death & bereavement across the life span
5.4.18 Childhood & Adolescence
5.5 Summary
5.6 Suggested Questions

OBJECTIVES:

• To understand the concept of aging and its physical and psychological changes.
• To learn how to overcome the death and anxiety related issues.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Old age, also called senescence, in human beings, the final stage of the normal life span. Definitions
of old age are not consistent from the standpoints of biology, demography (conditions of mortality
and morbidity), employment and retirement, and sociology. For statistical and public administrative
purposes, however, old age is frequently defined as 60 or 65 years of age or older.

Old age has a dual definition. It is the last stage in the life processes of an individual, and it is an age
group or generation comprising a segment of the oldest members of a population. The social aspects
of old age are influenced by the relationship of the physiological effects of aging and
the collective experiences and shared values of that generation to the particular organization of the
society in which it exists.

There is no universally accepted age that is considered old among or within societies. Often
discrepancies exist as to what age a society may consider old and what members in that society of
that age and older may consider old. Moreover, biologists are not in agreement about the existence of
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 an inherent biological cause for aging. However, in most contemporary Western countries, 60 or 65
is the age of eligibility for retirement and old-age social programs, although many countries and
societies regard old age as occurring anywhere from the mid-40s to the 70s.

When researchers at the Pew Research Center put this old age question and many others to nearly
3,000 adults, ranging in age from 18 to well over 65, the answers were revealing. Like many other
questions in life, the definition of old age depends on who you ask.

As explained in Growing Old in America: Expectations vs. Reality, the report based on the Pew
study, if you average all of the responses together the average answer is clear: Old age begins at 68.
On the other hand, the average response of adults under 30 is that old age begins at 60. More than
half of the adults in under 30 said that old age actually begins before people hit their 60th birthday.

5.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF OLD AGE

1. Old age is a period of decline - decline comes partly from physical and partly from psychological
factors. There is change in body cells due to the aging process. Unfavourable attitude towards one
self and life in general can lead to decline or become depressed and disorganized. Motivation plays a
very important role in decline.
2. There are individual differences in the effects of aging. People age differently because they have
different hereditary endowment, different socio economic and educational backgrounds and different
patterns of living. The general rule is physical aging precedes mental aging.
3. Old age is judged by different criteria - age is judged in terms of physical appearance and
activities. One who has white hair is labelled as old. There are many who try to cover up their aging
symptoms to create illusion that they are not yet old.
4. There are many stereotypes of old people - let it be the folklore, the media, poetry, fiction, jokes or
different forms of humour or scientific studies, all portray the aged as those who are worn out
physically and mentally, unproductive, accident - prone, hard to live, days of usefulness are over,
should be pushed aside to make way for younger people.
Poor adjustment is characteristic of old age - Because of the unfavourable social attitudes towards
the elderly that are reflected in the way the social group treat them, it is not surprising that many
elderly people develop unfavourable self-concepts. These tend to be expressed in maladjusting
behavior of different degree of severity.

5.3 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Old age has often been characterized as a period of loss and decline. However, development in any
period of life consists of both gains and losses, although the gain-loss ratio becomes increasingly
negative with advancing age (Heckhausen, Dixon, and Baltes, 1989; Baltes, 1987). A central
developmental task that characterizes the transition into old age is adjustment to retirement. The
period after retirement has to be filled with new projects but is characterized by few valid cultural
guidelines. Adaptation to retirement involves both potential gains (e.g., self-actualization) and losses
(e.g., loss of self-esteem). The achievement of this task may be obstructed by the management of
another task, living on a reduced income after retirement.

The period of old age begins at the age of sixty. At this age most individuals retire from their jobs
formally. They begin to develop some concern and occasional anxiety over their physical and
psychological health. In our society, the elderly is typically perceived as not so active, deteriorating
intellectually, becoming narrowminded and attaching new significance to religion and so on. Many of
the old people lose their spouses and because of which they may suffer from emotional insecurity.

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 ‘Nobody has ever died of old age’, is a true statement. Since old age is close to the end point of life,
death has been associated with old age.

Death is actually caused by disease, pollution, stress, and other factors acting on the body. In the
biological sense, some organs and systems of the body may start deteriorating. In the psychological
sense, there may be measurable changes in the cognitive and perceptual abilities. There are also
changes in the way a person feels about him/ herself. You must have come across old people who are
very active in life and socially very participative. Such persons seem to be productive, stable and
happy.

Mental or physical decline does not necessarily have to occur. Persons can remain vigorous, active,
and dignified until their eighties or even nineties. In fact, the older persons have vast reservoir of
knowledge, experience, and wisdom on which the community can draw. In view of increase in life
expectancy increasingly greater proportion of society is joining the group of aged people. Hence they
need greater participation in national planning and make them feel as an integral part of society.

Old age has often been characterised as a period of loss and decline. However, development in any
period of life consists of both gains and losses, although the gain-loss ratio becomes increasingly
negative with advancing age (Heckhausen, Dixon, and Baltes, 1989; Baltes, 1987). The fact that man
learns his way through life is made radically clear by consideration of the learning tasks of older
people. They still have new experiences ahead of them, and new situations to meet. At age sixty-five
when a man often retires from his occupation, his changes are better than even of living another ten
years. During this time the man or his wife very likely will experience several of the following (i)
decreased income, (ii) moving to a smaller house, (iii) loss of spouse by death,(iv) a crippling illness
or accident,(v) a turn in the business cycle with a (vi) consequent change of the cost of living. After
any of these events the situation may be so changed that the old person has to learn new ways of
living.

The developmental tasks of later maturity differ in only one fundamental respect from those of other
ages. They involve more of a defensive strategy that is of holding on the life rather than of seizing
more of it. In the physical, mental and economic spheres the limitations become especially evident.
The older person must work hard to hold onto what he already has. In the social sphere there is a fair
chance of offsetting the narrowing of certain social contacts and interests by the broadening of others.
In the spiritual sphere there is perhaps no necessary shrinking of the boundaries, and perhaps there is
even a widening of them. Havighurst forward the following developmental tasks for this view.

1. Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health: Physical strength begins to decline from age 30
to age 80 and above. Most weakening occurs in the back and leg muscles, less in the arm muscles.
There is a progressive decline in energy production. Bones become increasingly brittle and tend to
break easily. Calcium deposits and disease of the joints increase with age. Muscle tissue decreases in
size and strength. Muscle tone becomes increasingly difficult to maintain with age because of an
increase in fatty substance within the muscle fibres.

This is often caused by the relative inactive role thrust on the elderly in our society. Exercise can help
maintain power and sometimes even restore strength to the unused muscles. Changes in the general
posture become more evident in old age. It has been found that the organ systems of most persons
show a 0.8 to 1 percent decline per year in functional ability after the age of 30. Some of this decline
is normal, some is disease related and some are caused by factors such as stress, occupational status,
nutritional status and various environmental factors.

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2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income: Retirement requires adjustment to a new life-style
characterised by decreased income, lesser activity level, and increased free time. Retirement causes
extreme stress in males because in our society a significant part of men’s identity depends on their
jobs. Loss of job thus results in loss of self-esteem and self-worth. Retired people find it difficult to
adjust to retirement because of financial problems, illness, and feelings of loneliness, and suddenly
finding that time hangs and they do not know how to spend their time.

Retired individuals have to make several adjustments in their roles, personal and social associations,
and in their sense of accomplishment and productivity. However, it does not necessarily mean that
retirement results in negative consequences for every person. Individual’s personal attitude toward
retirement varies as a function of a number of factors such as income, educational level, and
occupational level. In case of some, it may not have any adverse effects on their self-esteem and life
satisfaction. Health may even improve for some after retirement. Retired individuals may find more
time for social and hobby-related activities especially if they have adequate economic resources and
are healthy to engage in these activities.

3. Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group: Social convoy is a cluster of family
members and friends who provide safety and support. Some bonds become closer with age, others
more distant, a few are gained, and some drift away. Elders do try to maintain social networks of
family and friends to preserve security and life continuity.

4. Meeting social and civic obligations: Other potential gains in old age relate to the task of meeting
social and civic obligations. For example, older people might accumulate knowledge about life
(Baltes and Staudings, 2000) and thus may contribute to the development of younger people and the
society.

5. Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements: The principal values that older people look for
in housing are: (i) quiet, (ii) privacy, (iii) independence of action, (iv) nearness to relatives and
friends, (v) residence among own cultural group, (vi) cheapness, (vii) closeness to transportation
lines and communal institutions libraries, shops, movies, churches, etc.

5.4 PHYSICAL CHANGES; PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES

The physical changes in the body are often the most apparent as you age. Wrinkles are a classic sign
of aging, although people actually develop wrinkles all throughout life. Older skin is less elastic and
thinner and is therefore more prone to developing wrinkles.

The heart also gets slower with age. It’s important to maintain good cardiovascular health as one get
older, because your ticker needs more attention than ever. Going on daily walks and sticking to a diet
full of fruits and vegetables are good steps to keep your heart pumping as it should.

Daniel Levinson depicts the late adulthood period as those years that encompass age 65 and beyond.
Other developmental psychologists further divide later adulthood into young‐old (ages 65–85)
and old‐old (ages 85 and beyond) stages.

Today, 13 percent of the population is over the age of 65, compared with 3 percent at the beginning
of this century. This dramatic increase in the demographics of older adulthood has given rise to the
discipline of gerontology, or the study of old age and aging. Gerontologists are particularly
interested in confronting ageism, or prejudice and discrimination against older adults.

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Aging inevitably means physical decline, some of which may be due to lifestyle, such as poor diet
and lack of exercise, rather than illness or the aging process. Energy reserves dwindle. Cells decay.
Muscle mass decreases. The immune system is no longer as capable as it once was in guarding
against disease. Body systems and organs, such as the heart and lungs, become less efficient. Overall,
regardless of people's best hopes and efforts, aging translates into decline.

Even so, the speed at which people age, as well as how aging affects their outlook on life, varies from
person to person. In older adulthood, people experience both gains and losses. For instance, while
energy is lost, the ability to conserve energy is gained. Age also brings understanding, patience,
experience, and wisdom qualities that improve life regardless of the physical changes that may occur.
Aging in late adulthood profoundly affects appearance, sensation, and motor abilities.

An older adult's appearance changes as wrinkles appear and the skin becomes less elastic and thin.
Small blood vessels break beneath the surface of the skin, and warts, skin tags, and age spots (liver
spots) may form on the body. Hair thins and turns grey as melanin decreases, and height lessens
perhaps by an inch or two as bone density decreases. The double standard of aging applies to men
and women in older adulthood just as it did in middle adulthood. Older men may still be seen as
distinguished, while older women are labelled as grandmotherly, over the hill, and past the prime of
life.

During late adulthood, the senses begin to dull. With age, the lenses of the eye discolour and become
rigid, interfering with the perception of colour and distance and the ability to read. Without corrective
glasses, nearly half the elderly population would be legally blind. Hearing also diminishes, especially
the ability to detect high‐pitched sounds. As a result, the elderly may develop suspiciousness or even
a mild form of paranoia unfounded distrustfulness in response to not being able to hear well. They
may attribute bad intentions to those whom they believe are whispering or talking about them, rather
than correctly attributing their problems to bad hearing. Hearing problems can be corrected with
hearing aids, which are widely available.

The sense of taste remains fairly intact into old age, even though the elderly may have difficulty
distinguishing tastes within blended foods. By old age, however, the sense of smell shows a marked
decline. Both of these declines in sensation may be due to medications, such as antihypertensives, as
well as physical changes associated with old age.

In addition to changes in appearance and the dulling of the senses, reflexes slow and fine motor
abilities continue to decrease with old age. By late adulthood, most adults have noticed a gradual
reduction in their response time to spontaneous events. This is especially true of older adults who
drive. While routine manoeuvres on familiar streets may pose fewer problems than novel driving
situations, older adults' reaction times eventually decline to the point that operating a vehicle is too
hazardous. However, many elderlies are hesitant to give up driving because the sacrifice would
represent the end of their personal autonomy and freedom.

Generally, older adult’s score lower overall on tests of manual dexterity than do younger adults.
Older adults may find that their fine motor skills and performance speed decrease in some areas but
not in others. For instance, an elderly lifelong pianist may continue to exhibit incredible finger
dexterity at the keyboard but may at the same time find that taking up needlepoint as a hobby is too
difficult.

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 5.4.1 PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES

As people age, they suffer from many problems that are both psychological and psychiatric and can
be treated with psychological therapies according to the DSM (diagnostic and statistical manual of
psychological disorders). Below are five major problems that are faced by elderly people.

5.4.2 DEPRESSION

Depression is a very general psychological problem and people of all walks and age of life suffer
from it. The effects and symptoms of depression may vary from person to person and can affect areas
of life such as work, sleep, appetite, general health and wellbeing.
Symptoms of depression:
 Feeling sad or struck by despair
 Lack of energy and motivation
 Loss of self-value and self-worth
 Weight loss or weight gain
 Loss of appetite
 Trouble with sleeping
 Suicidal thoughts
 Getting indulged in drugs and alcohol.
Depressed seniors do not necessarily feel sad, but they might complain about low motivation and a
lack of energy. Certain medical conditions can cause depression and anxiety as well. Certain
medications can cause depression as a side effect such as Blood Pressure Medication. Depression can
also exist side-by-side with dementia.

5.4.3 MEMORY PROBLEMS OR AMNESIA:

As the name of this disease is indicative of its circumstances, a person suffering from memory
amnesia lost parts or all of his memory. It’s not your plain everyday forgetfulness, instead complete
eradication of any or all events and relations.
Symptoms of Memory Amnesia:
 Some of the major symptoms of amnesia are:
 Memory loss
 Confusion
 Inability to recognize places and faces

Types of Memory Amnesia:

Amnesia can be of two major types, explained below
1. Anterograde amnesia
2. Retrograde amnesia
In anterograde amnesia, the ability to memorize new things is disabled/lost because the transference
of data from short-term memory to long-term memory is not successful.

Causes of Memory Amnesia:

Amnesia can be caused due to a number of reasons, such as organic and neurological reason, such as
a brain damage caused by some physical injury to the head. Or it can be caused functional or
psychogenic which include psychological factors such as PTSD.

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 5.4.4 DEMENTIA

Dementia is probably the most common disease of numerous types. It should be considered the
mother of all diseases. People suffering from dementia generally lose mental ability to function
normally in their daily life.
Symptoms of dementia:
Below are described some of the symptoms of dementia, for a detailed version read this:
 It includes short-term memory changes.
 Changes in mood
 Apathy
 Confusion
 A failing sense of direction

Causes of dementia:
Dementia can have a wide range of causes, but mainly it’s caused by the death of brain cells. Some of
these causes are explained here:
 It can be caused by some kind of tumour
 Infection
 Vitamin deficiency and/or lack of oxygen

Types of Dementia:
Some types of dementia are explained below:
 Vascular dementia
 Dementia with Lewy Bodies
 Mixed Dementia
 Parkinson’s Disease
 Frontotemporal Dementia
 Huntington’s Disease

5.4.5 SLEEP-RELATED DISORDERS

There are many sleep-related disorders to which the elderly more prone than the younger adults. The
major three are insomnia, sleep apnea etc.

Insomnia:
Insomnia is very common in the senior members of our society. Some symptoms of Insomnia include
taking more than 45 minutes to fall asleep, trouble in staying asleep, waking up early and night falls.
The primary cause of insomnia is stress and anxiety, in the elderly, it is mostly caused by either that
or irregular use of stimulants such as nicotine. It can also be caused due to polypharmacy, i.e. the
increased use of medications.

Sleep Apnea:
Sleep apnea is a sleeping disorder which is primarily inclusive of irregular breathing due to an
obstruction of the upper airway. The main causes are increased weight, age, enlarged tonsils and too
much smoking etc.

5.4.6 ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

Alzheimer’s disease is a kind of dementia in which patients get stuck to a particular memory and they
believe to be a part of it.

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Symptoms of Alzheimer’s
A person suffering from Alzheimer’s disease tends to lose his ability to rationalize events and
happening, forgets his own relations and the ability to communicate is fairly affected.

Causes of Alzheimer’s
Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease. And it involves shrinking of brain tissues.
Mostly Alzheimer’s is caused due to genetic mutation passed on to children from their parents. It can
be treated by psychological therapies and symptoms can be fairly reduced.

5.4.7 ADJUSTMENT TO SELF, RETIREMENT, FAMILY AND SINGLENESS

Everyone will grow old. Normal ageing brings about changes in the body and the mind, but many
symptoms are not normal and may be due to diseases, which can be treated or remedied. Therefore,
the elderly and carers should learn about normal ageing, so as to be prepared and to distinguish
between disease and normal ageing and seek proper and early treatment for diseases.

Self
It is generally accepted that as a person ages, his or her experiences acquired over their life time,
ways in dealing with the environment, economic and social resources, relationships, and support
systems can impact on his or her longevity and well-being profoundly. Moreover, as adults reach late
adulthood, they are more likely to be challenged with physical, mental, and social changes.
Furthermore, some authors suggested that older adults showed multiple attitudes toward aging.
Additionally, aging well involves the flexible use of adaptive strategies, to optimize personal
functioning and well-being within the constraints of personal competence and resources.

Retirement
The following points should be noted for better adjustment: -
1. Finance: It is important to plan well ahead for retirement. Once retired, income would stop or
drop, so do some expenses. Make the ends meet by cutting budget and making the best use of the
pension or savings. Take advantage of the discounts for the elderly.

In case of financial strain, be open-minded to accept help from family, friends or the government.
Avoid high-risk investments, high-interest loan or heavy gambling behaviours. Do not re-mortgage
the house for loan or turn it into a gift to anyone.

2. Health: Always practise healthy life styles, such as having regular exercise and balance diet. Do
not smoke or drink.
3. Family Life: Value and enjoy family life but avoid making extra demands on children. Similarly,
do not indulge family members, which may lead to their dependence and stress you out.
4. Marital Life: Cherish the opportunity to be with your spouse more often. Communicate positively
and strengthen the relationship. Be understanding to the changing needs of each other before and
after retirement. Respect and appreciate each other so as to enjoy a healthy and fulfilling life
together.
5. Social Life: Never isolate yourself. Maintain existing friendships. Make new friends and extend
your social network, such as by visiting Social Centres for the Elderly. Take the initiative to develop
quality relationships.
6. Leisure Time: Retirement can be your "second life". With better use of the additional spare time
to participate in health-enhancing leisure, sport, cultural activities or volunteer work, you can have a
rewarding retirement life with new defined meanings.

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 Family
Ageing can contribute to poor family relationships in a number of ways. Older people with care
requirements is predominantly looked after by their families. Longer life expectancies, coupled with
extended ageing-related illness or disability, can significantly prolong the care phase. This, in turn,
places significant mental, physical and financial burdens on older people, caregivers and extended
family members (Millward, 1998; Silverstein & Giarrusso, 2010). It also places older people living in
vulnerable situations at increased risk of violence and abuse.

Where there are health issues and family care is no longer appropriate or available, or end-of-life
decisions need to be made, relationships may become increasingly strained, particularly for families
with complex structures, poor communication skills or histories of relationship dysfunction. Family
disputes can affect interpersonal relationships far into the future, permeating burial arrangements,
estate devolution and family interactions. These disputes affect the wellbeing of individuals, families
and communities, and lead to increased costs to welfare and service systems.

Singleness
People without romantic partners are often stereotyped and stigmatized. But if you go by how they
really feel about their lives, rather than how other people assume they feel, the story of single life
looks very different. Over time, historically, single life gets better and better. And for individuals, as
they age, satisfaction with their single lives gets even better too. Maybe having a romantic partner
was once relevant to feelings of loneliness, but it is not so relevant anymore.

The routine, everyday life of single elders differs from that of other old people. On the basis of
interview date both about themselves and some aspects of the quality of their everyday lives, it is
proposed that single elders constitute a distinct type of social personality in old age. Interviews
provide subjective and methodological evidence to support this. The "normal", taken-for-granted
social world of single elders is: relatively isolated; but not perceived in terms of loneliness, at present
or anticipated; and considered an ordinary extension of their past. Death is conceived as "just
another" event of their ongoing experiences.

5.4.8 HAZARDS OF OLD AGE

In the older age, all body systems show decrements in physiological reserves. Degenerative process
starts in this age and complications and sequelae of chronic long-term diseases Eg, hypertension and
diabetes make their appearance. In the elderly multiple pathologies are often encountered. Common
disease conditions found in the elderly are: Parkinson's disease, depression, ischaemic heart disease,
chronic obstructive lung disease, tuberculosis and cancer of the lung, osteo-arthritis of various joints,
diabetes, hypertension, cataract, hearing loss and so on. While suggesting food for the elderly, one
should take into account the small amounts of food with minimum sugar and fats but lots of fresh
vegetables and fruits taken in small quantities but more frequently.

Physical activity and exercise is good at all ages including old age. Psychological problems
frequently arise among the elderly. They result from many factors Eg, difficulties with memory, loss
of hearing, financial difficulties, feeling of insecurity, chronic unrelieved pain, diffuse atrophy of the
brain, etc. Depression is the commonest of the psychological problems of the aged. Alzheimer's
disease, dementia are some other problems often arise out of the ageing process. All old people and
not-so-old ones should be encouraged to continue stimulating mental activity with the same vigour as
we advise them to continue physical activity.

1. Chronic health conditions: According to the National Council on Aging, about 92 percent of seniors
have at least one chronic disease and 77 percent have at least two. Heart disease, stroke, cancer, and

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 diabetes are among the most common and costly chronic health conditions causing two-thirds of
deaths each year. The National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health
Promotion recommends meeting with a physician for an annual check-up, maintaining a healthy diet
and keeping an exercise routine to help manage or prevent chronic diseases. Obesity is a growing
problem among older adults and engaging in these lifestyle behaviors can help reduce obesity and
associated chronic conditions.

2. Cognitive health: Cognitive health is focused on a person’s ability to think, learn and remember. The
most common cognitive health issue facing the elderly is dementia, the loss of those cognitive
functions. Approximately 47.5 million people worldwide have dementia a number that is predicted to
nearly triple in size by 2050. The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease with as
many as five million people over the age of 65 suffering from the disease in the United States.
According to the National Institute on Aging, other chronic health conditions and diseases increase
the risk of developing dementia, such as substance abuse, diabetes, hypertension, depression, HIV
and smoking. While there are no cures for dementia, physicians can prescribe a treatment plan and
medications to manage the disease.

3. Mental health; According to the World Health Organization, over 15 percent of adults over the age
of 60 suffer from a mental disorder. A common mental disorder among seniors is depression,
occurring in seven percent of the elderly population. Unfortunately, this mental disorder is often
underdiagnosed and undertreated. Older adults account for over 18 percent of suicides deaths in the
United States. Because depression can be a side effect of chronic health conditions, managing those
conditions help. Additionally, promoting a lifestyle of healthy living such as betterment of living
conditions and social support from family, friends or support groups can help treat depression.

4. Physical injury: Every 15 seconds, an older adult is admitted to the emergency room for a fall. A
senior dies from falling every 29 minutes, making it the leading cause of injury among the elderly.
Because aging causes bones to shrink and muscle to lose strength and flexibility, seniors are more
susceptible to losing their balance, bruising and fracturing a bone. Two diseases that contribute to
frailty are osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. However, falls are not inevitable. In many cases, they can
be prevented through education, increased physical activity and practical modifications within the
home.

5. Malnutrition: Malnutrition in older adults over the age of 65 is often underdiagnosed and can lead to
other elderly health issues, such as a weakened immune system and muscle weakness. The causes of
malnutrition can stem from other health problems (seniors suffering from dementia may forget to
eat), depression, alcoholism, dietary restrictions, reduced social contact and limited income.
Committing to small changes in diet, such as increasing consumption of fruits and vegetables and
decreasing consumption of saturated fat and salt, can help nutrition issues in the elderly. There
are food services available to older adults who cannot afford food or have difficulty preparing meals.

6. Sensory impairments: Sensory impairments, such as vision and hearing, are extremely common for
older Americans over the age of 70. According to the CDC, one out of six older adults has a visual
impairment and one out of four has a hearing impairment. Luckily, both of these issues are easily
treatable by aids such as glasses or hearing aids. New technologies are enhancing assessment of
hearing loss and wearability of hearing aids.

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7. Substance abuse: Substance abuse, typically alcohol or drug-related, is more prevalent among seniors
than realized. According to the National Council on Aging, the number of older adults with substance
abuse problems is expected to double to five million by 2020. Because many don’t associate
substance abuse with the elderly, it’s often overlooked and missed in medical check-ups.
Additionally, older adults are often prescribed multiple prescriptions to be used long-term.
The National Institute on Drugs finds that substance abuse typically results from someone suffering
mental deficits or taking another patient’s medication due to their inability to pay for their own.

5.4.9 BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL THEORIES OF AGING

In the past, maximum life span (the maximum biological limit of life in an ideal environment) was
not thought to be subject to change with the process of aging considered non-adaptive, and subject to
genetic traits. Life span is the key to the intrinsic biological causes of aging, as these factors ensure
an individual’s survival to a certain point until biological ageing eventually causes death.

There are many theories about the mechanisms of age-related changes. No one theory is sufficiently
able to explain the process of aging, and they often contradict one another. All valid theories of
aging must meet three broad criteria:
1. The aging changes that the theory addresses must occur commonly in all members of a humans.
2. The process must be progressive with time. That is, the changes that result from the proposed
process must become more obvious as the person grows older.
3. The process must produce changes that cause organ dysfunctions and that ultimately cause a
particular body organ or system to fail.

5.4.10 BIOLOGICAL THEORY

Most people will live to experience ageing. Age-related deterioration is affecting an ever-growing
number of people. Although the process is unavoidable, if we better understand the process, as a
physiotherapist, it is important to understand that we might be able to positively influence aspects
that maintain or engender better health and wellness as a person ages, treating and ameliorating
symptoms of common conditions associated with ageing.
In the past, maximum life span (the maximum biological limit of life in an ideal environment) was
not thought to be subject to change with the process of ageing considered non-adaptive, and subject
to genetic traits. In the early 1900s, a series of flawed experiments by researcher Alexis Carrel
demonstrated that in an optimal environment, cells of higher organisms (chickens) were able to
divide continually, leading people to believe our cells to potentially possess immortal properties.

In the 1960’s Leonard Hayflick. disproved this theory by identifying a maximal number of divisions a
human cell could undergo in culture (known as the Hayflick limit), which set our maximal life
span at around 115 years. Life span is the key to the intrinsic biological causes of ageing, as these
factors ensure an individual’s survival to a certain point until biological ageing eventually causes
death.

There are many theories about the mechanisms of age-related changes, and they are mutually
exclusive, no one theory is sufficiently able to explain the process of ageing, and they often
contradict one another. Modern biological theories of ageing in humans currently fall into two main
categories:

Programmed and damage or error theories:

The programmed theories imply that ageing follows a biological timetable (regulated by changes in
gene expression that affect the systems responsible for maintenance, repair and defence responses),

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and the damage or error theories emphasise environmental assaults to living organisms that induce
cumulative damage at various levels as the cause of ageing.

These two categories of theory are also referred to as non-programmed ageing theories based on
evolutionary concepts (where ageing is considered the result of an organism’s inability to better
combat natural deteriorative processes), and programmed ageing theories (which consider ageing to
ultimately be the result of a biological mechanism or programme that purposely causes or allows
deterioration and death in order to obtain a direct evolutionary benefit achieved by limiting lifespan
beyond a species-specific optimum lifespan.

5.4.11 SOCIAL THEORY

Ageing is a constant process that every individual goes through as long as there is still life. This
process is an essential part of nature, as it ensures that the homeostasis of the universe is kept
constant. Ageing has to do with the additive effects of changes that occur over time, and in human
beings, refers to the multidimensional progression of biological, psychological and social changes
that occur (Moody 2010). In humans, ageing has its advantages and disadvantages which reflect the
growth and expansion of some dimensions of human life, while on the other hand, others decline.
The inevitability of ageing has driven a whole lot of researches into finding out how and why ageing
occurs. This is why there has been several theories developed to help understand the phenomenon of
ageing.

Ageing has been looked at from different perspectives, but particularly from the biological,
psychological and social points of view. The biological theories of ageing attempt to describe the
phenomenon as a programmed event, and that it arises as a result of constant wear and tear leading to
a decline of the usual functions of the human body.

The psychological concept describes ageing in terms of the specific changes in behavior, cognitive
functions, and roles that occur in an individual undergoing the ageing process. On the other hand,
however, the social theories, which would form the crux of this paper, explain how factors such as
the prevailing circumstances, available resources, caste systems, social accelerators, etc can either
speed up or slow down the process of ageing.

The continuity theory of ageing focuses on adaptive choices that older and middle-aged adults make
in order to maintain both internal and external continuities in their lives (Streib & Schneider 1971).
Internal continuity connotes the process of forming linkages between new circumstances and the
memories left by previous ones (Atchley 1999). External continuity on the other hand refers to the
interaction with familiar people and familiar environments (Atchley 1991).

It focuses on the idea that elderly people tend to ensure familiarity – with their environments, their
families, and other situations – as this helps them to continue to be independent. According to
Atchley and Barusch (2004), this continuity in their environments and activities helps the ageing
person to concentrate energies on familiar situations, which in the long run helps to minimize and
offset the effects of ageing. The continuity theory does not mean that the individual experiences no
change at all, but that the individual adapts to changes with persistent, consistent and familiar
attributes and processes that produce less stress (Menec 2003).

The disengagement theory explains that elderly individuals reduce their levels of activity or
involvement by withdrawing from previous roles and activities they have been undertaking (Atchley
1991). This was drawn from an observation that these elderly people hold on to age as being their
rationale for withdrawal from activities that were previously found meaningful. This theory, as

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shown by Cummings and Henry (1961), assumes that the inward turning typical of ageing individuals
leads to a normal and natural withdrawal for social activities, reduction of involvement with other
people, and an increasing self-preoccupation.

This withdrawal is as a result of individual disengagement, plus the effect of the society’s drive for
withdrawal of old people from active service with the belief that they have little to contribute (Mabry
& Bengtson 2005). However, this disengagement theory contravenes the general belief that the best
way to tackle ageing is to keep active and fit, although it has been suggested that differential
withdrawal rather than total disengagement is the rule (Streib & Schneider 1971).

5.4.12 DEFINING DEATH AND ISSUES RELATED TO IT, DEATH ANXIETY

Death is an intrinsic part of life, and talking about the likely outcomes of illness, including death
and dying, is an important part of health care. Doctors and patients vary in the language they use
and in their comfort level regarding such discussions.
People also vary in their comfort level regarding the amount of information and involvement in
decision making that they want. Seriously ill people and their loved ones should generally try to
understand the likely future course of their illness as well as the options for living with their
particular disabilities and family situation.

People should make any preferences about treatment and family support known. Such preferences
are known as advance directives. People who do not talk with their families and health care
providers about their preferences for care near the end of their life may receive treatments (such as
chemotherapy or surgery) or end up living in situations (such as a hospital or nursing home) they
would not have wanted.

Death: 1. the end of life. The cessation of life. (These common definitions of death ultimately depend
upon the definition of life, upon which there is no consensus.) 2. The permanent cessation of all vital
bodily functions. (This definition depends upon the definition of "vital bodily functions.") See: Vital
bodily functions. 3. The common law standard for determining death is the cessation of all vital
functions, traditionally demonstrated by "an absence of spontaneous respiratory and cardiac
functions." 4. The uniform determination of death.

The National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws in 1980 formulated the Uniform
Determination of Death Act. It states that: "An individual who has sustained either (1) irreversible
cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions, or (2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the
entire brain, including the brain stem is dead. A determination of death must be made in accordance
with accepted medical standards." This definition was approved by the American Medical
Association in 1980 and by the American Bar Association in 1981.

Issues related to death:

End-of-life care presents many challenges (e.g., the management of pain and suffering) for clinicians,
as well as for patients and their families. Moreover, the care of the dying patient must be considered
within the context of the psychological, physical, and social experiences of a person's life. Foremost
among those who require end-of-life care are the elderly, who are prone to loneliness, who frequently
underreport pain, and who have a greater sensitivity to drugs and to drug-drug interactions.

Unfortunately, clinicians who are responsible for the treatment of patients at the end of life
commonly lack adequate training to help guide end-of-life decisions and to deliver bad news to
patients and families. They must also face their own discomfort with discussions about death and
deal with poor compensation for the time spent discussing end-of-life care with patients and families.

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Given the unique process of each person's death, algorithmic strategies are often inadequate to guide
patients, their families, and the clinicians who care for them through this complex and emotionally
challenging process.

In the following sections, we will discuss the major challenges faced by dying patients and their
families. We will then comment on the difficulties clinicians face in caring for the dying patient.
Lastly, we will make several recommendations for improving the care of terminally ill patients and
their families.

The challenges faced by the dying patient are substantial and potentially overwhelming. These
challenges include physical pain, depression, a variety of intense emotions, the loss of dignity,
hopelessness, and the seemingly mundane tasks that need to be addressed at the end of life. An
understanding of the dying patient's experience should help clinicians improve their care of the
terminally ill.

Pain:
Pain, and the fear of pain, often drives the behavior of patients at the end of life. In a survey of 310
patients with life-limiting illness,5 “freedom from pain” ranked most important in their considerations
of the end-of-life process. Pain, especially cancer-related pain, is common; moreover, it is
experienced by 50% to 90% of patients with advanced disease. Fortunately, over 90% of those with
cancer-related pain respond to basic analgesic measures; however, many patients fear that their
suffering will progress unabated.

Although there is no evidence that the perception of nociceptive pain is altered by advancing age, the
elderly are often unwilling to report their pain because they believe it is a normal symptom of aging
and that their pain is directly associated with the worsening of their illness.

While nociceptive pain is commonly and successfully treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs and opioids, bodily changes in the elderly demand attention when considering pharmacologic
interventions. Declines in renal and hepatic function predispose the elderly to side effects and toxic
effects of medications. In addition, pain is a notable risk factor for depression and suicide,
particularly in those at the end of life, and it must be carefully assessed and monitored.

Coping:
Patients with advanced illness face the challenge of coping with their disease on a daily basis. While
some patients (known as “good copers”) demonstrate optimism, practicality, resourcefulness,
awareness, and flexibility, others (known as “bad copers”) present with a variety of defensive styles
in response to their diagnosis. These more “primitive” defenses include suppression or isolation of
affect, projection, noncompliance, avoidance, and denial, which may be manifest as a deliberate
delay in treatment or as a disagreement between the patient and the physician about the presence,
implications, or likely outcome of disease.

A study of 189 individuals with cancer linked cognitive avoidance with poor psychological
adjustment (to living with cancer) and suggested that the degree of deterioration in one's physical
impairment correlates directly with one's levels of psychological distress. When associated with
noncompliance, incidents of avoidance and denial become dangerous; noncompliance remains
the number one modifiable risk factor for unfavourable outcomes in psychopharmacology.

Dignity:
For dying patients, a primary illness-related concern is the preservation of dignity, broadly defined in
terms of being worthy of honor, respect, and esteem. For many patients, dignity is directly related to

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the level of independence and autonomy retained through the course of illness. In a case series of 50
patients in an urban hospital diagnosed with advanced-stage cancers, Chochinov and
colleagues found that a variety of factors were necessary for preserving dignity in the terminally ill.
These factors included functional capacity, cognitive acuity, symptom management, and alleviation
of psychological distress.

Furthermore, anguish about medical uncertainty (i.e., not knowing, or being unaware of, aspects of
one's health status or treatment) and anxiety specifically associated with the process or anticipation of
death and dying worsened a patient's sense of dignity. Another study involving 213 terminally ill
patients from 2 palliative care units suggested that loss of dignity is closely associated with certain
types of distress (such as the loss of independence for inpatients confined to the hospital,
deterioration of physical appearance, and a sense of being burdensome to others) common among the
terminally ill. When coupled with heightened depression and a sense of hopelessness, the loss of
dignity may lessen a patient's desire to continue living in the face of imminent death.

5.4.13 THE MANY FACES OF DEATH

Death is biological face; but it also has social, cultural, historical, religious, legal, psychological,
development, medical and ethical aspects, and often these are closely interwined.

Although death and loss are universal experiences, they have a cultural context. Cultural and
religious attitudes toward death and dying affect psychological and developmental aspects of death:
how people of various ages face their own death and the deaths of those close to them.

Death is generally considered to be the cessation of bodily processes. However, criteria for death
have become more complex with the development of medical apparatus that can prolong basic signs
of life. These medical developments have raised questions about whether or when life supports may
be withheld or removed and whose judgement should prevail. In some places, the claim of a “right to
die” has led to laws either permitting of forbidding physicians to help a terminally ill person end a
life that has become a burden.

5.4.14 THE MORALITY REVOLUTION

Reading little women is a vivid reminder of the great historical changes regarding death and dying
that have taken place since the late nineteenth century. Especially in developed countries, advances in
medicine and sanitation, new treatments for many once-fatal illness, and a better-educated, more
health-conscious have brought about a “mortality revolution”. Women today are less likely to die in
childbirth, infants are more likely to survive their first year, children are more likely to grow to
adulthood, young adults like Alcott’s sister Lizzie are more likely to reach old age, and older people
often can overcome illness they grew up regarding as fatal.

As death increasingly became a phenomenon of late adulthood, it became “invisible and abstract”.
Many older people lived and died in retirement communities. Care of the dying and dead became
largely a task for professionals. Such social conventions as placing the dying person in a hospital or
nursing home and refusing to openly discuss his or her condition reflected and perpetuated attitudes
of avoidance and denial of death. Death even of the very old came to be regarded as a failure of
medical treatment rather than as a natural end to life.

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5.4.15 FACING DEATH AND LOSS: PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES

What changes do people undergo shortly before death? How do they come to terms with its
imminence? How do people deal with grief? The answers may differ for different people.

Confronting One’s Own Death

In the absence of any identifiable illness, people around the age of 100 close to the present limit of
the human life span usually suffer cognitive and other functional declines, lose interest in eating and
drinking, and die a natural death. Such changes also have been noted in younger people whose death
is near. Some people who have come close to death have had “near death” experiences, often
involving a sense of being out of the body and visions of bright lights or mystical encounters. These
are sometimes interpreted as resulting from physiological changes that accompany the process of
dying or psychological responses to the perceived threat of death.

Kubler Ross (1969, 1970) outlined five stages in coming terms with death: (1) denial (refusal to
accept the reality of what is happening); (2) anger; (3) bargaining for extra time; (4) depression; and
ultimately (5) acceptance. She also proposed a similar progression in the feelings of people facing
imminent bereavement.

Kubler-Ross’s model has been criticized and modified by other professionals who work with dying
patients. Although the emotions she described are common, not person may go back and forth
between anger and depression, for example, or may feel both at once. Unfortunately, some health
professionals assume that these stages are inevitable and universal, and others feel that they have
failed if they cannot bring a patient to the final stages of acceptance.
Dying, like living, is an individual experience. For some people, denial or anger may be a healthier
way to face death than the clam acceptance that beth seemed exemplify in Little Women. Kubler-
Ross’s description, useful as it may be in helping us understand the feelings of those who are facing
the end of life, should not be considered a model or a criterion for a “good life”.

5.4.16 PATTERNS OF GRIEVING

Bereavement the loss of someone to whom a person feels close and the process of adjusting to it can
affect practically all aspects of a survivor’s life. Bereavement often brings a change in status and role
(for example, from a wife to a widow or from a son or daughter to an orphan). It may have social
and economic consequences a loss of friends and sometimes of income. But first there is grief the
emotional response experienced in the early phases of bereavement.

Grief, like dying, is a highly personal experience. Today research has challenged earlier notions of a
single, “normal” pattern of grieving and a “normal” timetable for recovery. A widow talking to her
late husband might once have been considered emotionally disturbed; now this is recognized as a
common and helpful behavior. Although some people recover fairly quickly after bereavement,
others never do.

Perhaps the most widely studied pattern of grief is a three-stage one, in which the bereaved person
accepts the painful reality of the loss, gradually lets go of the bond with the dead person, and
readjusts to life by developing new interests and relationships. This process of grief work, the
working out of psychological issues connected with grief, generally takes the following path though
as with Kubler-Ross’s stages it may vary (J. T. Brown & Stoudemire, 1983; R. Schulz, 1978).
1. Shock and disbelief: immediately following a death, survivors often feel lost and confused. As
awareness of the loss sinks in, the initial numbness gives way to overwhelming feelings of

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 sadness and frequent crying. This first stage may last several weeks, especially after a sudden or
unexpected death.
2. Preoccupation with the memory of the dead person: In the second stage, which may last six
months or longer, the survivor tries to come to terms with the death but cannot yet accept it. A
widow may relive her husband’s death and their entire relationship. From time to time, she may
be seized by a feeling that her dead husband is present. These experiences diminish with time,
though they may recur perhaps for years on such occasions as the anniversary of the marriage or
of the death.
3. Resolution: The final stage has arrived when the bereaved person renews interest in everyday
activities. Memories of the dead person bring fond feelings mingled with sadness, rather than
sharp pain and longings.
Although the pattern of grief work just described is common, grieving does not necessarily follow a
straight line from shock to resolution. One team of psychologists (Wortman & Silver, 1989) reviewed
studies of reactions to major losses: the death of a loved one or the loss of mobility due to spinal
injury. These researchers found some common assumptions to be more myth than fact.

Death Anxiety

Although largely unconscious, the awareness of our finite existence, the fact that we all must die, has
a profound impact on our thoughts, feelings, and behavior. The fear and emotional anguish associated
with anticipating the end of life are so painful that we must protect ourselves. People find it difficult
to tolerate facing their mortality directly. Therefore, they repress the full realization of death and
dying, and develop various defenses to keep the suppressed material at bay. As existential
psychologists Victor Florian and Mario Mikulincer (2004) rightly observed, “The paralyzing terror
produced by the awareness of one’s mortality leads to the denial of death awareness and the
repression of death-related thoughts”

Most people would say they rarely think about death. Nevertheless, on an unconscious level,
cognizance of our eventual demise arouses feelings of death anxiety that influence significant aspects
of our lives and motivate many of our actions. Empirical studies by Terror Management
Theory (TMT) researchers have demonstrated that people alter their behavioral responses and
increase their reliance on specific defense mechanisms when their death salience is experimentally
aroused.

In one experiment, after subjects were subliminally presented with the word “death,” they more
strongly endorsed the worldview of their own ethnic group or nation while, at the same time, they
denigrated members of other groups whose worldviews differed from their own. (Solomon, et al,
2015). In another, judges who were exposed to the word “death” administered more punitive
sentences than judges in the control group who were not exposed. If the single word “death”
introduced subliminally in an experimental setting can produce significant changes in subjects’
attitudes and actions, one can only imagine the powerful effect of countless events in the real world
that remind people of their mortality.

When their death anxiety is aroused, people tend to become increasingly defensive in ways that are
harmful to themselves and often to others as well. Even though they may initially respond positively
by embracing life more fully, over time, most people usually retreat to a more defended posture. As
they deny death to protect themselves, they lose perspective, giving importance to insignificant issues
in their lives while failing to value other relevant and meaningful influences. Many people tend to
live life as though they will never die and can afford to squander their most valuable experiences.

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Defensive reactions to death have a demoralizing effect on the individual. Tragically, many people
end up losing their spirit and excitement toward life. They gradually become more rigid and
controlling, thereby diminishing their range of experiences. They begin to entertain cynical or hateful
attitudes toward self and others, give up interests that once excited them, and become progressively
less joyful and more depressed and futile about life.

Most people embrace a religious dogma to maintain the hope or promise of an afterlife. In fact, belief
in religion represents the most powerful denial of death. Some individuals over-intellectualize about
the subject of death, taking a more philosophical position to keep themselves one step removed from
feeling about their own mortality. Others find yet another solution: they believe that someone will
ultimately save them a relationship partner, a guru, or a political figure.

Some defenses against death anxiety have beneficial side effects; for example, the symbolic
immortality that is fostered by the imagination of living on through creative works in art, literature,
and science. Finding lasting meaning in devotion to family, friends, and people at large, and
attempting to leave a positive legacy generally has a good effect. Other defenses, such as living on
through one’s children, have a generally negative effect. Many children have suffered in their
development from their parents’ efforts to make them into carbon copies of themselves.

5.4.17 DEATH AND BEREAVEMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN

There is no single way of viewing death at any age; people’s attitude towards it reflect their
personality and experience, as well as how close they believe they are to dying. Still broad
developmental differences apply. As the timing-of-events model suggests, death probably does not
mean the same thing to an 85-year-old man with excruciatingly painful arthritis, a 56-year-old
woman at the height of a brilliant legal career who discovers she has breast cancer, and a 15-year-old
who dies of an overdose of drugs. Typical changes in attitudes toward death across the life span
development and on the normative or nonnormative timing of the event.

5.4.18 CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE

Not until sometime between the age of 5 and 7 do most children understand that death is irreversible
that a dead person, animal, or flower cannot come to life again. At about the same age, children
realize two other important concepts about death: first, that it is universal (all living things die) and
therefore inevitable; and second, that a dead person is non-functional (all life functions end at death).
Before then, children may believe that certain groups of people (say, teachers, parents and children)
do not die, that a person who is smart enough or lucky enough can void death, and that they
themselves will be able to live forever. They also may believe that a dead person still can think and
feel. The concept of irreversibility, universality and cessation of functions usually develop at the
time. When according to Piaget, children move from preoperational to concrete operational thinking
(Speece & Brent, 1984). During this period concepts of causation also become more sophisticated.

Methods for Coping with Death Anxiety:

Because there is no ultimate solution to the conundrum of death, when existential fears surface,
people would ideally take time to face the reality of their mortality, identify and express the
accompanying emotions of fear, sadness, and anger, and find a way to communicate their attitudes
and thoughts with others. My associates and I suggest that talking about death anxiety with a friend
or colleague while allowing a free flow of feelings can be especially helpful. Nevertheless, this may
be difficult or largely unavailable because so many people are intolerant of the subject. Fortunately, it
is possible to address the issue in psychology and philosophy courses, organized seminars and
workshops, and in individual and group psychotherapy sessions.

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 As people expand their awareness of aloneness and existential issues of life and death, contemplate
the essential dilemma and mystery of existence, and face their emotional pain, they generally develop
a deeper and more abiding respect for other people’s feelings and well-being, as well as their own.
These sentiments are translated into acts of kindness, sensitivity, and compassion toward other people
who cross their path. When we challenge our defensive reactions to death anxiety, we are better able
to confront death with equanimity, feel more aware, live in the present, and experience both the joy
and pain of existence without resorting to fantasy and illusion. In becoming more open and
vulnerable, we are able to more fully embrace love and the spirit of life.

5.5 SUMMARY

Death anxiety is not defined as a distinct disorder, but it may be linked to other depression or anxiety
disorders. These include:
 post-traumatic stress disorder or PTSD
 panic disorders and panic attacks
 illness anxiety disorders, previously called hypochondriasis
Thanatophobia is different from necrophobia, which is a general fear of dead or dying things, or
things associated with death.
Preparing for retirement and old age mentally well in advance is the most appropriate thing to do.
Going through old age when someone is not mentally prepared will suffer that person. To have a
peaceful old age, one should settle everything before time like pensions, health check, etc.

Old age is the closing period in the life span. Age sixty is usually considered the dividing line
between middle and old age. Chronological age is a poor criterion to use in marking off the
beginning of old age because there are such marked differences among individuals in the age and
better aging actually begins. Because of better living conditions health care, most men and women
today do not show the mental and physical signs of aging until early seventies. The characteristics of
old age are far more likely to lead to poor adjustment than to good and to unhappiness rather than to
happiness. That is why old age is even more dreaded than middle age.

Developmental tasks explain about how the problems are faced by us in all stages of life and he
explains them really well. We can all relate that biology has some kind of effects in our development,
as well as psychology and society.

As strength declines, the various organs and organ systems slow down. Diabetes, heart conditions,
osteoporosis and such diseases arc common during old age. Disabilities in walking, seeing, hearing
etc restrict the person in several ways. These disabilities make the person dependent on others.
An old person is often isolated. The disease and disabilities produce a strong feeling of inadequacy
and the dependence makes the person feel worse. They are given to depression and moodiness. Death
of the spouse plunges the person into despair making him/her feel totally at a loss. Memory fails the
old person which creates further problems. Fear of death can be a dominant emotion. Worries about
whether he/she would be invalid, a burden to others is very common.

The old age people should develop the mentally of moving well with others. They should not try to
find fault with anybody. Some people will expect respect from others, and they think that they should
be consulted for each and everything. This attitude is wrong. Instead, they can spend their time in
useful ways, by engaging themselves in some activity. Old age can be gold age, if our attitude is
correct. Old age is not at all a problem that spends their young age and middle age by helping other.

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Getting older can seem daunting greying hair, wrinkles, forgetting where you parked the car. Aging
can bring about unique health issues. With seniors accounting for 12 percent of the world’s
population–and rapidly increasing to over 22 percent by 2050–it’s important to understand the
challenges faced by people as they age and recognize that there are preventive measures that can
place yourself (or a loved one) on a path to healthy aging.
Social and biological theories play an important role in aging of an individual. They study how an
individual, who is aging, copes up with his/her surroundings through these theories.

5.6 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Write a note on old age.

2. Write a note on characteristics of old age.
3. Write a note on developmental tasks.
4. Write a note on physical changes.
5. Write a note on psychological changes.
6. Write a note on adjustment to self in old age.
7. Write a note on adjustment to retirement in old age.
8. Write a note on adjustment to family in old age.
9. Write a note on adjustment to singleness.
10. Write a note on hazards of old age.
11. Write a note on biological theories of aging.
12. Write a note on social theories of aging.
13. Define death
14. Explain the issues related to it.
15. Write a note on death anxiety.

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