Examination questions in “Theoretical Grammar”

1. Subsystems of language structure and their reference to linguistic

disciplines.

The system of language is parted into separate subsystems each of which

displays systemic characteristics too. These are: Grammar, Lexicon and
Phonetics. Only the unity of these elements forms a language; without any
of them there is no human language. Each of these parts of language is
studied by a particular linguistic discipline. For example, the phonological
description of Language (sounds) is studied by Phonology, the lexical
description of Language – by Lexicology, word-building processes – both by
Lexicology and Grammar. As far as Grammar is concerned, it focuses on the
morphological and syntactical description of Language. Furthermore, we
have Text Linguistics which is keen on studying text organization in
Language.

2. The etymology of the word “grammar”

The word grammar itself has a rather wonderful etymology. It comes from
the Greek grammatikē technē, which means “art of letters”.

The very word came from Greek via Latin and French in the fourteenth
century. That’s not to say that the English language didn’t have grammar
before then (indeed, Old English has a much more complicated grammar
system than Present Day English does). The Old English stæfcræft, meaning
‘the art of grammar’, ‘grammar’, ‘skill in letters’, or ‘learning’ was
supplanted by the French.

In early English use grammar meant only Latin grammar, as Latin was the
only language that was taught grammatically. In the 16th century, people
started thinking that this word could be used for other languages, but it
wasn't until the 17th century that it became a general term, and there was a
need to specifically mention 'Latin grammar.' In fact, Ben Jonson's book was
the first to treat of ‘English grammar’ under that name.
3. Definition of grammar. The subject matter.

Grammar is one of the main linguistic disciplines; it studies the grammatical

structure of language. The aim of Theoretical Grammar of a language is to
present a theoretical description of its grammatical system, in other words, to
scientifically analyze and define its grammatical categories. Also, to study
the grammatical formation of utterances out of words in the process of
speech.

Grammar is a branching discipline. It is represented by a number of concrete

grammatical studies distinguished from different approaches.

The following kinds of Grammars (Grammatical Studies) can be

distinguished according to their purpose:
– Communicative grammars focus on understanding how signs (language
elements) are used by individuals in real-life communication situations.
– Situational/Referential grammars are concerned with how language
elements relate to the real-world referents they signify. They explore how
language reflects and refers to situations and objects in the external
world.
– Cognitive grammars delve into the mental processes involved in
language use. They are interested in how language reflects and shapes
human thought, emphasizing the connection between linguistic signs and
conceptual understanding.

There are 2 opposite approaches to language: external and internal.

Functional Grammar represents external approach. It is based on the relation
between the structure of a language and the various functions that the
language performs. In fact, it is concerned with the way language is used in
communication and how it conveys meaning. It emphasizes the role of
context, discourse, and pragmatics in shaping the form and function of
language. There are several grammatical theories of such orientation, for
instance, Communicative Syntax, Pragmatic Syntax, Generative Grammar,
etc.
 In contrast, Structural Grammar that represent internal approach, focuses on
the rules of syntax and morphology that govern the construction of sentences
and words. It is concerned with identifying the components of language,
such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and analyzing how they are
combined to form grammatical structures. Derivational Morphology is a
grammatical study of such kind.

4. Morphology and syntax as the main subdivisions of grammar.

Main grammatical units, a word and a sentence, are studied by different

sections of Grammar: Morphology and Syntax. Morphology studies the
structure, forms and the classification and combinability of words. Syntax
studies the structure, forms and the classification of sentences. Morphemes
are the smallest units of study in morphology, while words are the smallest
units of study in syntax. Morphology studies paradigmatic relations of
words, Syntax studies syntagmatic relations of words and paradigmatic
relations of sentences. In simple words, morphology looks at the words and
their individual relation to what is being expressed within the sentence.
Syntax, on the other hand, looks at components of the words in a sentence
and their relation to each other.

The domain of Morphology is the paradigmatics of the word. Morphology

studies the forms of words and their paradigms (system of words), their
classification and combinability. The domain of syntax is syntagmatics of
the word. Syntax studies the combinations of words in word-groups and
sentences and the relationships that exist between the words in combinations
and sentences

Syntagmatic relations involve the arrangement of elements in a linear order

within a sentence or discourse. In other words, syntagmatic relations are
concerned with how words or elements follow one another to create coherent
and grammatically correct combinations. For example, in the phrase "the big
cat," there are syntagmatic relations between the articles ("the"), the
adjective ("big"), and the noun ("cat"), as they combine in a specific order to
convey a meaningful unit. For instance, in the sentence "She is reading a
 book," the verb "reading" can be replaced by other verbs like "writing,"
"studying," or "listening," demonstrating the paradigmatic relations among
verbs that share similar syntactic roles.

Paradigmatic relations, on the other hand, involve the relationship between

elements that could potentially substitute for each other in a given context.
These relations exist within a certain grammatical category (e.g., nouns,
verbs, adjectives) where different elements share similar grammatical
functions and can be alternatives for each other.

[There are such morphological theories as Accidence (the study of the word
paradigms), Categorial Morphology, Morphological Semantics, Syntagmatic
Morphology, Derivational Morphology (word-building), Morphemics, etc.

There are such syntactic theories as Paradigmatic Syntax, Semantic Syntax,

Categorial Syntax, Structural Syntax, Actual Syntax (Functional Sentence
Perspective), Communicative Syntax, Generative Syntax, etc.]

5. Segmental and supra-segmental units of the language.

Units of language are divided into segmental and supra-segmental.

Segmental units consist of phonemes, they form syllables, morphemes,
words, etc. Supra-segmental units do not exist by themselves. These are
intonation contours, accents, pauses, patterns of word-order. They are
realized together with segmental units and express different meanings.

The segmental units of language form a hierarchy of levels. The lowest level
is phonemic. The phoneme is the smallest language unit; it has no meaning
of its own, but it is meaning distinctive: it differentiates morphemes and
words. Phonemes are represented by letters in writing. For example, tale and
table are differentiated by the phoneme (letter) "b".

The level located above the phonemic one is the morphemic. The
morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit, e.g., un-faith-ful-ly contains four
 morphemes. The morpheme expresses abstract, generalized meanings which
are used as constituents for the formation of more concrete, “nominative”
meanings of words.

The third in the hierarchy of language levels is the level of words, or

lexemic level. The word is the smallest naming unit; it names things and
their relations. Since words are built up by morphemes, the shortest words
consist of one explicit morpheme only, e.g., man, will, cat, etc.

The next higher level is the level of phrases (word-groups), or phrasemic

level. Phrases are combinations of two or more words; they have a
nominative function but represent a complicated phenomenon, e.g., a
picturesque village.

Above the phrasemic level lies the level of sentences, or proposemic level.
The sentence is the smallest communicative unit on the syntactic level. The
sentence not only names a certain situation, but it expresses predication, in
other words, shows the relation of the denoted event to reality. Namely, it
shows whether this event is real or unreal, desirable or obligatory, etc.

Above the proposemic level there is the level of texts, or supra-proposemic

(super-syntactic) level. The text is the highest form of language.

SEGMENTAL: The phoneme – the morpheme – the word – the phrase – the
sentence – the text

SUPRA-SEGMENTAL: intonation; pauses; accents; word-order; contours.

6. Morphological system of the language. Types of morphemes.

Morphological system of the language reveals its properties through the

morphemic structure of words; thus, Morphology faces two segmental units:
the morpheme and the word.
There are two basic criteria according to which the morphemic structure can
be studied:
– positional (the location of the marginal morphemes in relation to the
central ones);
– semantic or functional (the contribution of the morphemes to the general
meaning of the word).

According to positional criterion, morphemes are divided into root-

morphemes (roots) and affixal morphemes (affixes). The affixal morphemes
include prefixes, suffixes and inflexions. The root is obligatory for any
word, while affixes are not obligatory. The roots of notional words are
classical lexical morphemes.

So, according to the semantic types of morphemes, they are divided into
lexical/stem morphemes, derivational/word-building morphemes and
inflectional/stem-building morphemes. Lexical morphemes are further
subdivided into free and bound morphemes. Free morphemes can build up
words by themselves, bound morphemes cannot (e.g., handful, pitiless,
etc.). The auxiliary word-morphemes (e.g., shall, will, etc.) are "semi-
bound" morphemes, since being used as separate elements of speech, they
form categorial units with their notional stem-words.

There also are overt and covert morphemes. Overt morphemes are explicit,
they build up words; the covert morpheme is, in other words, a "zero"
morpheme.

Segmental morphemes are meaningful segmental components of the word,

while supra-segmental morphemes are intonation contours, accents, pauses.

Additive morphemes are outer grammatical suffixes, e.g., look+ed,

small+er. Replacive morphemes are the root phonemes since they replace
one another in the paradigmatic forms, e.g., dr-i-ve - dr-o-ve - dr-i-ven.

The continuous morpheme is a one-element grammatical unit, e.g., in-

suffici-ent-ly. The discontinuous morpheme is a two-element grammatical
unit which is identified with the analytical grammatical form comprising an
auxiliary word and a grammatical suffix, e.g., be…ing, be…en.
7. Morphological categories.

The grammemes (an organized set of grammatical forms) make up a

morphological category. It is a system of expressing a generalized
grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical
forms. The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are
exposed by the so-called “grammatical oppositions”, e.g., the binary
oppositions between the Singular and the Plural in nouns, or between Active
and Passive in verbs.

Morphological categories of:

When talking about noun we have the following morphological categories:

number (Singular, Dual, Plural), gender (Masculine, Feminine, Neuter),
definiteness (Definite, Indefinite), noun class (proper, common, animate,
inanimate, human, non-human, abstract, concrete, collective), CASEs (sub.
Effective, objective, genitive vocative)

Adjective are divided into relational, qultative, defective. It also has a

morphological category of degree (comparative and superlative).

All verbs in the English language are also classified according: transitivity
(transitive, intransitive), aspect (perfective, imperfective, tense, voice
(Active, Passive), mood (Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive), Conjugation
Class (I, II, III and1st, 2nd, 3rd Person, Sg, Pl Agreement)
Quantifiers: Cardinal (one, two, three,) and Ordinal (first, second, third)

8. Parts of speech. Criteria for the discrimination.

There are 3 criteria for discrimination of Parts of Speech. These are

semantic, formal and functional.
Semantic Criterion (meaning) presupposes the categorical meaning of the
part of speech, the meaning common to all the words of the given class. The
 meaning of the noun is "thingness", the meaning of the verb is "process" or
"state".
Formal Criterion (form) provides the exposition of the specific derivational
(word-building) features. The Noun is characterized by the category of
number (Sing./pl.), the verb - by tense, mood. Prepositions, conjunctions are
characterized by invariability.
And finally, Functional Criterion (function) concerns the syntactic role of
words in the sentence typical of a part of speech. The method of combining
with other words (V+N, V+D, A+N), its function in the sentence (a verb in
the sentence is a predicate).

According to these three criteria, the parts of speech are divided into
notional and functional. To the notional parts of speech belong the noun, the
adjective, the numeral, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb. To the functional
parts of speech belong the article, the preposition, the conjunction, the
particle, the modal word, the interjection.

Also, each part of speech is further subdivided into other categories. For
example, nouns are subdivided into proper and common, animate and
inanimate, etc., the verbs are subdivided into transitive and intransitive,
actional and statal, etc., adjectives are subdivided into qualitative and
relative, factive and evaluative. Adverbs, numerals and pronouns are either
subdivided into different categories.

9. Criteria for determining the part of speech. (доробити!!!)

There are 5 criteria for determining the part of speech.

1. The function it characteristically performs;
2. The kinds of modifiers it typically takes;
3. The meaning it expresses;
4. The ways it gets inflected;
5. The typical word-forming elements

10.General characteristics of the Noun as a part of Speech.

The noun as a part of speech is characterized by the following features.
The 1st one is the lexico-grammatical (categorial) meaning. The lexico-
grammatical meaning of noun is "substance" or "thingness".
Thus, we can say that the noun is the main nominative part of speech. In the
concept of "substance" we include not only names of living beings (e.g. girl,
bird, etc.) and lifeless things (e.g., table, book, etc.), but also names of
abstract notions, i.e. qualities, states, actions (e.g., kindness, strength, fear,
etc.).

Next thing is word-building distinction. It includes typical suffixes and

stem- building morphemes, as in work-er, friend-ship, manage-ment, and
compound stem models.
Productive noun-forming suffixes are:
-er, e.g., reader, teacher, worker, writer, speaker
-tion, e.g., revolution, demonstration, classification
-ment, e.g., development, management, assignment
-ness, e.g., carelessness, madness, blackness, happiness
-ture, e.g., lecture, structure, picture
-ist, e.g., telegraphist, dramatist, pianist
-ism, e.g., socialism, imperialism, criticism

Unproductive noun-forming suffixes are:

-hood, e.g., childhood, manhood, brotherhood
-dom, e.g., freedom, kingdom
-ship, e.g., friendship, relationship, citizenship
-ance/-ence, e.g., importance, performance, dependence, difference
-ess, e.g., heiress, hostess, actress, tigress, etc.;
-ty/-ity, e.g., cruelty, penalty, generosity, curiosity, substantiality, ability,
combinability, superiority, etc.

The main types of compound nouns are as follows:

(a) noun-stem+noun-stem, e.g., stonewall, armchair, appletree schoolboy,
snowball, timetable, etc.;
(b) adjective-stem+noun-stem, e.g., blackbird, bluebell, blacksmith, etc.;
(c) verb-stem+noun-stem, e.g., pickpocket, etc .;
(d) gerund/participle stem+noun-stem, e.g., dining- room, reading-hall,
dancing-girl, etc.

III. The combinability of the noun is closely connected with its lexico-
grammatical meaning. Denoting substances, nouns are associated with
words describing the qualities of substances (adjectives), their number and
order (numerals) their actions (verbs), and relations (prepositions).
The combinability of the nouns is variable. They have left-hand connections
with articles (e.g., a day, the ink, etc.), some pronouns (e.g., my book, that
colour, etc.), most adjectives (good friends, but from time immemorial),
numerals (e.g., two visitors, the third page, but page ten) and other nouns
(e.g., school library, eye-doctor, etc.). With prepositions and verbs nouns
have both left- hand and right-hand connections (e.g., to London, at the
thought of, etc.) (Bob met his friend, Ann wrote a letter, etc.).

The problem of combinations of two (or more) nouns in the common case
without preposition, like stone wall, speech sound is in
1) whether they are compound words (like motor-car) or word combinations;
in the latter case
2) whether the adjunct-word is a noun or an adjective.
-made up of two words – “stone” and “wall”. In a literal sense: refers to a
wall made of stone
-In a metaphorical sense: suggests immovability, strength, and resilience. It
represents a steadfastness that cannot be broken or overcome

IV. Syntactic functions of nouns in the sentence. It can be:

-a subject, e.g., The sun was rising in all his splendid beauty.
-an object, e.g., Troy and Yates followed the tourists.
-an attribute, e.g., To the left were clean panes of glass.
-a predicative, e.g., He was a doctor.
-an adverbial modifier, e.g., She went into the drawing-room.
A noun can take on various roles in a sentence, but it's most commonly seen
as the subject or object.
 V. The grammatical categories of the noun as a part of speech are those of
number, case, gender, and article determination.
From the grammatical point of view most important is the division of nouns
into:
-countable (e.g., two cats, three dogs, a shop, a book, a ship, etc.) and
uncountable (e.g., air, smell, dust, happiness, gold, tea, water, etc.) with
regard to the category of number; countable nouns are those which possess
number opposites (e.g., a boy - boys, a shop - shops, etc.); uncountable
nouns are those having no number opposites (e.g., gold, tea, snow, etc.);
-declinable (e.g., a girl's doll, children's toys, parents' duty, etc.) and
indeclinable (e.g., the root of the tree, the foot of a mountain, etc.) with
regard to the category of case; the subclass of declinable nouns is
comparatively limited, including mostly nouns denoting living beings (e.g.,
a child's language, etc.), also time and distance (e.g., a month's holiday, a
mile's distance, etc.); indeclinable nouns denote lifeless things and have, as a
norm, only the potential meaning of the common case (e.g., the nose of the
plane, the mouth of a river, etc.).

11.Five criteria for testing the Noun as a part of speech. (???)

1. We can test the Noun as a part of speech by identifying its dunction in a

sentence. For example, "The cat is sleeping." ("Cat" is the subject of the
sentence.)
2. Also, by some morphological characteristics. For example, "I have two
books." ("Books" is the plural form of "book," characteristic of nouns.)
3. By its contextual usage. If the word represents people, places, things, or
ideas within the sentence, then it is a noun. For example, "Her kindness
touched many hearts." ("Kindness" represents an abstract idea.)
4. One more identifier is an article. If the word is used with articles, then
most likely it’s a noun. For example, "A dog barked loudly." ("Dog" is
used with the indefinite article "a.")
5. And finally, by its syntactic role. If the word functions as a subject,
object, or complement in the sentence, then it’s a noun. For example,
"She read a story." ("Story" is the direct object of the verb "read.")
12.Classification of Nouns.

Nouns fall under quite a few semantic subclasses.

First of all, there are proper and common nouns. Proper nouns are individual
names given to separate persons or things. As regards their meaning proper
nouns may be personal names, (Mary, Peter, Shakespeare), geographical
names (Kyiv, London), the names of the months and of the days of the week
(February, Monday), names of ships, hotels, clubs etc. Proper nouns may
change their meaning and become common nouns, like in the case with
sandwich and champagne.

Common nouns are names that can be applied to any individual of a class of
persons or things (e.g. man, dog, book), collections of similar individuals or
things regarded as a single unit (e. g. peasantry, family), materials (e. g.
snow, iron, cotton) or abstract notions (e.g. kindness, development).

Then we have animate and inanimate nouns. Animate nouns denote living
beings, both human and non-human (a boy, a dog). Inanimate nouns denote
things, materials, substance (water, a house, stone).

Nouns are also divided into human and non-human. Human nouns denote
human beings (Marta, government). Non-human nouns denote living beings
but not human (a wolf, a bird).

According to the property of things, there are distinguished concrete,

abstract and collective nouns. Concrete nouns may be class-nouns indicating
things belonging to a class, and names of materials which do not express
separate things but the whole mass of matter (a book, iron, snow). Abstract
nouns are often the names of actions, states or qualities formed from
corresponding verbs and adjectives (conversation, reading, kindness).
Collective nouns denote a number of things collected together so that they
may be regarded as a single object (a family, a company). There are certain
collective nouns that can be used only in the singular (money, youth), only
in the plural (goods, clothes) and those that have both numbers (family-
 families, crew-crews). There are also collective nouns that are singular in
form though plural in meaning. (poultry, police).

13.Noun: The Category of Number.

The category of number of English nouns is expressed by the binary

opposition of the plural form to the singular form of the noun. The singular
form has the zero-suffix. The strong member of the binary opposition is the
plural form, e.g., a book + 0 (singular) :: book + s (plural).

The productive way of expressing the plural form in English is the suffix "
(e)s". Non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition are: vowel
interchange (e.g., man :: men, tooth :: teeth); the archaic suffix "-(e)n" as in
child :: children, etc.; the correlation of individual singular and plural
suffixes in borrowed nouns (e.g., phenomenon :: phenomena, formula ::
formulae, etc.); the coincidence of singular and plural forms (e.g., sheep,
deer, fish).

English nouns fall into two subclasses: countable and uncountable.

Countable nouns have number opposites, uncountable nouns don’t have
number opposites. Uncountable nouns are again subdivided into singularia
tantum (those having no plural opposites) and pluralia tantum (those having
no singular opposites). "Singularia tantum" are often treated as singulars and
"pluralia tantum" as plurals.

Singularia tantum:
– the names of material substances, e.g., milk, butter, water, wow: steel,
etc.;
– the names of abstract notions, e.g., selfishness, usefulness, pere, love,
etc.;
– the names of the branches of the professional urtivities, e.g.,
chemistry, biology, sociology, geometry, etc.;
– the names of collective inanimate objects, e.g., fruit, furniture,
machinery, etc.;
 – collective animate nouns, e.g., humanity, peasantry, wildfiery. etc.

Pluralia tantum:
– obiects consisting of two or more parts, e.g., trousers, wwwws,
spectacles, glasses, etc.;
– some sort of collective meaning, i.e. rendering the idea of indefinite
plurality, both concrete and abstract, e.g., supplies, lothes. politics. etc.
– objects which express a more or less indefinite plurality, e.g.,
ravirons, outskirts, etc.;
– the names of sciences, e.g., physics, phonetics, linguistics, etc.;
– the names of some diseases as well as some abnormal states of the
body and mind, e.g., measles, mumps, hysterics, etc.

Certain nouns denoting groups of human beings (e.g., Jamily, government,

party, etc.), animals (e.g., cattle, poultry, etc.) have the dual nature in
expressing the category of number.
If they denote the group as a whole, they are treated as singulars and termed
"collective nouns", e.g. My family is small.
If they denote the group as consisting of a certain number of individual
human beings (or animals), they are termed "nouns of multitude”, e.g., My
family are good speakers.

Plural forms can be often used for stylistic purposes. The emotive use of
proper nouns in plural is also an effective means of expressive connotation.

14.Noun: The Category of Case.

The category of case is the system of oppositions showing the relations of

the noun to other words in a sentence. Languages of synthetic structure have
a developed case-system. Languages of analytical structure lack these
morphological variants.

The English noun has two cases – common and genitive (or possessive). So,
the case opposition is represented by two members: boy//boy’s. The genitive
case is the marked member of the opposition, the common case is the
unmarked one.

With regard to the category of case English nouns fall under two lexico-
grammatical subclasses:
– declinable, having case opposites (e.g., Marta’s idea, a month's absence,
etc.)
– indeclinable, having no case opposites (e.g., book, news, life, happiness,
etc.).

The class of declinable nouns is comparatively limited. It includes:

– the nouns denoting living beings, persons and animals (e.g., Marta's
idea);
– inanimate nouns denoting time and distance such as minute, moment,
hour, day, week, month, year, inch, foot, mile and substantivized adverbs
such as today, yesterday, tomorrow, etc. (e.g., a moment's delay, a month's
absence);
– inanimate nouns denoting names of countries and towns or cities
(e.g., Britain's national museums, Ukraine’s population);
– inanimate nouns denoting the names of newspapers and nouns
denoting different kinds of organizations (e.g., , the Guardian's analysis,
the government's policy);
– inanimate nouns denoting names of cosmic bodies, planets, such as
sun, moon, earth (e.g., the sun's rays, this earth's life, etc.);
– collective nouns like government, party, army, crew, family,
society, world, nation, country, city, town (e.g., the world's top models,
the nation's wealth, etc.);

The problem of the category of cases arises a lot of discussions. So, 4 special
theories were suggested by scholars.

1. Theory of “positional cases”. The positional cases are differentiated

according to the positions of the nouns in the sentence. According to the
theory the following cases are distinguished:
 – the nominative case (subject to a verb), e.g., Rain falls;
– vocative case (address), e.g., Are you coming, my friend;
– the dative case

2. The theory of "prepositional cases" considers that the case system of the
English noun consists of the classical inflectional genitive, prostional
cases and prepositional cases, first of all the "dative" case and the
"genitive" case.
E.g.: genitive case - of the pen
dative case - to the pen
instrumental case - with the pen
locative case - in the pen, etc.

3. The "limited case theory" recognizes two cases in English:

– the possessive, or genitive, form as the strong member of the
categorial opposition and
– the common, or "non-genitive", form as the weak member of the
categorial opposition.

4. The "theory of the possessive postposition" approaches the English noun

as having completely lost the category of case in the process of
development.
The following basic semantic types of the genitive case can be pointed out:
1. "genitive of possessor" – its constructional meaning can be defined
as “inorganic” possession of the genitive referent to the object denoted by
the head-noun. E.g.: Christine’s living-room; the assistant manager's
desk; Kate and Jerry's grandparents, etc.
2. "genitive of integer" – its constructional meaning is defined as
"organic possession", i.e. a broad possessional relation of a whole to its
part. E.g.: Jane's busy hands; Patrick's voice; the patient's health; the
hotel's lobby.
3. "genitive of agent" renders an activity or some broader processual
relation with the referent of the genitive as its subject. E.g.: the great
man's arrival; Peter's insistence; the councillor's attitude.
 4. "genitive of patient" expresses the recipient of the action or
process denoted by the head-noun. E.g.: the champion's sensational
defeat; Erick's final expulsion; the meeting's chairman; the city's
business leaders; the Titanic's tragedy.
5. "genitive of destination" denotes the destination, or function of the
referent of the head-noun. E.g.: women's footwear; children's verses; a
fishers' tent.
6. "genitive of dispensed qualification" is some characteristic or
qualification, not received, but given by the genitive noun to the referent
of the head-noun. E.g.: a girl's voice; a book-keeper's statistics.
7. "genitive of adverbial" denotes adverbial factors relating to the
referent of the head-noun, mostly the time and place of the event. E.g.:
the evening's newspaper; yesterday's encounter; Kyiv's talks.
8. "genitive of quantity" denotes the measure or quantity relating to
the referent of the head-noun. For the most part, the quantitative meaning
expressed concerns units of distance measure, time measure, weight
measure. E.g.: three miles' distance; an hour's delay; two months' time; a
hundred tons' load.

15.Noun: The Category of Gender.

The category of gender is expressed in English by the obligatory correlation

of nouns with the personal pronouns of the 3rd person, e.g., a sister-in-law +
she, a salesman + he, etc. The category of gender is strictly oppositional.

All nouns are divided into person nouns and non-person nouns in terms of
the category of gender. The strong member is the human subclass of nouns.
The weak member of the opposition comprises non-person nouns, both
animate and inanimate. Person nouns are further subdivided into feminine-
nouns and masculine-nouns. The strong member is the feminine subclass of
person nouns, its mark being "female sex". Here belong such nouns as
woman, girl, mother, sister, bride, etc. The masculine subclass of person
nouns comprising such words as man, boy, father, brother, etc. makes up the
weak member of the opposition.
3 genders are identified in terms of the category of gender in the English
language:
– the masculine (masculine person) gender, e.g., boy, bachelor, etc.
– the feminine (feminine person) gender, e.g., girl, maid, woman, etc.
– the neuter (non-person) gender, e.g., car, joke, hen, etc.

Many person nouns in English are capable of expressing both feminine and
masculine person genders. They are referred to as nouns of the "common
gender":
a) human beings, e.g., teacher, doctor, friend;
b) animals, e.g., wolf, elephant, bear

Words indicating professions which formerly were used with reference only
to male beings are now used as well when speaking of women, e.g., doctor,
engineer, journalist, director, tractor-driver, mechanic, etc.

When it is desirable to restrict those nouns to one sex, a word is added

denoting the sex and they form a compound, e.g.:
a) girl-friend: boy-friend
b) he-wolf: she-wolf
Thus, English nouns can show the sex of their referents lexically, either by
means of being combined with certain notional words used as sex indicators
(boyfriend : girlfriend) or else by suffixal derivation (actor : actress).
All nouns denoting animals may be considered neuter. Noun denoting birds,
fishes, insects and reptiles are generally considered as neuter. Though, in
spoken language there is a tendency to associate the names of animals with
the feminine or masculine gender.

Sometimes inanimate things and abstract notions are personified and the
nouns denoting them are referred to as belonging to the masculine or
feminine gender (personification). Here are some traditional associations:

a) moon and earth are referred to as feminine, sun as masculine.

b) The names of vessels (e.g., ship, boat, steamer, etc) are feminine.
 c) The names of other vehicles (e.g., carriage, coach, car, etc.) are also
sometimes made feminine by those who work on them.
d) The names of countries are usually referred to as feminine, especially
when the country is not considered as a mere territory.
BUT: Ireland is an island (Ireland – it, neuter gender)
e) When abstract notions are personified, the masculine gender is given
to nouns suggesting such ideas as strength, fierceness, etc., while the
feminine is associated with the idea of gentleness, beauty, etc.
masculine: anger, death, fear, war, etc.,
feminine: spring, peace, kindness, joy, etc.

16.Noun: Article Determination.

The lexical meaning of indefinite article "a/an" is a very weak reminder of

its original meaning ( a = "one") thus it cannot be attached to a plural noun.
The invariable grammatical meaning of the indefinite article is that of
generalization. Indefinite article rather refers an object to a whole class of
similar ones without its individual peculiarities.
E.g.: A stitch in time serves nine. I consider this picture a masterpiece of
art.

The lexical meaning of definite article "the" is equivalent of this/that. The

invariable meaning of the definite article is that of restriction and
concretization.
E.g.: How do you like the (this) weather?

The definite article indicates that identification.

E.g.: Let me see the books. Who's the pretty girl?

The difference in meaning between definite and indefinite article is obvious.

They are contrasted as definiteness and indefiniteness, generalization and
concretization.
E.g.: (1) Give me a book, please. (2) Give me the book, please.
In (1) some object belonging to that particular class of objects, In (2)
individual object with its own characteristics.
The article presents many problems.
I. One of them is whether the article is a separate part of speech or it is a
"determiner" of a noun, i.e. an adjunct to the head-word as a noun.
There are two main views on the articles:
1) the article is a word (possibly a separate part of speech) and collocation
"article + noun" is a phrase of a peculiar kind;
2) the article is a form element in the system of the noun; a kind of
morpheme, or if a word, an auxiliary word of the same kind as the auxiliary
verbs.

II. The other problem is whether the article is a word or a morpheme.

Some grammarians consider the article to be a kind of a morpheme. The
absence of the article is accordingly referred to "zero-morpheme"
Other grammarians consider the article to be a word and the absence of a
word cannot be regarded as a zero word.

III. One more problem is how many articles there are in English.
Obviously, there are two material articles, the definite article "the" and the
indefinite article "a/an". The distinction thus is between, e.g., the language
and a language. However, the noun language without any article, as in the
sentence Language is a means of communication is also used. It is obvious
that the absence of the article in this sentence is in itself a means of showing
that "language in general", not any specific language.
Hence we may say that there are three variants: 1) the language, 2) a
language. 3) language. The third variant is treated as "zero article".

IV. There is one more problem concerning the meaning of the articles:
whether the article has one or several meanings, each of them appearing in a
different context.
E.g.: (I) The dog has come home (means "one individual dog")
(2) The dog is a domestic animal (means "the dog in general, as a
zoological species").
 The question is (1) whether the article itself has two distinct meanings or (2)
whether the meaning of the article is the same in both sentences and the
difference in meaning between them depends on some other factor.
According to the first view, the definite article has at least two distinct
meanings:
a) an object is singled out from all the objects of the same class;
b) the whole class of objects as distinct from other classes is referred to.
According to the second view, the definite article has one meaning only, that
of something singled out from other entities. The difference in meaning
depends on other elements in the sentence, usually on the predicate. The
verb in the present Perfect (1) more likely expresses a concrete action (one
that has taken place once), while the group "link-verb in present +
predicative" is very likely to express some general characteristics.
These grammatical points are supplemented by some lexical points. In (1)
the words come home denote a concrete physical action and the place, while
in (2) the predicative a domestic animal denotes a zoological idea.
According to this view, the meaning of the definite article itself is the same
in both sentences, and the difference proceeds from the peculiarities of the
predicates and the words expressing them. The same may be said about the
indefinite article in
(1) There is a hill behind our house.
(2) A hill is the opposite to a valley.
Variations in the use of articles and their significant absence must be
examined in the grammatical environment in which nouns occur. The
structural and lexical meaning of nouns appear involved and are inseparable.
The meaning of the article reveals itself in actual speech, i.e. in the relation
to a noun used in a given context.

17.General characteristics of the Adjective as a part of speech.

The adjective as a part of speech is characterized by the following features.

I. The lexico-grammatical (categorial) meaning of adjective is "property
of a substance" or “property of thingness”. It is considered a nominative
part of speech.
The adjective denotes material (e.g; wooden, woollen, etc.), colour (e.g. red,
blue, etc.), size (e.g, large, small, etc.), position in space (e.g., upper, inner,
etc.), physical state of persons (e.g. happy, furious, etc.) and other
characteristics both permanent and temporary.

II. Word-building distinction of the adjective includes typical suffixes and

prefixes of which the most important are:
- able, e.g., remarkable, adaptable
- ful, e.g., hopeful, powerful
- less. e.g., useless, powerless
- ish, e.g., Polish, boyish
- ous. e.g., famous, dangerous
- ive, e.g., decorative, creative,
- al/-lal, e.g., local, natural
- ic. e.g., basic, classic
- y. e.g. friendly
- like, e.g. womanlike,
- un-, e.g., unprecedented, unhappy
- in-, e.g., inaccurate, incorrect
- pre-, e.g., premature, pre-war

III. The combinability of the adjective is closely connected with its lexico-
grammatical (categorial) meaning. Adjectives are distinguished by a specific
combinability with:
- nouns, e.g., a beautiful girl, etc.;
- link-verbs, both functional and notional, e.g., …is clever, become
nervous, etc.;
- modifying adverbs, e.g., a very clever boy, etc.

IV. Syntactic functions of adjectives in the sentence are:

- an attribute, e.g., An interesting book.
- a predicative, e.g., The book is interesting.
 Of the two, the most specific function of the adjective is that of an attribute,
since the function of a predicative can be performed by a noun as well, e.g.,
He is a teacher. He is clever.

According to the morphological composition adjectives are divided into

simple, derivative and compound.
Simple adjectives are adjectives which have neither prefixes nor suffixes,
e.g., good, red, black, etc.
Derivative adjectives are adjectives which have derivative elements,
suffixes or prefixes or both, e.g., beauti-ful, blu-ish, hope-less, un-kind, un-
important, etc.
Compound adjectives are adjectives built from two or more stems, e.g.,
snow-white, life-giving, smoke-dried, etc.

Adjective, though, has neither number, nor case, nor gender distinctions. It is
distinguished only by the hybrid category of comparison.

18.Five criteria for testing the Adjective as a part of speech.

1. The meaning it expresses;

2. The typical word-forming elements
3. The kinds of modifiers it typically takes;
4. The function it characteristically performs;
5. The ways it gets inflected

19.Grammatical categories of the Adjective.

The category of number of adjectives is not expressed explicitly but

implicitly adjective is of the same number as its head noun. E.g., black dogs
(black is plural).

The category of adjectival comparison gives a relative evaluation of the

quantity of a quality. The category is constituted by the opposition of the
three forms (degrees of comparison):
1. the positive degree form – has no features of comparison, e.g., nice,
handsome;

2. the comparative degree form – has the feature of restricted superiority

(which limits the comparison to two elements only), e.g., nicer, more
handsome;

3. the superlative degree form – has the feature of unrestricted superiority,

e.g., nicest, most handsome.

With regard to the category of the degrees of comparison adjectives fall

under two lexico-grammatical subclasses: comparables (qualitative
adjectives) and non-comparables (relative adjectives). Relative adjectives
express qualities which characterize an object through its relation to another
object, e.g., a wooden hut – “a hut made of wood”.

But many adjectives considered to be relative can form degrees of

comparison, transforming the denoted relative property of a substance into
such property that can be graded quantitatively, e.g., of a military design - of
a more military design - of a less military design, etc.

Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of size, shape, colour, etc. which an

object may possess in various degrees, e.g., a pretty girl - a prettier girl, a
quick look - a quicker look, etc. The measure of a quality can be estimated
as high or low, adequate or inadequate, sufficient or insufficient, optimal or
excessive, e.g., a difficult task - too difficult task. a hearty welcome - not a
very hearty welcome, etc.

The ability of an adjective to form degrees of comparison is usually taken as

a formal sign of its qualitative character, in opposition to a relative adjective
which is understood as incapable of forming degrees of comparison by
definition.
But not all the qualitative adjectives can be compared. To such cases belong:
 1) factive adjectives: qualities that are incompatible with the idea of degrees
of comparison (state, shape, material, colour), e.g., dead, deaf, round, metal,
red etc.
2) qualities in the highest degree already expressed by the adjectives
themselves, e.g., supreme, extreme, etc.;
3) qualities indicated by the suffix -ish, e.g., reddish, bluish, etc.
Naturally all the adiectives which have no degrees of comparison are outside
the category of comparison, but they are united by the lexico-grammatical
meaning of the positive degree.
Adjectives are further subdivided into:

Evaluative adjectives: express an opinion or judgment about a quality.

Examples:
Beauty: "beautiful", "ugly", "handsome", "pretty"
Goodness: "good", "bad", "evil", "wicked"
Pleasure: "pleasant", "unpleasant", "enjoyable", "boring"
Importance: "important", "unimportant", "significant", "trivial"
An adjective can sometimes belong to multiple categories. For example,
"tallest" is both a relative (comparing height) and a superlative (indicating
the highest degree). Similarly, "boring" is both evaluative (expressing an
opinion) and factive (describing a state of being uninteresting).

20.Substantivation of Adjectives.

Adjectives can be substantivized, or in other words, converted into nouns by

conversion (zero-derivation). In English it is easier than in other languages
owing to the ancity of stem-building elements (e.g., tender, a; gender, n).

Adjectives may be substantivized fully or partially.

Fully substantivized adjectives acquire not only the lexico-grammatical

meaning of noun, but their typical morphological categories and
combinability, such as the number, the case, the gender, the article
determination, and they likewise equally perform normal nounal functions
(e.g., a young native, young moderns, etc.).
Here belong the following groups of words:
– words denoting classes of persons, such as: a native, a relative, a savage,
a progressive, a criminal, a black, a white, etc.
– words denoting periodicals, e.g.: a daily, a weekly, a monthly, etc.
– words denoting nationalities, e.g.: a Ukrainian, an American, a German,
a Greek, etc.
Partially substantivized adjectives are more frequent, e.g., the poor, the
rich, the young, etc. The mixed categorical nature of such words is evident
from their incomplete presentation of the part-of-speech characteristics of
either nouns or adjectives.

Like nouns they are used in the article form, they express the category of
number (in a relational way); but their article and number forms are rigid,
being no subject to the regular structural change, inherent in the normal
expression of these categories.
Partially substantivized adjectives fall into two main grammatical
subgroups:
– pluralia tantum, e.g., the English, the rich, the unemployed, etc.;
– singularia tantum, e.g., the invisible, the abstract, the tangible, etc.
Semantically, the words of pluralia tantum express sets of people, while the
words of singularia tantum express abstract ideas of various types and
connotations.

Partially substantivized adjectives take only the definite article, but they do
not have any other characteristics of the noun. Here belong:
1. Words denoting classes of persons who represent some feature of human
character, condition or state; these adjectives are used in a generic sense,
e.g., the good : the bad, the poor : the rich, the young : the old (the poor =
"poor people", the dead = "dead people").
2. Words denoting nationalities ending in -sh and -ch, e.g., the English, the
French, the Irish, the Welsh, the Dutch, etc.
3. Words denoting abstract notions, e.g., the beautiful, the contrary, the
unknown, the opposite, etc. These words belong to singularia luntum. A
number of such words are used in prepositional phrases, c.g.. in the negative,
 on the contrary, on the whole, for the better, in the main, in particular, in
short, etc.
4.Words denoting things, e.g., goods, sweets, valuables, etc., belong to
pluralia tantum.

There is also the question of the opposite phenomenon - that of nouns

becoming adjectives - adjectivation of nouns.
In Modem English a noun may stand before another noun and modify it.
e.g., stone wall, speech sound, peace talks, steel works, etc.

21.General characteristics of the Verb as a part of speech.

Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech.

I. Its general lexico-grammatical (categorial) meaning is "process

presented dynamically", in other words, process developing in time. This
general meaning refers to all verbs, including the verbs that denote states,
forms of existence, types of attitudes, evaluations, etc., rather than actions.
Thus, the verbs to stand, to sleep, to suffer denote states rather than actions,
but these states are present as processes developing in time and come
therefore within the far of the lexico-grammatical meaning of the verb.

II. Word-building distinction includes typical suffixes and prefixes. The

typical suffixes are:
– ate, e.g., cultivate, activate, etc.;
– en, e.g., broaden, lengthen, etc.;
– ify, e.g., clarify, notify, exemplify, etc.;
– ize, e.g., normalize, formalize, criticize, etc.
Prefixes include:
– en-/em-, e.g., enlarge, etc.;
– re-, e.g., remake, rewrite, etc.;
– over-, e.g., overestimate, etc.;
– sub-, e.g., submit, subdivide, etc.;
– mis-, e.g., misunderstand, misbehave, misinterpret, etc.;
 – dis-, e.g., disconnect, discourage, etc.;
– un-, e.g., undo, unfasten, etc..
III. The combinability of the verb is closely connected with lexico-
grammatical meaning. The processual categorial meaning of the verb
determines its characteristic combination with:
– a noun expressing both the doer of the action, its subject (e.g.: Children
so to school) and the recipient of the action, its object (e.g.: Open the
window!);
– an adverb as the modifier of the action (e.g.: Read loudly).
V. Syntactic function of verbs in the sentence is that of the predicate, e.g.,
The work is/was/will be/should be done.
The verb-predicate expresses the processual categorial features of
predication, such as time, aspect, voice, and mood.

22.Five criteria for testing the verb as a part of speech. (!!!)

1. syntactic function – predicate

2. meaning – process presented dynamically
3. the kind of modifier – adverb
4. inflections – -s, -ed
5. word-forming elements – -ize, -ify

23.Lexico-grammatical classifications of the Verb as a part of speech.

The class of verbs falls into notional and semi-notional verbs.

Notional verbs, which make the majority of English verbs, possess full
lexical meaning; connected with it is their isolatability, i.e. the ability to
make a sentence alone, e.g., Come! Listen! Their combinability is variable.
Semi-notional (functional) verbs have very general, "faded" lexical
meanings, as in be, have, seem, become, etc., where the meaning of action is
almost obliterated. Semi-notional verbs are hardly isolatable.
Their combinability is usually two-sided as they serve to connect words in
speech. They are comparatively few in number but of very frequent
occurrence.

Semi-notional verbs serve as markers of predication in the proper sense.

These "predicators" include auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, and link-verbs.

Semi-notional verbs are further subdivided into: auxiliary/modal verbs and

link-verbs.

Auxiliary verbs constitute grammatical elements of the categorial forms of

the verb, such as be, have, do, shall, will, should, would, etc.

Modal verbs are used with infinitive as predicative markers expressing

ability, obligation, permission, advisability, etc. The modal verbs can, may,
must, shall, will, should, would, etc. are supplemented by stative groups “to
be able to”, “to be to”, “to have to”, etc. Modal verbs are followed only by
infinitives even though they have two-sided relations.

Link-verbs introduce the predicative (the nominal part of the predicate),

which is commonly expressed by a noun, an adjective or a phrase. Some
link-verbs are treated as specifying link-verbs, they fall into the following
groups:
– those that express perceptions (e.g., to seem, to appear, to look to feel, to
taste, to smell, ctc.);
– those that express subject-action relational semantics (e.g., to try, to
fail, to manage, to prove, to happen, to turn ou, etc)
– those that express phasal semantics (e.g., to begin, to contima to go on,
to stop, to finish, etc.).
– those that express "factual" link-verb connection (e.g., to become to get,
to grow, lo remain, to keep, etc.).
Notional verbs undergo some classifications based on their morphological,
formal, semantic and functional properties.

A. Morphological Classification of Notional Verbs

According to this classification verbs can be divided into simple, sound-
replacive, stress-replacive, derived, compound, phrasal.
Simple verbs (e.g., go, take, read, etc.) are not numerous. Most simple verb
stems are made by conversion (e.g., book - to book, phone - to phone, etc.);
it's the most productive way of forming verb lexeme.
Sound-replacive verbs and stress-replacive verbs (sound interchange and
the change of stress) are unproductive (e.g., food - to feed, blood - to bleed).
Derived verbs are made with the suffixes: -ate (e.g., cultivate, etc.), -en (e.g.,
broaden, ete.), -ify (e.g., clarify, etc.), -ize (e.g., normalize, etc.). The verb-
deriving prefixes are of greater importance than suffixes: re- (e.g., remake,
etc.), under- (e.g., undergo, etc.), over- (e.g., overestimate, etc.), mis- (e.g.,
misunderstand, etc.)
Composite (compound) verbs are made up of two stems, e.g., to broadcast,
to blackmail, to whitewash, to proofread, etc.
Phrasal verbs are made up of a verb with a lexico-grammatical word-
morpheme attached to it, e.g., to give up, to take off, to put on, to get along,
to stand up, etc.
B. Formal Classification of Notional Verbs
According to it, verbs are divided into standard (regular) and non-standard
(irregular).
Standard (regular) verbs make up the overwhelming majority of English
verbs. The sound form of the suffix may be /-t/, /-d/ or /-id/ depending on the
final sound of the stem.
Non-standard (irregular) verbs (about 200) do not present a uniform group
forming the "past" and "past participle". Such as write-wrote-written, cut-
cut-cut, buy-bought-bought, go-went-gone.
C. Semantic Classification of Notional Verbs
Semantically notional verbs can be classified in accordance with different
criteria: aspective nature and subject process relations.
According to the aspective nature of their lexical meanings notional verbs
fall into:
terminative verbs, which denote actions that cannot develop beyond a
certain inherent limit (e.g. terminate, finish, end, conclude, solve, resolve,
sum up, stop, etc.);
durative (non-terminative, continual) verbs, which denote actions that have
no inherent limits (e.g., continue, prolong, last, live, exist, etc.);
starting (ingressive) verbs, which denote the beginning of the actions (e.g.,
begin, start, resume, set out, get down, etc.);
momentary (instantaneous) verbs, which denote actions of instantaneity that
do not develop in time (e.g., knock, bang, jump, drop burst, click, etc.);
repeated (iterative) verbs, which denote actions of repetition that are
rendered by means of lexical derivation, in particular, prefixation (e.g.,
reconsider, reread, rewrite, remake, etc.);
supercompleted / undercompleted verbs, which denote actions of over-/
undercompletion (e.g. oversimplify, underdone, underestimate. etc.).
According to the subject process relations, i.e. the relation of the subject of
the verb to the process denoted by the verb, notional verbs fall into:
– actional verbs, which express the action performed by the subject, ie.
they present the subject as an active doer (e.g., do, act, perform, make,
go, read, discover, etc.);
– statal verbs, which denote the state of their subject; they either give the
characteristics of the subject or express the mode of its existence (e.g.,
be, live, survive, worry, suffer, see, know, stand, etc.).
 D. Functional Classification of Notional Verbs
Verbs are divided into:
– subjective verbs, which are associated only with nouns denoting the
subject of the action (e.g., sit, lie, etc.).
– objective verbs, which are mostly associated with two nouns (or noun
equivalents) denoting the subject and the object of the action named by
the verb (e.g., read, write, look for, listen to, etc.).
Objective verbs which take a direct object (which is joined "directly",
without a preposition) are called transitive (c.g., send, get, translate, etc.); all
the other verbs, both subjective and objective, are called intransitive (e.g.,
act, function, hesitate, laugh at, look at, etc.).
24.The Verb: the category of person and number.

These categories differ from the rest of morphological categories of the verb
because they express not procession, but substantial semantics thus
correlating the predicate of the sentence with its subject. For example, -s –
the 3rd person, singular number. “He takes some books from the shelf.” A
noun in singular which correlates with a 3rd person pronoun.

The category of person expresses the relation between the speaker, the
person or persons addressed and other persons and things. The category of
person in verbs is represented by 1st (“I”), 2nd (“you”) and 3rd persons (“he”,
“she”, “it”, “they”).
The expression of the category of person is realized only the singular form
of the verb in the present and future tense. In the present tense, the
expression of person may be realized in 3 different ways:
1. We have regular expression of person by means of the inflexion –(e)s,
e.g., the wind blows. The ‘s’ inflection in verbs conveys 4 meanings: 3rd
person; singular number; present tense; indicative mood.
2. The verb ‘to be’ has specific forms of person. It has the form "am" for the
1st person and "is" for the 3rd. The verb does not have special forms of
the second person, since the form "are" may correlate not only with 2nd
 person pronouns, but also with | s | (we are) and 3rd person (they are)
plural pronouns.
3. Modal verbs that have no personal inflections: can, may, must, shall, will,
ought, need, dare.
In the future tense, the category of person is expressed through the
opposition of shall (for 1st pers.) and will (for the 2nd and 3rd pers.)
As for the past tense, the person is alien to it.
The category of number expresses the quantity of the subjects (one or more
than one). The category of number is expressed in the English verb only in
the present tense forms and only together with person distinctions. For
example, he goes (Singular), they go (Plural).
The singular number is expressed by “am” and “is”, forms of the verb “be”.
The form “are” is correlated both with the singular and plural nouns (you are
and they are).
In past tense, the singular number is expressed by the form “was”. The form
“were” is used both for singular and plural. (you were, they were).
25.The Verb: the category of tense.

The category of tense in English expresses the relationship between the time
of the action and the time of speaking. The time that follows the time of
speaking is designated as future time; the time that precedes the time of
speaking is designated as past time. Accordingly, there are 3 tenses in
English:
1) The present tense
2) The future tense
3) The past tense
Present is non-marked. Past and future are marked by their grammatical
meaning (past and future activity). They are also marked functionally (past
and future occur more seldom).
In fact, all lexical expressions of time are divided into absolutive (present-
oriented) and non-absolutive (non-present-oriented) expressions of time.
Absolutive expressions of time are further subdivided into present, past,
and future. Non-absolutive time denotation falls into relative time
denotation and factual time denotation. Thus, relative expression of time
shows two or more events as preceding the others, following the others or
simultaneous (happening at the same time with them) (e.g., after that,
before that, a week later). The factual expression of time either directly
states the astronomical time of an even, or conveys this meaning in terms of
historical landmarks (e.g., in the year 1991, during the time of the First
World War).
Grammatical time proper divides time into primary time and prospective
time. Both answer the question: “What is the timing of the process?” The
category of primary time refers the time of the process denoted by the verb
to the moment of speech. The opposition is rendered by the formula “the
past tense (marked) – the present tense (unmarked)”. The specific feature of
the category of primary time is that it divides all the tense forms into the
plane of the present and the plane of the past. The category of prospective
time is expressed in combinations of the verbs shall and will with the
infinitive. Thus, the future is relative to the primary time – either present or
past. While the primary time is absolutive, present-oriented, the prospective
time is purely relative. As a result, the expression of the future receives two
manifestations: manifestation for the present time-plane (will read, will be
reading), the other manifestation for the past-time plane (would read, would
be reading). The contrast lies in after-action and non-after-action.
While the category of primary time, having the past tense as its strong
member, expresses a direct retrospective evaluation of the time of the
process, fixing the process either in the past or not in the past; the category
of prospective time, whose strong member is the future tense, gives the
timing of the process a prospective evaluation, fixing it either in the future or
not in the future.
Time – an objective category
Tense – a verbal category
26.The Verb: the category of aspect.

There are two aspective categories in the English language:

– the category of development with the opposition of the continuous
(progressive) form (marked component) and non-continuous(indefinite,
simple) form (unmarked component). (to work – to be working, has
worked – has been working)
– the category of retrospect with opposition of the perfect form (marked)
and non-perfect form (unmarked) (to arrive – to have arrived, to be
studying – to have been studying)
The aspective meaning of the verb, as different from temporal meaning,
reflects the realization of the process irrespective of its timing.
The aspective category of development shows the character of the action, in
other words, whether the action is taken in its progress, in its development
(continuous) or it is simply stated (non-continuous).
Some verbs do not occur in continuous:
– verbs presenting diverse relations as actions, e.g., belong, contain,
consist, possess, resemble, result, etc.;
– certain link-verbs, mostly those of "seeming", e.g., appear. look,
prove, seem, turn out, etc.
– verbs of "physical perception", e.g., see, hear, feel, smell, etc denoting
constant properties viewed as actions;
– verbs of "mental perceptions", e.g., believe, dislike, distrust, hate,
hope, know, like, trust, understand, etc. which are veros of weak dynamic
force;
– "point-action" verbs denoting instantaneous acts of a very short
duration, e.g., burst, jump, drop, etc.
The category of perfect or retrospective coordination is a special verb
category which is based on two oppositions: Perfect – non-Perfect; Perfect
Continuous – Continuous. Perfect forms include the auxiliary verb “have”
 and Participle II or when modified by the category of aspect, they also
include Participle I.

27.The Verb: the category of voice.

The grammatical category of voice shows the relation between the action and
its subject indicating whether the action is performed by the subject (the active
voice, e.g. I wrote a letter) or passes on to it (the passive voice, A letter was
written by me).
The category of voice is the system of two-member opposemes: the passive
form (be … en), which is the marked member of the opposition, and the active
form, which is unmarked (e.g., writes - is written, writing - is being written, has
written - has been written, etc.).
Accordingly, there are two voices in English: the active and the passive. The
active voice shows that the action is performed by its subject, that the subject is
the doer of the action (e.g. I wrote a letter.). The passive voice shows that the
subject is acted upon; that it is the recipient of the action (e.g.: A letter was
written by me).
As a rule, the passive construction is used when:
– there is no need to mention the agent of the action because it is easily
understood from the situation or context (e.g.: The ambulance arrived and
she was taken to hospital.);
– the agent of the action is self-evident (e.g.: The telegram had been
delivered in time.);
– it happens to be any number of unidentified people (e.g.: In industry coal
is now used much less than before.);
– the agent of the action is not known or kept secret for a purpose (e.g.: At
night his car was broken into and a few things were stolen from it.)
The category of voice has a much broader representation in the system of the
English verb than in the system of the Ukrainian verb, since in English not
only transitive, but also intransitive objective verbs including prepositional
ones can be used in the passive.
Further distinction can be made:
– direct or primary passive - the subject of the passive, construction
corresponds to the direct object of the verb (I wrote a letter. - A letter was
written by me); the direct passive is fairly common in sentence-patterns
with the anticipatory “It”, e.g.: It was agreed the we should make such
experiments.
– indirect or secondary passive - the subject of the passive construction
corresponds to the indirect object (e.g. I gave him in book. -He was given
the book.);
– tertiary or prepositional passive - the subject of the passive construction
corresponds to the prepositional object (e.g.: He was sent for and taken
care of). The prepositional passive is not used with verbs which take two
objects, direct and prepositional (e.g., to explain smth to smb, to point
out, to announce, to dedicate, to say, to suggest to propose, etc.). They
can have only a direct construction (e.g.: The difficulty was explained to
them. The mistake to the rule was pointed out to the man.).
Verbs denoting weak dynamic force (statal verbs), such as have, cost,
belong, resemble, possess, own, etc. are no used in the passive voice.
Thus all verbs can be divided into:
– the set of passivized verbs, i.e. those having voice opposites;
– the set of non-passivized verbs, i.e. those having no voice opposites.
Any other voices??? Raise doubts and controversy:
– the reflexive voice (eq.He dressed himself) – the agent and the object of
the action simultaneously ;
– the reciprocal voice (They greeted each other) – not 1 person; action
aimed at the other member of the same group;
– the middle voice (The door opened) – the form of the v is act, but the
meaning is passive.
Opinions differ as to the voice system of Modern English. Though most
linguists recognize only two voices in Modern English.
28.The Verb: the category of mood.
Mood denotes the speaker’s attitude to the certain fact or state being described
in a sentence and allows differentiating whether it is a desire, a command, or
just a state of things. It stands together with grammatical Aspect, Voice and
Tense.
The action denoted by the verb may be presented as a fact that realy happened,
happens or wil happen (e.g., listened, listens, listen, will listen, etc.), or as an
imaginary phenomenon (eg., would listen, would have listened, etc.).
Thus, the category of mood is constituted by the forms of direct mood
meaning, i.e. those of reality (the weak member of the opposition) and oblique
mood meaning, i.e. those of unreality (the strong member of the opposition).
The most common view is that in Modern English there are three moods:
Indicative, Subjunctive and Imperative.
The Indicative Mood is the basic mood of the verb. Morphological it is the
most developed system including all the categories of the verb. Semantically it
is a fact mood. It presents an action as a fact of reality.
Eg.: I am a student. We have never heard of it. I go jogging every day at 7 in
the morning.
The Imperative Mood represents an action as a request or command (e.g.:
Send me your letter! Look at me! Give them your notes.). It is a direct
expression of one's will. Therefore it is much more "subjective" than the
indicative mood. Its modal meaning is very strong and distinct.
The Imperative mood is morphologically the least developed of all moods. It
has no person, number, tense, or aspect distinctions, and it is limited in its use to
one type of sentence only, imperative sentences.
Most usually a verb in the imperative has no pronoun acting as subject.
However, the pronoun may be used in emotional speech (e.g.: Don't you do it!),
expressing intensity, emphasis.
E.g.: She has been quite a success, and don't you forget it! (anger)
Come along everybody! (annoyance)
Don't you go telling Mother about it! (impatience)
And don't you be forgetting about it! (scorn), etc.
Though the system of the Imperative Mood does not contain "person"
opposemes, all of the forms are united by the meaning of the "second person"
because the speaker addresses his orders or requests to his interlocutor (the
second person). Thus, the meaning of "second person" is a lexico-grammatical
meaning common to all the imperative mood forms.
The Subjunctive Mood represents an action as a non-fact, as something unreal,
imaginary, desirable, suppositional, which is contrary to reality.
Subjunctive mood is further subdivided into Subjunctive I, Subjunctive II,
Conditional and Suppositional.
Subjunctive I presents the mood of attitudes. Besides desire, it also expresses
supposition, speculation, suggestion, recommendation, inducement of various
degrees or insistence including commands. The forms are "Vo" for all the
persons (e.g., be, have, go, read, etc.). It is used in elevated prose, in slogans, in
standardized phrases.
E.g.: So be it. Be it as you wish. Be what may. Happen what may. We suggest
that the meeting be postponed. It is necessary that he go to the hospital.
Subjunctive II is not a mood of attitudes. Rather, it is a mood of reasoning by
the rule of contraries, the contraries being the situations of reality opposed to
the corresponding situations of unreality.
Subjunctive Il is used in two forms:
- the present (the imperfect) "V2, ed/were" (for all persons) which denotes the
relative present (simultaneity and posteriority), I wish you were here
- the past (the perfect) "had + V3/ed" which denotes the relative past (priority in
the present and past), if I had known, I should have acted differently.
The most typical use of Subjunctive II is connected with the expression of
unreal actions in conditional clauses, in constructions of concession and
comparison, expressions of wish introduced independently and in object
clauses. For example, I wish he could have come, It is high time the right key to
the problem were found.
Conditional Mood expresses "dependent unreality": the realization of the
action depends on the condition expressed in the subordinate clause ("if-
clause"). It is mainly used in the principal claust of a complex sentence with a
subordinate clause of unreal conditor or in simple sentences (e.g.: He would be
here by now: he may hat missed his train). Actually Conditional Mood
expresses consequent: of the condition expressed by Subjunctive II.
Conditional Mood is used in two forms:
– present "should / would + Vo" which denotes simultaneity an
posteriority;
– past “should/ would have + V3/ed" which denotes priority in the present
and past.
Conditional Mood is mainly used in the principal clause of a complex sentence
with a subordinate clause of unreal condition or in simple sentences, e.g.: How
would you solve this problem?
Conditional mood expresses sth that would happen if certain circumstances
happen. Subjunctive mood is used to discuss sth that is uncertain or is
hypothetical.
Suppositional Mood expresses attitude of different kind, supposition,
speculation, suggestion, inducements, recommendation of different degrees of
intensity.
It is the combination "should + Vo" for all the persons which is used in various
subordinate predicative units.
E.g.: Whatever they should say of the project it must be considered seriously. It
has been arranged that the delegation should be received by the President.
The timing of the process is expressed by imperfect ("should + Vo") and perfect
("should have + V3/-ed) forms.
E.g.: Should it be so or otherwise, I see no purpose in our argument.
(simultaneity in the present). Should it have been otherwise, there might have
been some purpose in our argument. (priority in the present).

29.Non-finite forms of the English verbs.

Verbals (infinitive, gerund, participle I, participle II) make up a part of the
English verb system. The verbals have some features in common with the finite
forms and have some peculiarities distinguishing them from the finite verb.
The distinction between the finite forms of the verb and the verbals is as
follows:
– the finite forms of the verb have always a subject with which they agree
in number and person; the verbals are not restricted in number a person
by any grammatical subject;
– the verbals have no mood distinctions;
– the verbals cannot express predication by themselves;
– the verbals can be only part of the predicate and they must always be in
connection with finite forms of the verb.
Common features of finite and non-finite forms of the verb are as follows:
– the verbals have voice and tense distinctions;
– the tenses of the finite forms indicate the time of the action; the forms that are
called "tenses" in the verbals comprise relative time indication they usually
indicate whether the action expressed by the verbal:
a) coincides with the action of the finite forms of the verb (in the present, past
or future), e.g.: He comes to help. He came to help.
b) is prior to the action of the finite forms of the verb (in tha present, past or
future), e.g.: They were glad of our having done the work.
 – aspect is one of the verb characteristics of the infinitive, e.g., to work – to be
working, to have worked – to have been working, etc.
I. The lexico-grammatical meaning of verbals is of dual nature. The processual
meaning is exposed by them in a substantive or adjectival-adverbial interpretation:
they render processes as peculiar kinds of substances and properties. The verbal
meaning of "action, proces" is presenting as some kind of "substance" (gerund,
infinitive) or "quality" (participle). The gerund denotes an action partially treated
as a substance. e.g. Going there put an end to her anxiety. The same is with the
infinitive. The participle denotes a qualifying, i.e. as action presented as a property
of some substance (like an adjective) or a circumstance of another action (like an
adverb) e.g. He looked at his son with shining eyes.

II. Peculiar morphemes. Verbals are marked by specific morphemes that set them
apart. Suffixes like "-ing" for gerunds and participle I, and "-ed" or "-en" for
participle II, distinguish them from finite verbs. They serve as group markers,
identifying a specific form within the verb class. (ing – serves to oppose gerunds
from non-gerunds)
Infinitive marker “to”
When “to” appears with an infinitive, it is generally referred to as an “infinitive
marker” or “infinitive particle”; it is not part of the verb and is not always used.
Two uses of the infinitive:
(a) “the to-infinitive,” in which “to” is described as a “particle,” and
(b) “the bare or simple or plain infinitive.”

III. There is a duality in the combinability of verbals.

The infinitive displays verb-type combinability with nouns expressing the object of
the action. The teacher arranged to write an additional test.
The gerund, like a noun may be preceded by a preposition and a possessive
pronoun. One could see that without his even speaking.
The participle, like an adjective is regularly connected with nouns (a reading boy)
and like a verb, it is joined with adverbs. Trying very hard, they won.

IV. Syntactic functions: While the finite forms perform in the sentence only one
syntactic function, namely, that of the finite predicate, the non-finite forms serve
various syntactic functions but not the finite predicate.
The infinitive:
1. Subject
An infinitive can constitute the subject of a sentence. For example, in “To go, even
after all that trouble, didn’t seem worthwhile anymore,” “to go” is the action that
drives the sentence.
2. Direct Object
In the sentence “We all want to see,” “to see” is the direct object, the noun (or
noun substitute) that receives the action of the verb. “To see” refers to a thing
being done — or, in this case, desired to be done: the act of seeing.
3. Predicative
In “My goal is to write,” “to write” is a predicative, where the verb is a copular, or
linking, verb — one that links a subject to a word or phrase that complements it.
4. Attribute
In “She didn’t have permission to go,” “to go” modifies permission — it describes
what type of permission is being discussed — so the phrase serves as an attribute.
5. Adverbial modifier
In “He took the psychology class to try to understand human behavior,” “to
understand (human behavior)” explains why the taking of the class occurred, so it’s
an adverbial modifier modifying the verb took.
The gerund:
Subject: works like a noun, thus it can function as a subject of a verb in the
sentence. Singing is my passion.
Object: gerund also acts as the complement of a verb in a sentence. He is used to
being the center of attention
Predicative. Go on reading
Attribute. She had a feeling of being cheated
Adverbial modifier. In spite of being busy he is reading a lot
Participle I:
The predicative. He is making so much money as possible
The attribute. People shouting outside are the party workers
The adverbial modifier. They will have trouble selling these goods

One of the peculiarities of the verbals is their usage as secondary predicates.

Structures of secondary predication
Infinitive is used in semi-predicative constructions of the complex object and
complex subject.
Complex Object - We have never heard Tom play the piano
Complex Subject – Tom has never been heard to play the piano.
Gerund may function as:
Complex Object - We heard of the bridge having been destroyed
Complex Subject - His being rude like that is disgusting
Participle I may also function as:
Complex Object - We saw the man cross the street
Absolute participle constructions make a particular form of the adverbial
modifying phrase. The wind failing, we lowered the sail.
Participle II also functions as:
Complex Object - I want the document prepared
Complex Subject - The task fulfilled, it became possible to solve the problem
Absolute complex - I have the windows cleaned

V. The system of verbal categories is peculiar. None of the verbals has the
categories of tense, mood, person and number. All of them have the categories of
correlation and voice; the infinitive has the category of aspect.
The infinitive distinguishes the three grammatical categories:
– aspective category of development: to write – to be writing, to have
written – to have been writing
– aspective category of retrospective coordination: to write – to have
written, to be writing – to have been writing
– the category of voice: to write – to be written, to have written – to have
been written
The gerund distinguishes 2 categories:
– the aspective category of retrospective coordination: writing –having
written, being written – having been written
– the category of voice: writing – having written, being written – having
been written
Participle I distinguishes same grammatical categories, those of retrospective
coordination and voice.
Participle II is a single form with no paradigm of its own.
30.Syntax as a subdivision of grammar. The basic notions of syntax.
Syntax refers to the ways in which we order words to create logical,
meaningful sentences.
While the word classes are all the different types of words that we can use,
syntax is the set of rules, patterns, or processes by which we can put them
together.
The vert term syntax refers to:
1) rules of using words in the right place – that is where a word appears in the
sentence;
2) rules of language that determine how a word relates to other words in that
sentence;
3) rules that explain how to construct grammatically-correct sentences.
The basic notions of syntax are:
– Syntactic units
– Syntactic meaning
– Syntactic form
– Syntactic function
– Syntactic position
– Syntactic relations
– Syntactic connections
– Syntactic structures

1. Syntactic units
Syntactic units are the highest structural units of language which possess
communicative value. They are hierarchically arranged; the main subdivision is
into phrase-level and sentence-level; the sublevels of communicative and non-
communicative units. The sublevel of non-communicative units – phrase-level
– is represented by word-forms and word-groups (phrases). The sublevel of
communicative units – sentence level – is represented by a clause and a
sentence (simple and composite). Syntactic units are bilateral and have two
sides: the syntactic meaning and the expression side – the syntactic form.
2. Syntactic meaning and syntactic form
The syntactic meaning is the way in which separate word meanings are
combined to produce meaningful phrases and sentences. Syntactic meaning is
rendered by the meaning of:
– the structure of the unit;
– the relations between constituents of syntactic units;
– the classes of words which realize syntactic and lexical valency.
The syntactic forms are the patterns, schemes, distributional formulas of the
syntactic units, e.g., the syntactic form of the sentence Mary is writing a letter is
represented by the scheme (syntactic form) N1 + V + N2.
3. Syntactic Function and Syntactic Position
Syntactic function is the function of a syntactic unit (a word-form, a phrase
and a sentence) within a larger syntactic unit, e.g., the syntactic function of an
attribute in cold weather or the syntactic function of the subject in The weather
is fine. In traditional terms it is used to denote syntactic function of a unit within
the sentence (subject, predicate, etc.).
Syntactic position is the position of a syntactic unit within a larger syntactic
unit; the order of syntactic units is of principal importance in analytical
languages, e.g., my book, we book the tickets.
4. Syntactic Relations and Syntactic Connections
Syntagmatic relations in syntax can be defined as syntactic relations, though
the notion of "syntagmatic relations" is wider than "syntactic relations" as the
syntagmatic relations are observed at different language levels.
The two relational notions should be strictly differentiated: syntactic relation
(content) and syntactic connection (expression). They must be considered in
parallel or even in correlation because they represent the two sides of one and
the same phenomenon: syntactic connection is the actualization and
manifestation of syntactic relations, and syntactic relations are considered to be
the matters of content which are formalized by syntactic connections.
Types of syntactic relations between the components of a phrase are that of
agreement, government, adjoinment and enclose. Types of syntactic
relations between the components of a sentence are independence (parataxis),
dependence (hypotaxis) and interdependence (predication).
Syntactic relations are formalized and realized through syntactic connections.
There are 3 main types of syntactic connection: coordination, subordination
and predication. Forms of coordinative connections are: copulative,
disjunctive, adversative, causative-consecutive. Subordination may be of three
 types: objective, attributive, adverbial. And predication may be of two types:
primary and secondary.

31.Main syntactic theories.

There are such syntactic theories as:
 Categorial Syntax studies ways of parts of speech combination.
o It is about how different types of words (like nouns, verbs, adjectives)
combine to make phrases or word groups. In English, certain combinations
are common (like Nouns + Nouns or Adjectives + Nouns), but some are not
allowed (like Adjectives + Nouns).
For example, we say "world peace" or "good idea," but we don't say "good world"
in modern English. These rules help us understand how words can fit together
correctly.
 Structural Syntax studies the structure of syntactic units.
o It focuses on understanding the hierarchical and structural relationships
between different elements in a sentence, such as words, phrases, and
clauses.
o The goal is to analyze how these components come together to form
grammatically correct and meaningful structures.
Example: "The cat sleeps."
In this simple sentence, there is a clear subject ("The cat") and a predicate
("sleeps"). The structural syntax focuses on understanding how these components
are organized to convey a complete thought.

 Transformational-Generative Syntax (Generative Syntax) reveals

mechanism of sentence generation.
o Transformational grammar is a way of understanding how sentences are
built and related in a language. It looks at the different parts of a sentence
and how sentences can be transformed to express relationships. It uses rules
 to describe these connections and show how sentences in a language are
related to each other.
Example: the active sentence “John read the book” with its corresponding passive,
“The book was read by John.” The statement “George saw Mary” is related to the
corresponding questions, “Whom [or who] did George see?” and “Who saw
Mary?”.

 Functional Syntax (Actual Syntax, Functional Sentence Perspective) deals

with functional sentence perspective, or actual division of the utterance
(theme/"topic"- rheme / "comment").
o (Functional Syntax looks at how sentences function by dividing them into
two parts: the theme (or "topic"), which is what's known or already
mentioned, and the rheme (or "comment"), which introduces new
information. It's about understanding how sentences are structured to
convey meaning effectively.)
Example: "The cat caught a mouse."
Theme (Topic): "The cat" (known information)
Rheme (Comment): "caught a mouse" (new information)

 Communicative Syntax is concerned with the analysis of utterances from

the point of their communicative value and informative structure.
(Communicative Syntax looks at sentences to understand how they share
information. It focuses on how sentences communicate and what
information they provide).
o Communicative syntax looks at sentences based on how they communicate
information. It divides sentences into two parts: theme and rheme. The
theme is what's already known, and the rheme is new information. In "John
is at home," "John" is the theme (known), and "is at home" is the rheme
(new).
Depending on context, any sentence part can be the theme or rheme. For example,
in "Who is at home?" and "Where is John?" the themes and rhemes change, but the
idea is the same.

 Pragmatic Syntax studies the relations between the language signs and their
users.
o It is the study of the way language is used in particular contexts to achieve
particular goals.
Example of pragmatics in language would be if one person asked, "What do you
want to eat?" and another responded, "Ice cream is good this time of year." The
second person did not explicitly say what they wanted to eat, but their statement
implies that they want to eat ice cream.

32.The system of syntactic units.

Syntactic units are the highest structural units of language which possess
communicative value. They are hierarchically arranged; the main subdivision is
into phrase-level and sentence-level; the sublevels of communicative and non-
communicative units. The sublevel of non-communicative units – phrase-level
– is represented by word-forms and word-groups (phrases). The sublevel of
communicative units – sentence level – is represented by a clause and a
sentence (simple and composite). Syntactic units are bilateral and have two
sides: the syntactic meaning and the expression side – the syntactic form.

33.Types of syntactic relations between the components of a sentence.

Syntactic relations exist between the components of a phrase and between the
components of a sentence.
Types of syntactic relations between the components of a phrase are
distinguished according to the form of the subordinate word:
– the form is changed – agreement (e.g., that pen - those pens, etc.) and
government (e.g., tell him, etc.);
 – the form is not changed – adjoinment (e.g., to think carefully, to work
hard), and enclosure/nesting (e.g.: Evidently, he is at home.).
Types of syntactic relations between the components of a sentence are:
– syntactic relations of independence (parataxis), e.g.: There was no
immediate answer, but presently I heard my name again.
– syntactic relations of dependence (hypotaxis), e.g.: Vincent knew that
his sketches from life were not all what they should have been.
– syntactic relations of interdependence (predication) represent the
relations:

on the sentence level between the subject and the predicate (e.g.: She
smiled; her smile was really very sweet) and

on the phrase level between non-finite forms of the verb and nominal
elements within a sentence (e.g.: I never saw a woman so altered, her
mouth moving).

34.Syntactic structures.
There are 4 main types of syntactic structures: coordination, predication
complementation and modification.
Structures of Coordination consist of two or more immediate constituents
which are equavalent units joined in a structure which function as a single unit.
E.g., This thought broke her down, and she wandered away.
[Forms of coordinative connection may be:
– Copulative, e.g., parents and children; It was high summer, and the hay
harvest was almost over.
– Disjunctive, e.g., he or she; You'll either sail this boat correctly, never go
out with me again.
– Adversative, e.g., strict but just; All rooms were brightly lighted, but
there seemed to be complete silence in the house.
 – Causative-consecutive, e.g., She often enjoyed Ann’s company, yet the
child made her nervous. ]

Structures of Predication consist of two immediate constituents a subject and

a predicate.
E.g., the sun sets in the west.

Predication which manifests syntactic relations of interdependence may be of

two types:
– primary- sentence level, between the subject and the predicate, e.g.: Her
smile was friendly. Their smiles were friendly.
– secondary - phrase level, between non-finite forms of the verb and
nominal elements within a sentence, e.g., the weather permitting, for him
to do, the delegation <...> to have arrived, etc.
Complementation
Structures of Complementation consist of two immediate constituents a
verbal elements and a complement.
The structure of complementation refers to the different complements that
linking and transitive predicate verbs may take to complete the comment that
they make about the subject.
The basic structure of complementation is verb + complement. There are
four patterns of this structure namely:
1. [Subject + Linking Verb + Subjective Complement]
There are three components in this pattern: subject, linking verb and
complement.The complement may either be a noun or an adjective.
E.g., these jeans (subject) are (link-verb) expensive (adj; complement)
These jeans (subject) are (link-verb) the product of the US. (noun;
complement)
 2. [Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object]
The components of this pattern are the subject, transitive verb and direct
object.
E.g., most students (subject) read (transitive verb) magazines and
newspapers. (direct object)
3. [Subject + Transitive Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object]
This pattern uses two objects. The first tells to whom the action is done
which is the direct object, the other comes between the verb and the direct
object which is the indirect object.

4. [Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object + Object Complement]

The pattern consisting of subject, transitive verb, direct object and object
complement, which may be a noun or an adjective.
Modification
Structures of modification consist of two immediate constituents a head
and a modifier.
E.g., hungry(modifier) people(head)
Modification is a syntactic construction in which one grammatical element
(e.g., a noun) is accompanied (or modified) by another (e.g., an adjective).
The first grammatical element is called the head (or headword). The
accompanying element is called a modifier.
To determine if a word or phrase is a modifier, one of the easiest tests is to
see if the larger segment (phrase, sentence, etc.) makes sense without it. If it
does, the element you're testing is probably a modifier. If it doesn't make
sense without it, it's probably not a modifier.
35.The sentence. Approaches to the definition.

The sentence is the main syntactic unit and the highest linguistic form which
may occur as a part of the super syntactic structural forms.
One of the most important questions concerning the sentence which remains
disputable to this day is the definition of the sentence as a linguistic unit. It
has been noted in grammar books that there exist more than three hundred
definitions of the sentence but it seems hardly possible to arrive at a
complete and exhaustive definition of the sentence because the unit itself
possesses so many specific features that any attempt to define it would seem
defective.
There are two aspects in the general characterization of the sentence:
lingual (internal, structural) and extralingual (external, communicative).
The definition should include the points of both approaches.
a) The sentence is identified as a syntactic level unit possessing the
distinguishing features of such level-units and occupying its appropriate
place in the hierarchy of syntactic units.
b) The sentence is a predicative unit of quite a definite type which is a
lingual representation of predicative thoughts.
c) The sentence is a complex language sign having content and expression
sides.
d) The sentence is a very complex linguistic entity. Its complexity is
revealed both in its content and expression sides. The content of the sentence
is the complex of semantic features; the expression - the complex of its
formal characteristics.
e) The sentence is the minimal communicative unit of human language
with the help of which speech communication is achieved, and without
which that latter is inconsistent. The communicative force of the sentence is
its distinguishing qualitative characteristics which makes it dominant over
the rest of syntactic units of non-predicative and of predicative nature.

The external (extralingual) approach to the definition of the sentence

makes linguists concentrate their attention on the relation of the unit under
consideration to extralingual phenomena and on its functional design. On
the basis of this assumption the sentence is characterized and classified
accordingly as a predicative unit of language having direct relation to the
predicative of thought.
 The other definition of the sentence is its characterization with regard to its
functional design in the process of speech communication. From this point
of view the sentence is considered as a communicative unit and its
communicative types are distinguished accordingly.
The internal (lingual) approach to the definition of the sentence
presupposes its linguistic characterization with regard to its structural and
semantic properties.

The sentence may be approached from the viewpoint of logic or meaning, of

phonetic criteria or style, and of grammar.
In terms of meaning, the sentence is traditionally defined as the expression
of a complete thought. But this seems to be open to discussion because
completeness is, in fact, very relative and depends largely on the purpose of
the speaker or writer as well as on the context, linguistic or situational.

The concepts of structural grammar are based on grammatical and

phonetic criteria. Its authors develop the principles suggested by L.
Bloomfield - the concept of endocentric and exocentric phrases as sentence
elements and the immediate constituents analysis.

The principle of transformational grammar is that the whole grammar of

a language constitutes a definition of the sentence.

The traditional definition states that the sentence is a group of words

expressing a complete thought. Today it is being criticized on the ground
that the sentence can be one word and not a complete thought.

Suggested definition: sentence is a communicative unit made up of words

(or one word) in conformity with their semantic and grammatical
combinability and structurally united by predicativity.

36.Types of sentences.

Sentences can be classified according to:

– the nature of predication: one member (nominal) two members senteces
 – the type of communication: declarative, interrogative, imperative,
exclamatory
– the structure: simple and composite (compound – complex)

One-member sentences have only one principal part of the sentence (Hello!
Thanks!); two-member sentences contain both the subject and the predicate
(full predication).
Since predicativity is the main distinctive feature of the sentence, it would be
logical to use it as the basis for a most general classification of sentences
into sentences-proper and quasi-sentences.
Sentences proper (=just sentences) are characterized by predicative while
quasi-sentences are not.
Quasi sentences serve to express:
– address (vocative, e.g.: John!)
– emotion (interjective, e.g.: Oh!)
– establishing or terminating speech contact (metacommunicative, e.g.:
Good day!)

Quasi-sentences are called sentences due to their: ability to substitute a

sentence (take its position in a speech chain); discreteness; intonation
properties.

Hence they:
 do not have a nominative meaning (just evaluative)
 are context dependant
 are easily substituted by non-verbal signals (John! - Yak! Hi!)
 can be combined (Oh, John!)
 can be emotionally coloured (become exclamatory)
As the sentence is a communicative unit, the primary classification of
sentences is based on the communicative principle. This principle is
formulated in traditional grammar as the “purpose of communication”.
The following types are distinguished:
a) The declarative sentence which expresses a statement, either affirmative
or negative, e.g.: The wind had cleared the mist and the stars were shining.
b) The interrogative sentence which expresses a question. They may be
subdivided into:
[- sentences expressing a certain thought, confirming or negating what has
been asked by the speaker, e.g.: Do you like that?- No.
- sentences requiring additional information about the thing asked, e.g.: Why
did you go together? The interrogative sentence is connected with an
answer, forming together with it a question-answer dialogue unity.]
c) The imperative sentence which expresses requests and commands. e.g.:
Let’s go and sit down there.
d) The optative sentence which deals with the volitional (волюнтативне)
attitude of the speaker to a certain event. The desire of the subject of optative
sentences remains unrealized, while imperative sentence are aimed at its
realization, e.g.: If John only left!
 According to their structure, sentences may be simple and composite.
Sentences with only one predication are called simple, those with more than
one predication are called composite.

37.Predicativity and modality as sentence-forming categories.

Sentence is the basic unit of communication distinguished from all other

units by its predicativity. Predicativity is an essential part of the content of
the sentence as intonation is of its form. Hence intonation may be regarded
as the structural form and predicativity as the structural meaning of the
sentence.

Predicativity - reference to speech situation which includes the act of speech,

the speaker and reality, distinguishes the sentence as the basic unit of
communication from all other linguistic units.

(то для загального розуміння Предикативність - співвіднесеність

змісту речення з об'єктивною дійсністю. Завдяки цій ознаці зміст
речення трактується як реальний, можливий, бажаний тощо: Він
читає книжку. Він, можливо, читатиме. Читай книжку! (Читав би
ти:).
Головним носієм предикативності є присудок. Предикативність
формується граматичним значенням модальності, способу і часу.)

The centre of predication in a sentence of verbal type is a finite verb

(особові дієслова) which expresses essential predicative meaning by its
categorical forms, first of all, the categories of tense and mood(спосіб). But
predication is also affected by all other forms and elements of a sentence,
such as intonation, word order, different functional verbs.
The general semantic category of modality also expresses the connection
between the named objects and surrounding reality. However modality is
different from predication, it is not specifically confined to the sentence, this
is a broader category revealed both in the grammatical elements of the
language and its lexical, purely nominative elements (modal words, modal
verbs, mood). Predication proper expresses only syntactic modality as the
fundamental distinguishing feature of a sentence.

Predicativity- the correlation of the thought expressed in the sentence with

the situation of speech. Its components are modality, time and person,
expressed by the categories of mood, tense and person.
Means of expressing predicativity: predicate verb, subject-predicate group
(predication), intonation. Predication constitutes the basic structure of the
sentence. A sentence may contain primary and secondary predication. I
 heard someone singing. The group someone singing is called the secondary
predication, as it resembles the subject-predicate group (= the primary
predication), structurally and semantically: it consists of two main
components, nominal and verbal, and names an event or situation. But it
cannot be correlated with reality directly and cannot constitute an
independent unit of communication, as verbals have no categories of mood,
tense and person. The secondary predication is related to the situation of
speech indirectly, through the primary predications.

So, the correlation of the thought expressed in the sentence with the situation
of speech is called predicativity. It’s property of the sentence. It’s a sort of
syntactic relations exciting between the Subject and the Predicate.

It’s consisted by 3 components:

 Modality – the category of Mood }
 Time – the category of Tense} Predicate Verb
 Person- the category of Person }

The boy has laughed out loudly.

The predicative category of person (first, second, third) finds its expression
either in the inflection of the verbal component (e.g. the inflection -s signals
the third person singular in the present indefinite) or in the nominal
component. When the nominal component is expressed by a personal
pronoun, it serves as a lexical exponent of the predicative category of
person. When the nominal component is expressed by a noun or a pronoun
that does not distinguish persons, they serve as onomaseological exponents
of the third person, common to the class of things [E. Krivchenko].

The predicative categories of objective modality and tense find their

expression in the verbal component of predication. According to G.A.
Zolotova, there are two types of objective modality: real and non-real.
Objective modality is expressed by means of the category of mood. The
indicative mood renders the meaning of real modality, eg.:
I'm waiting, Mrs. Page (A. Cronin).
 The imperative mood and the conjunctive mood realize the meaning of non-
real modality, e.g.: Shut the door! (J. Irving).
/ would have seen him. There's not a soul in sight (W. Faulkner).
In the case of real modality, tense characteristics are relevant, too[A.I.
Smirnitsky]. Cf: / want to talk to you (M. Brand) - present tense. He lit the
gas and sat down (Th. Dreiser) - past tense. I'll call you tomorrow (B.
Gutcheon) - future tense.
Since the predicative category of person in analytical English generally finds
its expression not in the verbal, but in the nominal component, most English
clauses contain a subject and a predicate.
The person component of predicativity is also expressed by the subject. Thus
the predicativity is expressed by the subject- predicate group or predication.
Predication constitutes the basic structure of the sentence. So, the Predicate
Verb is the main means of expressing predicativity.
Predicativity is also expressed by intonation, which is the essential feature of
the sentence as a unit of speech. It should be also noted that some scholars
use only term- predication (S-P group) - to denote both the relation of the
sentence to reality and means of its expression.
So, in some sentences it’s presented undivided:
 These are one-member sentences ( Night)
One-member sentences are typical of inflected languages. In analytical
languages, one-member sentences are few. In English, imperative sentences
and imperative 'sentence representatives' are surely one-member, e.g.:
Wait a moment (A.M. Burrage). Please don't say anything else (J. Parsons).
Imperative sentences and imperative 'sentence representatives' generally
address the command or request to the second person. The fixed nature of
person characteristic makes the use of a special exponent of person
redundant, although sometimes it does appear in the form of the personal
pronoun you. In these cases, imperative sentences become two-member. Cf:
You try to eat something (W. Faulkner). You let me run this! (W. Faulkner).
 In most sentences it’s presented as a divided structure- a S-P group. These
are two-member sentences.
A sentence can contain a primary and secondary predication.
I saw her dancing.
 The group her dancing is the secondary predication, as it resembles the S-P
group, or the primary predication, structurally and semantically: it consists
of two main components, nominal and verbal features, and names an event
or situation. But it can’t be correlated with reality directly and cannot
constitute an independent unit of communication, as verbals have no
category of mood, tense and person. The secondary predication is related to
the situation of speech indirectly, through the primary predication.

Predicativity – reference to speech situation which includes the act of

speech, the speaker and reality (зелена трава and трава – зелена)
Predication – expression of the essential predicative meaning in the
sentence through a finite verb

38.Parts of the sentence: traditional and modern classifications.

According to the traditional classification, parts of the sentence fall into:

1. Subject підмет
2. Predicate присудок
3. Object додаток
4. Attribute означення – not used in modern grammatical descriptions
5. Adverbial modifier обставина – not used in modern grammatical
descriptions

The modern classification of sentence elements differs a bit from the

traditional one. According to it, the following parts of the sentence are
distinguished:
1. Subject
2. Verb
3. Complement
4. Object
5. Adverbial
 Types of complements:
1. Subjective (Cs)
2. Objective (Co)
3. Verbal (Cv)
4. Adverbial (Cd)
Cs
The final hope was revenge. She looked so tired
Co
We all adore Malkie. I knew neither of them.
Cv
She could not move him from her mind
Cd
She leaned across the table
The adverbial: Within adverbials many syntactic roles have been identified,
of which verb modification has traditionally been seen as central. A function
of adverbials as sentence modifiers or sentence connectors has been
emphasized in linguistic studies.
Types of adverbials:
§ Adverbial complements (obligatory adverbial):
John put the flowers in the water
§ Adjuncts: Sophia helped me with my homework
§ Conjuncts: Sophia helped, therefore I was able to do my homework
§ Disjuncts: Surprisingly, he passed all of his exams

39.The principal parts of the sentence.

 There are two generally recognized main parts of the sentence - the subject
and the predicate.
This opposition "primary/secondary" is justified by the difference in
function. While the subject and the predicate make the predication and thus
constitute the sentence, the secondary parts serve to expand it.
Thus, the parts of the sentence which are connected by means of the
predicative bond are principal (main) parts.
· They are the core of the communicative unit.
· Subject-predicate structure gives the sentence its relative independence
and the possibility to function as a complete piece of communication.
· The subject and the predicate constitute the backbone of the sentence:
without them the sentence would not exist at all, whereas all other
(secondary) parts may or may not be there, and if they are there, they serve
to modify or define either the subject or the predicate, or each.
The subject -підмет is one of the two main parts of the sentence.
(1) It denotes the thing whose action or characteristics is expressed by the
predicate.
(2) It is not dependent on any other part of the sentence.
(3) It may parts of speech, the most frequent expressed by different parts of
speech.
Сomplexity involved in the subject: distinguishing the grammatical
subject from the underlying or logical subject of a sentence:
The cat was chased by the dog,
where The cat is the grammatical and the dog the logical subject.
Not all subjects, moreover, can be analyzed as doers of an action, as in such
sentences as Dirt attracts flies/ The books sold well.
*Subject determines concord(визначає узгодженість): that is with those
parts of the verb that permit a distinction between singular and plural, the
form selected depends on whether the subject is singular
The girl is now a student at a large university
or plural: They make him the chairman every year
Types of subject
 Definite subjects: denote a thing that can be clearly defined
Thirty seven is the number of his apartment
 Indefinite subjects: denote some indefinite person, a state of things or a
certain situation «One cannot be too careful».
It comes quite natural that a subject combines the lexical meaning with the
structural meaning of "person". Things are specifically different with
anticipatory, or introductory subjects it and there. E.g.: It is most
pleasant that she has already come. It is rather cold. It was easy to do so.
There were no seats at all.
There is sometimes called a temporary subject filling the subject position in
place of the true subject, which follows the verb. They are only structural
subjects as they have no lexical meaning. But they are usually correlated
with some words or complexes in the sentence which are regarded as
notional subjects
Predicate - присудок
In functional grammar, the term has a central status:
 is the basic element of a predication;
 denotes the action or property of what is expressed by the subject;
 is not dependent on any other part of the sentence
A predicate can be expressed by
 A finite verb form – форма особового дієсл. : My neighbor arrived
yesterday
 Link-verb(Дієслова-зв'язки) + noun: She became a good translator
 Link-verb + adjective: The snow was cold
 Link-verb + infinitive: She grew to know him better that anybody else
Predicates may be classified in two ways, one of which is based on their
structure (simple-простий and compound-складений) and the other on
their morphological characteristics (verbal-дієслівний and nominal-
іменний). Schematically, the types of predicate can be presented as follows

With regard to the relative positions of subject and verbal predicate, there
are three possibilities:
(1) the "normal" order S - P;
(2) the "inverted" order P - S;
(3) the inverted order with P split up into two parts and S coming between
them, e.g.: Never was anyone born more loving than John. It is preferable to
distinguish between two sets of phenomena:
 (1) normal order(прямий) which may be the order "subject – predicate" for
declarative sentences(розповідні), or "predicate - subject" for interrogative
sentences, and
(2) inverted order(зворотний), or inversion, which may be the order
"predicate + subject" for declarative sentences.

40.Comment on the correlation of terms: predicate – predication – predicativity.

Predicate присудок –is one of the two main parts of a sentence. It denotes
the action or property of what is expressed by the subject; is not dependent
on any other part of the sentence. It is the basic element of a predication;
Predication предикація – expression of the essential predicative meaning in
the sentence through a finite verb.*In predication, the predicate plays a very
important role in a sentence. It is the structural centre of the sentence,
together with the subject, and sometimes without the latter
Predicativity is an essential part of the content of the sentence as intonation
is of its form. Hence intonation may be regarded as the structural form and
predicativity as the structural meaning of the sentence.
Predicativity – reference to speech situation which includes the act of
speech, the speaker and reality, distinguishes the sentence as the basic unit
of communication from all other linguistic units.

З прези: Predicativity – reference to speech situation which includes the act

of speech, the speaker and reality (зелена трава and трава – зелена)
Predication – expression of the essential predicative meaning in the
sentence through a finite verb

Предикати́вність (від лат. praedicatio — «стверджене, сказане,

висловлене») — це віднесеність змісту речення до об'єктивної
реальності.
Це комплексна категорія, що виражає співвіднесеність змісту речення з
реальною дійсністю і відбивається у зв'язку підмета і присудка, які
становлять граматичну основу речення. Граматичними засобами
 вираження предикативності є час дієслова, інтонація та модальність
(від лат. modus — «міра, спосіб»), що виражає суб'єктивно-об'єктивне
ставлення мовця до висловлюваного.
Предикативність властива будь-якому реченню і виявляється в ознаках
часу, особи, а також в оцінці сказаного розповідачем (бажаність чи
небажаність, реальність чи нереальність, впевненість в істинності чи
ні).

41.The subject and means of its expression.

The subject is one of the two main parts of the sentence. (1) It denotes the
thing whose action or characteristics is expressed by the predicate.
(2) It is not dependent on any speech. (3) It may be expressed by different
parts of speech, the most frequent ones being.

– a noun in the common case, e.g.: my intention is to get into Parliament.

The girls were eating their ices with concentration.
– a pronoun (personal in the nominative case, demonstrative, defining,
indefinite, negative, possessive, interrogative, e.g: Nothing was said for a
minute or two on either side. Theirs is not a very comfortable lodging.
Who tore this book?
– a substantivized adjective or participle, e.g: The wounded are taken good
care of. The rich arrived in pairs and in limousines.
– an infinitive, an infinitive construction, e.g.: For him to be late was
impossible. To be a teacher is a great responsibility.
– a gerund, a gerundial construction, e.g.: Lying does not go well with me.
Ann's being sent to study abroad surprised everyone.
– a numeral, e.g.: 'Seven" is a lucky number. Two plus two makes four.
"Thirty seven" is the number of his apartment.

In Modern English there are two main types of subject that stand in contrast
as opposed to each other in terms of content: the definite subject and the
indefinite subject.
 Definite subjects denote a thing that can be clearly defined: a concrete
object, process, quality, etc.,
E.g.: Marta smiled. To defend our Fatherland is our sacred duty.
Playing tennis is a pleasure. Her knowledge surprised me.

Indefinite subjects denote some indefinite person, a state of things or a

certain situation.
E.g.: They say. You never can tell. One cannot be too careful.

It comes quite natural that a subject combines the lexical meaning with the
structural meaning of "person". Things are specifically different with
anticipatory, or introductory subjects it and there.
E.g., It is most pleasant that she has already come. It is rather cold.
It was easy to do so. There were no seats at all.
There is sometimes called a temporary subject filling the subject position in
place of the true subject, which follows the verb. They are only structural
subjects as they have no lexical meaning. But they are usuals corelated with
some words or complexes in the sentence which are regarded as notional
subjects.

42.The predicate and its types.

The predicate can be defined as one of the two main parts of the sentence; (1) it
denotes the action or property of the thing expressed by the subject; (2) it is not
dependent on any other part of the sentence; (3) it may be expressed by:
– a finite verb-form, e.g., Erik arrived at the lab next morning full of
suppressed anxiety. The doctor will be sent for immediately.
– link verb + noun, e.g.: She became an experienced secretary.
– link verb + adjective, e.g., Charlie kept quiet.
– link verb + infinitive, e.g.: She grew to know the two elderly men better
than any other member of the family.
– link verb + prep + noun, e.g.: The things were outside her experience.
Predicates may be classified in two ways, one of which is based on their
structure (simple and compound) and the other on their morphological
characteristics (verbal and nominal).
Schematically, the types of predicate can be presented as follows:

The simple verbal predicate is expressed by a notional verb, e.g.: Tastes

differ. The wind had fallen, the moon was shining over the quiet sea.
The compound verbal predicate can be divided into two types according to the
meaning of the finite verb:
– the compound verbal modal predicate shows whether the action

expressed by the non-finite form of the verb is considered as possible,

obligatory, desirable, etc., e.g.: One must do one's duty.
– the compound verbal aspect predicate expresses the beginning,
repetition, duration or cessation of the action denoted by the non-finite
form of the verb, eg.: She kept asking me question. His bones ceased to
ache.
The simple nominal predicate consists merely of a non or an adjective without
a link verb. Sentences with this kind of a pretica are always exclamatory, e.g.:
My ideas obsolete!!!! (with seven exclamation marks) expresses the speaker's
indignation at heaing ideas characterized as obsolete by a younger man.
The compound nominal predicate always consists of a link verd and a
predicative which may be expressed by various parts of speech, usually a noun,
an adjective, a stative, or an adverb (e.g: The lesson is over. The picture was
beautiful.). Besides the verb be there are a number of other link verbs with
different meanings, e.g., become, get, continue, grow, fun, etc. (e.g.: Then we
grew thirsty and went indoors).
The types of predicate can be presented as follows:

The predicate can be a word or a syntactic word-morpheme.

Semantically, predicates may be divided into:
– notional; when it is a notional word, it is not only the structural but the
notional predicate as well, e.g.: A picture often shows the meaning of a
word more clearly than a description.
– semi-notional; when the part of the predicate is a semi-notional link-verb
or a modal verb, it is a compound verbal aspect predicate (e.g.: She kept
on smiling), or a compound verbal model predicate (e.g.: The meeting
was to begin at five.).
– structural; when the verbal part of the predicate is lexically empty, it is
only a structural predicate, e.g., He was strong enough for that.

43.The Object as a secondary part of the sentence.

Преза:
A term «object» used in the analysis of grammatical functions to refer to a
major constituent of sentence or clause structure, traditionally associated with
the ‘receiver’ or ‘goal’ of an action, as in The cat bit the dog.
Traditional analysis distinguishes a direct versus an indirect object, to allow
for sentences such as:
The teacher gave a letter to the girl / The teacher gave the girl a letter
which is marked in English by a contrast using prepositions and word-order,
and in inflecting languages by different cases (typically, the object case being
accusative, the indirect object case being dative).
Much discussion in linguistics has focused on clarifying the notion of
‘receiving’ an action, in relation to the other elements of clause structure
(subject, complement, etc.), distinguishing various kinds of verb–object
relationship, both in terms of surface and underlying structure.
Examples of problem sentences: John is easy to please (where John is the
underlying object of please) and The plants are selling well (where in reality it
is the plants which are the ‘logical receivers’ of the action).

The object is a secondary part of the sentence expressed by a noun, a pronoun

(of different types), a substantivized adjective, an infinitive and a gerund
denoting a thing to which the action passes on.
Objeсts are differentiated on the basis of several criteria:
1) according to their morphological composition (i.e. by the parts of speech
or phrases which perform the function of the object);
2) according to the type of their relation to the action expressed by the verb
(this difference is manifested by direct and indirect objects).
According to their morphological composition, i.e. by the parts of speech or
phrases which perform the function of the object, objects are classified into:
– prepositional, e.g.: An idea had occurred to John.
– non-prepositional (or prepositionless), e.g.: Don t forget to buy him a toy
on his birthday.
Non-prepositional objects, according to the type of their relation to the action
expressed by the verb, are further divided into direct and indirect objects.
The direct object denotes something (or somebody) directly affected by the
action of the verb, e.g.: He wrote a letter yesterday.
The indirect object usually denotes the person for whose benefit the action is
performed or towards whom it is directed, e.g.: He sent me (indirect object) a
letter (direct object). The indirect object usually precedes the direct object and
cannot lot used without it. In He send me "me" would be understood as a direct
object.
Sometimes a verb may take two direct objects (e.g.: They asked him a
question). Though this sentence is structurally similar to They gave him books
the functions of "him" in the two sentences are different. In the first sentence it
can be used without the second object (e.g.: Don't ask him) in the second it
cannot. The same in the corresponding passive constructions, e.g. Ile was asked
but not He was given. So in the fist sentence "him'" is a direct object, in the
second - an indirect one.
Besides the direct and indirect objects linguists distinguish the so-called
cognate object. In the sentences She slept a sound sleep. We live a happy life
the verbs to sleep and to live, usually subjective, seem to take direct objects.
But these objects are of peculiar nature: they do not denote anything that is
outside the action and affected by it, as in the case with most objects. The nouns
sleep and life are cognate with the verbs to sleep and to live, i.e. they are of
common origin and kindred meaning They modify the verb rather as adverbials
than as objects.
Cf. She slept a sound sleep. - She slept soundly.
We live a happy life. - We live happily.

44.The Attribute as a secondary part of the sentence.

45.The Adverbial Modifier as a secondary part of the sentence.

46.Classification of composite sentences.
47.The compound sentence. Structural and semantic types.
48.The complex sentence. Subject and predicate clauses.
49.The complex sentence. Types of attributive clauses.
50.The complex sentence. Relative and adverbial clauses.