Key Characteristics of a Computer

 Speed:
Performs millions of instructions per second; speed measured in microseconds (10⁻⁶),
nanoseconds (10⁻⁹), and picoseconds (10⁻¹²).

 Accuracy:
Produces highly accurate results unless there is human error in input or programming.

 Capacity:
Can store and process vast amounts of data at extremely high rates (e.g., billions of
characters per second).

 Durability and Reliability:

Operates consistently and error-free over long periods.

 Diligence:
Does not get tired or lose concentration, perform repetitive tasks with the same
efficiency.

 Versatility:
Can be used for a wide range of applications, from scientific computing to business
tasks.

Types of Computers Based on Data Handling

1. Analog Computers

 Work with continuous variables (e.g., pressure, temperature, voltage).

 Operate by measuring physical quantities.

 Used in scientific and engineering fields.

 Fast operation due to parallel processing.

 Less accurate, provides approximate results.

 Examples:

o Thermometer

o Voltmeter

o Speedometer
 o Gasoline pump (calculates price and volume)

2. Digital Computers

 Work with discrete variables.

 Operate by counting (not measuring).

 Process numbers and symbols in binary form.

 Offer high speed and accuracy.

 Require conversion of analog inputs to digital for processing.

 Examples:

o Abacus

o Desktop and pocket computers

o General-purpose computers

3. Hybrid Computers

 Combine analog (measuring) and digital (counting) features.

 Use analog input devices and digital memory for processing.

 Convert analog signals → digital → process → digital to analog.

 Used in scientific, engineering, and industrial control systems.

 Example:

o ICU systems: measuring vital signs (analog), processing data (digital), alert staff if
abnormal

Classification of computers by Purpose

 Special-Purpose Computers

o Designed for a specific task.

o Not versatile; circuits must be redesigned for other uses.

 o Fast and efficient for their intended application.

o Examples: Traffic control systems, ticket machines, calculators.

 General-Purpose Computers

o Designed to perform many tasks using stored programs.

o Versatile and flexible but may be slower than special-purpose systems.

o Examples: Microcomputers, minicomputers, supercomputers.

Basic Functions of a Computer

A computer performs four main functions, regardless of its size or type:

1. Data Processing

 Computers handle different types of data (numbers, text, images, etc.).

 They perform various operations like calculations, comparisons, and transformations.

 Despite the variety, only a few basic methods are used to process data.

2. Data Storage

 Temporary storage is needed while processing (e.g., RAM holds data being worked on).

 Long-term storage is used to save files and data for future use (e.g., hard drives, SSDs).

 Even when data is processed instantly, some storage is always required.

3. Data Movement

 Data needs to move between the computer and external devices.

  When data is transferred to or from a directly connected device, it's called
Input/Output (I/O).

o Example: Keyboard (input), Printer (output)

 When data moves over a network or long distance, it's called data communication.

o Example: Downloading a file from the internet

4. Control

 The Control Unit inside the CPU:

o Directs all operations in the computer

o Coordinates how data moves and gets processed

o Manages hardware resources based on instructions

History of Computing: From Early Devices to Electronic Machines

1. Early Counting Devices (Pre-Computer Era)

🧮 The Abacus (c. 4000 BCE)

 Invented in ancient China.

 Consisted of beads on rods.

 Used for basic arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

 Spread across Asia and became a foundational tool for early computation.

2. Mechanical Calculators (17th – 19th Century)

➕ Pascaline (1642–1644)

 Invented by Blaise Pascal.

 First mechanical calculator for addition and subtraction.

 Worked using a series of gears and wheels.

 Created helping Pascal’s father, a tax collector.

✖️Stepped Reckoner (1673)

 Invented by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.

 Could perform all four operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.

 Used a stepped drum mechanism.

🧠 Difference Engine (1820s)

 Designed by Charles Babbage.

 Meant to automatically calculate polynomial functions.

 Mechanical and powered by steam; never completed in Babbage’s lifetime.

 Laid the groundwork for programmable machines.

🖩 Analytical Engine (1830s)

 Also designed by Babbage.

 First concept of a general-purpose computer.

 Included features like a control unit, memory, and punch card input/output.

 Ada Lovelace wrote the first algorithm for it, making her the first programmer.

3. Rise of Electronic Computing (1890s – 1940s)

📊 Tabulating Machine (1890)

 Invented by Herman Hollerith.

 Used punch cards to tabulate U.S. Census data.

 Became the foundation for IBM (est. 1924).

⚙️Differential Analyzer (1930s)

 Developed by Vannevar Bush.

 An analog computer using mechanical and electrical components.

 Used to solve differential equations.

Mark I (1944)

 Developed by Howard Aiken in partnership with IBM.

  One of the first programmable digital computers.

 Used both mechanical and electrical parts.

 Huge in size but marked the beginning of digital programming.

🔢 ENIAC (1945)

 Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer.

 Developed by Eckert and Mauchly.

 First general-purpose electronic digital computer.

 Used vacuum tubes weighed 30 tons, and could perform thousands of operations per
second.

 Did not use internally stored programs — programming was done manually with
switches and cables

🧠 Von Neumann Architecture (1945)

• Proposed by John von Neumann
• Introduced the concept of storing program instructions in memory
• Became the foundation for modern computer architecture
• Used a single memory space for data and instructions (stored-program concept)
• Inspired later computers like EDVAC and all modern digital systems

4. The Era of Transistors (1950s – 1960s)

⚛️Transistor Computers (1950s)

 Replaced vacuum tubes with transistors.

 Smaller, more reliable, faster, and energy efficient.

 Allowed the creation of second-generation computers.

💻 UNIVAC I (1951)

 Universal Automatic Computer I.

 Developed by Eckert and Mauchly (same team behind ENIAC).

 First commercially successful computer.

  Used for both scientific and business applications.

 Predicted U.S. presidential election results in 1952, gaining fame.

Generation of computers
1st Generation (1940s–1950s) - Vacuum Tubes

 Technology Used: Vacuum tubes for circuitry and memory.

 Size: Large, occupying entire rooms.

 Speed: Slow, processing speeds in the range of milliseconds (1 millisecond = 10^-3

seconds).

 Programming: Machine language and assembly language.

 Storage Devices: Punch cards, magnetic drums.

 Example: ENIAC (first general-purpose computer).

 Limitations: High power consumption, generated heat.

2nd Generation (1950s–1960s) - Transistors

 Technology Used: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.

 Size: Smaller, faster, more reliable.

 Speed: Faster than 1st generation, processing in microseconds (1 microsecond = 10^-6

seconds).

 Programming: Assembly language and early high-level languages (Fortran, COBOL).

 Storage Devices: Magnetic tapes.

 Example: IBM 7090, PDP-8.

 Advancements: Lower heat production and reduced size.

3rd Generation (1960s–1970s) - Integrated Circuits (ICs)

 Technology Used: Integrated Circuits (ICs) replaced transistors.

 Size: Smaller, more affordable, reliable.

  Speed: Faster, processing in nanoseconds (1 nanosecond = 10^-9 seconds).

 Programming: High-level languages (BASIC, C).

 Storage Devices: Magnetic disks.

 Example: IBM System/360.

 Advancements: More components on a single chip, better performance.

4th Generation (1970s–Present) - Microprocessors (VLSI)

 Technology Used: Microprocessors based on Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI).

 Size: Highly compact, with integrated components on a single chip.

 Speed: Extremely fast, processing in picoseconds (1 picosecond = 10^-12 seconds) and

even faster in modern systems.

 Programming: High-level languages (Python, Java, C++), GUIs.

 Storage Devices: Solid-state drives (SSDs), optical discs, floppy disks.

 Example: Intel 4004, IBM PC.

 Advancements: Powerful, affordable personal computers and workstations.

5th Generation (Present and Beyond) - AI and Quantum Computing

 Technology Used: Artificial Intelligence (AI), Quantum computing, parallel processing.

 Size: Compact, with a focus on intelligence and processing power.

 Speed: Extremely fast, processing in femtoseconds (1 femtosecond = 10^-15 seconds) in

advanced quantum computers.

 Programming: Advanced languages for AI, machine learning (Python, Lisp, Prolog).

 Storage Devices: High-capacity storage (cloud storage, SSDs, quantum storage).

 Example: IBM Watson, Google DeepMind, early quantum computers.

System Buses on a Computer

System buses are communication pathways that connect the CPU to memory and input/output
(I/O) devices. There are three main types:
1. Control Bus

 A set of wires that carries control signals from the Control Unit (CU) of the CPU to other
components and also carries back status signals like "ready", "interrupt", etc.

 It is used to coordinate and manage operations, such as reading/write, interrupts, and

device status.

 It ensures that all parts of the system know what to do and when to do it.

Example signals: Memory Read, Memory Write, Interrupt Request, Clock, Reset

2. Address Bus

 A unidirectional bus that carries the address of the memory location or I/O device that
the CPU wants to access.

 The CPU uses the address bus to specify where data should be read from or written to.

Key Point:

 Only carries addresses, not data

 Direction: From CPU ➡ Memory/I/O

3. Data Bus

 A bidirectional bus that carries actual data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

 It is used for data transfer during processing — both input (reading) and output
(writing).

Key Point:

 Carries data values, like numbers, characters, or instructions

 Direction: Both ways (CPU ↔ Memory/I/O)

Computer Architecture vs Computer Organization

Aspect Computer Architecture Computer Organization

Definition Describes what a computer system Describes how a computer system

Aspect Computer Architecture Computer Organization

does works

Logical design and functional Physical implementation of

Focus
behavior components

Instruction set, addressing modes, Control signals, hardware, circuits,

Concerned With
data types timing

Visible to Yes – affects programming and No – mostly hidden from the

Programmer? performance programmer

System design, ISA (Instruction Set Internal hardware operation (e.g.,

Deals With
Architecture) data paths, ALU)

Main Structural Components of a Computer

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

o The brain of the computer that performs all processing tasks.

o Consists of:

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – performs arithmetic and logic operations.

 Control Unit (CU) – directs operations, fetches and decodes instructions.

 Registers – small, fast storage for immediate data and instructions.

2. Main Memory (Primary Memory)

o Temporarily stores data and instructions currently being used.

o Common type: RAM (Random Access Memory) – fast but volatile.

3. Input/Output (I/O) Modules

o Allow the computer to communicate with external devices.

o Input devices: Keyboard, mouse, etc.

o Output devices: Monitor, printer, etc.

o I/O modules control data flow between CPU, memory, and peripherals.

4. System Bus
 o A communication pathway that connects the CPU, memory, and I/O modules.

o Typically includes:

 Data Bus – carries data

 Address Bus – carries memory addresses

 Control Bus – carries control signals (read, write, etc.)

Other Parts of a Computer System

1. ✅ Cache Memory

 Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory located close to or inside the CPU.

 It temporarily stores frequently accessed data and instructions so the CPU can access
them faster than from main memory (RAM).

 This reduces the time delay in fetching data and improves the overall performance of
the system.

2. ✅ Coprocessor

 A coprocessor is a special-purpose processor that works alongside the CPU to perform

specific tasks more efficiently.

 It relieves the CPU by handling tasks like complex calculations, graphics processing, or
signal processing.

 Common types:

o Mathematical Coprocessor – used for arithmetic operations (especially floating-

point math).

o Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) – used for handling images and videos.

o Digital Signal Processor (DSP) – used for audio, video, and real-time data
processing.

3. ✅ Virtual Memory
  Virtual memory is a memory management technique that allows a computer to use part
of the hard drive or SSD as if it were RAM.

 It helps run large programs or multiple programs by extending the available memory.

 When RAM is full, data is temporarily moved to a space on the disk called the page file.

 Although it is slower than physical RAM, it ensures that the system doesn't run out of
memory.

Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary storage is non-volatile memory that stores data permanently. It retains data even
when the computer is powered off, and is used for long-term storage of programs and files.

📁 Classification of Secondary Storage Devices

1. Magnetic Storage Devices

These use magnetic materials to store data and often involve moving mechanical parts.

 Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

o Stores data on spinning magnetic platters.

o High capacity (from 500 GB to several TB).

o Slower than SSDs but cheaper.

o Used in desktops, laptops, and servers.

 Magnetic Tape

o Long strips of plastic coated with magnetic material.

o Used mainly for backups and archives.

o Very cheap per GB but sequential access only (slow to read specific data).

2. Optical Storage Devices

Use laser technology to read/write data on discs.

💿 Compact Disc (CD)

 Stores around 700 MB of data.

 Mainly used for audio, software, and small files.

Types of CDs:

 CD-ROM (Read-Only Memory): Data is permanently written; cannot be changed.

 CD-R (Recordable): Can be written once by the user; not erasable.

 CD-RW (Rewritable): Can be written, erased, and rewritten many times.

📀 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

 Stores more data than CDs (typically 4.7 GB single layer, 8.5 GB dual layer).

 Used for videos, software, and backups.

Types of DVDs:

 DVD-ROM: Pre-recorded, read-only

 DVD-R/DVD+R: Write-once formats

 DVD-RW/DVD+RW: Rewritable formats

 DVD-RAM: Can be read and written multiple times like a hard disk (used in specific
applications)

🔵 Blu-ray Disc

 High capacity (25 GB single-layer, 50 GB dual-layer).

 Used for full HD and 4K video storage.

3. Solid State Storage Devices

Use flash memory with no moving parts — faster and more durable than magnetic or optical
devices.

 Solid State Drive (SSD):

o Faster than HDDs, silent, and shock resistant.

o Common in modern laptops and high-performance PCs.

 USB Flash Drive (Pen Drive):

 o Portable and easy to use.

o Storage from 4 GB to 1 TB.

 Memory Cards (SD/microSD):

o Used in mobile phones, cameras, tablets.

o Very small and reliable.

Comparison: HDD vs SSD

Aspect HDD (Hard Disk Drive) SSD (Solid State Drive)

Uses spinning magnetic platters and a Uses flash memory (no moving
Technology
moving read/write head parts)

Slower: takes time to locate and

Speed Much faster: instant access to data
read/write data

Prone to damage due to moving parts More durable and shock-resistant

Durability
(shock-sensitive) (no moving parts)

Makes noise due to spinning and

Noise Silent operation
movement

Power Higher – needs power to spin disks and

Lower – energy-efficient
Consumption move heads

Typically offers larger capacity for lower Often smaller capacities at higher
Storage Capacity
cost (e.g., 1TB, 2TB+) cost (e.g., 256GB, 1TB)

Modern hard disks may use glass substrates instead of aluminum for improved performance.
The advantages are better thermal stability, smoother surface and higher durability.

Data is written to a magnetic disk by changing the direction of magnetic particles on the surface
using an electromagnetic write head. These magnetized regions represent 1s and 0s.
Shorter wavelength lasers (like those in DVDs) focus more tightly, allowing them to write and
read smaller, closer data bits, which leads to higher storage capacity compared to CDs.

Types of Printers
Printers are classified into two main types based on how they print: impact printers and non-
impact printers.

✅ Impact Printers

 Use a mechanical impact to press an inked ribbon against paper.

 Generally noisy, but durable and useful for multi-copy forms (e.g., receipts, invoices).

Important types:

 Dot Matrix Printer

o Uses a grid of small pins that strike the ribbon to form characters as patterns of
dots.

o Suitable for continuous printing and multi-part forms.

o Noisy and lower print quality compared to modern printers.

 Daisy Wheel Printer

o Uses a wheel with characters shaped like flower petals.

o Each petal is struck by a hammer to print characters.

o Produces clear text but is slow and cannot print graphics.

 Line Printer

o Prints one entire line at a time rather than character by character.

o Very fast and used for large-volume printing.

o Often used in data centers and industrial settings.

✅ Non-Impact Printers

 Do not use physical impact to transfer ink.

  Quieter, faster, and produce better quality output, especially for graphics.

Important types:

 Inkjet Printer

o Sprays tiny drops of ink directly onto the paper.

o Ideal for high-quality color printing and photo printing.

o Common in homes and small offices.

o Ink can be expensive over time.

 Laser Printer

o Uses a laser beam to form images on a drum, then transfers toner to paper.

o Fast, reliable, and great for large volumes of text documents.

o Common in business and professional environments.

 Thermal Printer

o Applies heat to specially coated thermal paper to produce text or images.

o Used for receipts, labels, and barcodes.

o Quiet and efficient but limited to specific paper types.

Computer Software
Computer software is classified into two main categories: System Software and Application
Software.
1. System Software

System software includes programs that help the computer hardware work effectively. It
facilitates communication between the user and hardware, making complex hardware easier to
use.

Key Functions of System Software:

 Manages hardware resources and input/output devices.

 Acts as an intermediary between the user and hardware.

 Translate programming languages into machine code, enabling user interaction with the
computer.

Categories of System Software:

 Operating System (OS)

 Language Software

a. Operating System (OS)

An operating system coordinates activities between the user and the computer. It performs
essential functions such as controlling hardware and managing data flow.

Major Functions of an Operating System:

1. Controlling Operations:

o Coordinates the computer system’s activities.

o Handles storage, memory allocation, and communication between components.

2. Input/Output Management:

o Manages communication with external devices (e.g., monitors, printers).

o Coordinates data flow to and from disk drives.

3. Command Processing:

o Interprets and execute commands entered by the user through input devices.

Types of Operating Systems:

 Single Tasking OS: Runs only one program at a time.

  Multi-User OS: Supports multiple users simultaneously (e.g., workstations connected to
a central system).

 Real-Time OS: Processes data quickly to provide real-time responses (e.g., airline
reservations).

b. Language Software

Language software helps programmers write and translate programs into machine-readable
code. It includes:

 Translators: Programs that convert one programming language to another.

o Assembler: Converts assembly language to machine code.

o Compiler: Converts high-level languages (e.g., Pascal, Fortran) to machine code.

o Interpreter: Executes high-level language instructions one at a time.

 General-Purpose Routines: Programs used for file processing, editing, and debugging.

 High-Level Language Software: Includes compilers for languages like COBOL, Pascal, and
Fortran.

2. Application Software

Application software refers to programs designed to perform specific tasks for users, such as
word processing, spreadsheets, and database management.

Types of Application Software:

1. Word Processors:

o Used for creating, editing, and formatting text.

o Examples: WordStar, Microsoft Word.

2. Spreadsheets:

o Used for performing calculations and analyzing data.

o Examples: Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Excel.

3. Database Management Systems (DBMS):

o Used to store, retrieve, and manipulate data.

o Examples: Microsoft Access, FoxPro, Dbase IV.