Logic Design Unit 8

Unit 8 Design of Real World Logic Circuits

Structure:
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Traffic Signal Systems
8.3 Two Way Switches
8.4 Electronic Tennis Scoring System
8.5 Temperature & Weather Forecast Systems
8.6 Summary
8.7 Terminal Questions
8.8 Answers

8.1 Introduction
In the previous unit we studied about different types of counters and design
of counters. With the advent of large and very-large-scale integration,
systems of reasonable complexity are realized on a single chip. Reductions
in the number of elements required to realize each function makes it
possible to use fewer chips or to do more on a given chip. In high-
performance systems, eliminating redundant gates not only frees up chip
area, but also reduces power dissipation, often the limiting factor. There are
of course factors that were not present in the days of discrete logic
elements, such as the value of regularity in the arrangement of elements on
a chip. But the need of powerful methods for generating efficient logic
circuits has indeed returned. A major consequence of the larger scale of
integration is the enormous size and complexity of our systems, and the
increased importance of testing. In this unit you will study some real world
logic circuits and their design.

Objectives:
By the end of Unit 8 the learners will be able to
 explain traffic signal systems
 explain the functions of switches
 electronic tennis scoring system
 discuss on temperature & weather forecast systems

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8.2 Traffic Signal Systems

This is an automatic traffic light controller and can be implemented by
programming any gate array based logic (GAL) device such as FPGA. The
important features of this design are as follows.
1. The density of traffic is assumed to be same on all the roads.
2. The free left turn is regulated to enable safe crossing for the pedestrians
during peak hours.
3. The implementation can be done using digital ICs.
4. The design is generic and can be customized to suit different type of
road junctions with minor changes.
5. Manual operation and control is permitted if required.
The basic light signals red, green and yellow are given uniform importance
in terms of time. Let us keep the duration for which these signals remain ‘on’
to be 8 seconds and its multiples. The figure 8.1 shown indicates the
movement of traffic in all permitted directions in a cycle that covers all the
four roads. We have 8 such signal combinations, each with 8 seconds
duration. The traffic which takes left or right turns and all the pedestrian
crossings are controlled by only two signals – red and green lights.
The table 8.1 displays status of all the signal lights for all the traffic
conditions. Every row in the table indicates the status of each light for 8
seconds. We can see that for the traffic that moves straight, the ratio of red,
yellow and green signal lights is 40:8:16. For the traffic that takes left or right
turns, the ratio of red and green lights is 56:8. Similarly for the pedestrian
crossing the ratio is 48:16.
In the table 8.1 each of the 8 rows is assigned a binary number that
uniquely identifies it. Since we have 8 distinct combinations of signal lights,
we need minimum of 3 bits to represent each state. Each of these bits is
named as variable X, Y and Z respectively in table 8.1 and 8.2. As indicated
in figure. 8.1, the two halves of each of the four roads are denoted by the
alphabets A through H. The alphabet pairs with a single dash line between
them represent valid directions of traffic movements. Also note that
St, Lt and Rt mean straight direction, left turn and right turn respectively.

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Figure 8.1: Flow of traffic in all possible directions

Table 8.1: States of Signals for All the Traffic

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Table 8.2 lists the Boolean functions for all the signal lights, in terms of
Boolean variables X, Y and Z.
Table 8.2: Boolean Functions for All the Signal conditions

From the table 8.2, we can note that both the left and right turn signals have
similar switching pattern and hence they have identical functions. Hence
these signals can be controlled by a single block of control logic.
Figure 8.2 shows the logic diagram that generates all the control signals
which can be used to activate all the signal lights according to the Boolean
functions listed in table 8.2.
The IC1 is a 555 timer and is used to generate the clock signal for the
counter IC2. Note that the timer IC is configured as an astable multivibrator.
The duration T for which the IC1 output (clock to IC2) remains HIGH is
given by,
T = 0.695 C2(R1+R2)
Hence we can vary T by varying the values of R1, R2 or C2.

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The 4 bit counter IC2 works like a 3 bit counter. The connection to reset
pin 1 from the output Q3 via inverter N1 achieves this. The remaining
counter outputs Q2, Q1 and Q0 map to the variables X, Y and Z
respectively.

Figure 8.2: The circuit diagram for traffic light signaling

We can check the working of the traffic light controller by connecting the
light control outputs to red, yellow and green LED’s which represent the
actual signal lights. To limit the current through the LED’s, we can connect a
resistor (typical value 470 Ohms) in series with each. As we stated before,
only. If in a particular junction, some direction of movement is restricted,
then signals can be suitably merged with the next state.
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For the manual control of the traffic lights, one can load the desired binary
state code (indicated by X, Y, Z variable values) into the counter IC. For this
purpose the counter must be wired in a pre-settable mode. We can also
reset the signal lights to the initial state (XYZ = 000), by resetting the
counter. This can be achieved by having an external switch which can feed
a LOW (0) to reset pin (pin 1) of IC2. A computer program in C language
which can simulate the traffic light controller circuit on a PC is shown in
figure 8.3. Table 8.3 shows the results of execution of the program.

Figure 8.3: C program for simulate the traffic light controller

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Table 8.3: Execution Results of Software Program

8.3 Two Way Switches

In applications where multiple switching options are required (e.g., a
telephone service), mechanical switches have long been replaced by
electronic switching devices which can be automated and intelligently
controlled.
We can define a switch in terms of its operation and use. In general, a
switch is a device that can be used to either establish or remove (also called
make or break) connections between at least two points in an electric or
electronic circuit.
The figure 8.4 shows ON-OFF switch along with its symbol.

(a)

(b)

Figure 8.4: Switch (a) ON-OFF switch (b) Circuit symbol

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The most common type of switches is the one that we use to turn our lights
on and off. Depending on the power that is switched, size and physical
nature we have a wide range of switches, ranging from sub-micron
transistors to big switches that can switch megawatts of power. Although
there are many types of switches, we are more accustomed to one-way and
two-way electrical switches. The main difference between them lies in the
number of contacts they have. A one-way switch only has two contacts and
a two-way switch has three.
A one-way switch basically operates as a make or break switch. So when it
is turned on, the two terminals are connected, and when it is turned off, the
contact between the two is broken. In contrast, a two-way switch is basically
two, one-way switches combined into one. Here one of the terminals can be
connected to either of the remaining two but not both at the same time.
When we make a connection with one terminal, the connection with the
other is broken.
A switch can be considered to be a ‘gate’ which either allows or disallows
certain entity. When such a switch can be operated using some logic, then
we can call this switch as a ‘logic gate’. Electronic hardware technology
provides us with miniature logic gates which can be put together in large
numbers (several millions) on a single chip, which can function as a system
of logic. A computer is a classic example of such an electronic system
composed of electronic logic gates.
On the other side we have mechanical arrangements that can switch the
track of a train from one to another.
A regular electric switch that can be used to control power to domestic
appliances has small metallic pieces called contacts. And these contacts
are made to physically touch each other to make a circuit, while separation
between them breaks it. The desirable properties of these metallic contacts
are low resistance, very good electrical conductivity, resistance to corrosion,
mechanical strength to name a few. To achieve the desirable properties,
sometimes the contacts may be plated with metals such a gold, copper etc.
Actuator
The mechanical or electromechanical part which helps the contacts to
physically touch and separate are called actuators. These could be a spring
loaded toggle, a rocker, electrically operated relay, a push-button etc.

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Contact arrangements
A switch is said to be ‘closed’ if the contacts of the switch are in physically
touching each other, which allows electric current flow through it. When the
contacts are separated with a gap, current cannot flow through the switch.
Now the switch is said to be ‘open’.
Generally electric switches can be classified according to the number of
contacts and mechanical movements required to operate them. A SPST
switch means, single pole (contact) - single throw (movement). But electrical
power supply industry and wiring technicians also have alternate
nomenclature like ‘one-way’ switch; ‘three-way’ switch etc.
The figure 8.5 shows the some of the types of switches based on their
method of contacts.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 8.5: Types of Switches

(a) SPST (Single Pole, Single Throw)
(b) SPDT (Single Pole, Double Throw)
(c) DPST (Double Pole, Single Throw)
(d) DPST (Double Pole, Double Throw)

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A normally open (‘NO’) switch has its contacts open by default and the
contacts close only when the switch is operated. Similarly a normally closed
(‘NC’) switch has closed contacts until opened by operating the switch.
These are shown in figure 8.6. The nomenclatures are normally used in
logic and wiring diagrams to enhance the clarity of operation. This helps in
minimizing assembly line errors and troubleshooting faults. A switch with
both types of contacts is called a changeover switch or "make-before-break"
switch contact, whereas most switches have a spring loaded action which
momentarily disconnect the load and so are "break-before-make" types by
contrast.

Figure 8.6: (i) Normally Open (‘NO’) switch (ii) Normally Close (‘NO’) switch

The type of switch to be used depends on particular application. For

example, if interruption of power to a load is not acceptable, then a “make-
before-break” switch could be used to select an alternate power source to
the load. The terms pole and throw are also used to describe switch contact
variations. A pole is a set of contacts, the switch's electrical terminals that
are connected to and belong to a single circuit, usually a load. A throw is
one of two or more positions that the switch can adopt, which normally, but
not always correspond to the number positions the switch handle or rotor
can take when connecting between the common lead of the switch and a
pole or poles. A throw position which connects no terminals (poles), has a
mismatch between positions and positions which connect terminals, but are
quite useful to turn things "Off" or for example, alternatively select between
two scaled modes of operation. (e.g. Bright illumination, moderate
illumination, no illumination). Switching a load on or off from two locations
(for instance, turning a light on or off from either end of a flight of stairs)
requires two SPDT switches.

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8.4 Electronic Tennis Scoring System

The present tennis scoring system includes input devices for each player to
indicate whether one player or the other has won a particular point. These
input devices for each player may be in the form of transmitters each having
two recessed pushbutton switches, one to indicate that one player has won
the point and the other to indicate that the opposing player has won the
particular point.
The input device may take the form of a belt buckle size unit worn at the
waist or on the wrist. Electronic scoring circuitry provided is responsive to
the concurrent depressing of buttons by both players indicating who has
won a particular point. Electronic scoring equipment keeps track of the
points, games, sets and matches won by each player and each side.
Suitable electronic equipment is provided to accommodate slight differences
in the timing of the pressing of input switches by the two players. Special
logic circuitry is provided for accommodating the tennis scoring situation
involving deuce games. Transmitters with unique signals to indicate who
has won a point are provided. A common display and annunciator unit may
be used which receives signals from input devices of each player.
Alternatively, small LED displays may be provided on each of the input units
to display the points, games, sets and matches won by each player and
each team. The annunciator may provide a unique sound to indicate points
won by one player as compared with a different sound for points won by the
other player.
A league and tournament system is disclosed which includes a centralized
league machine that transmits data to one or more of a plurality of electronic
dart games via modem or using a wireless portable data storage device.
The electronic dart machines are configured to receive and utilize league
and tournament database information from the league machine for a variety
of purposes, including automatic implementation of player handicaps,
automatic control of match play, and team and player registration using the
dart machine. The dart machine has a monitor that displays context
sensitive menus using information obtained from the league or tournament
database. The dart machine includes a barcode card reader that permits
identification of league and tournament participants using barcode cards.
The dart machine can also respond to other types of barcode cards for such
purposes as crediting games and providing access to machine performance
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data and certain machine servicing functions. Inter-game communication

within an establishment is provided either by hardwiring the dart machines
or using infrared communication.

8.5 Temperature and Weather Forecast Systems

We consider here weather forecasting. Weather is the state of the
atmosphere like it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy.
Weather forecasting is predicting the state of the atmosphere for a future
time and a given location. A barometer is a scientific instrument used in
meteorology to measure atmospheric pressure. When atmospheric pressure
is measured by a barometer, the pressure is also referred to as the
barometric pressure. Now let us study 1-wire Barometer.
1-wire Barometer:
Assumptions/Design Criteria
 The barometer will be operated indoors. This will minimize output
variations caused by temperature and will lengthen the calibration
intervals. It also means the circuit board will not have to be
weatherproofed.
 Will be easy to calibrate. Maximum of 1 calibration adjustment.
 The operating range will be from 28.00 inHg to 32.00 inHg
 Resolution will be greater than .01 inHg from sea level to 10,000 feet.
 The interface will be standard Dallas Semiconductor 1-wire.
 Unit will be designed for indoor operation, so it can be externally
powered.
 Will utilize the Motorola MPX4115A pressure transducer.

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Based on these assumptions, table 8.4 is generated.

Table 8.4: Station Pressure & Actual Pressure

This table 8.4 calculates the station pressure for both the minimum (28.00)
and the maximum (32.00) pressures for altitudes from sea level to 10,000
feet in 1000 foot increments. The station pressure is then converted to
MPX4115A pressure sensor volts. Looking at the table, you can see the
predominant change in altitude in the offset voltage of the pressure sensor.
The OA Offset column is the op amp offset voltage that compensates for
altitude. This will be the only calibration variable. Since the instrumentation
amplifier is a rail-to-rail device, in theory it will operate down to 0 volts.
However, to provide some margin, the offsets were chosen to allow a
minimum of 0 .2 volts at the lowest pressure. The gain of 10 was chosen to
allow maximum output voltage swing for all altitudes. The resulting op amp
output voltages are listed in OA Output column. This is the voltage applied
to the DS2438 Vad input.

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Circuit Design:
The following circuit design satisfies requirements (refer figure 8.7). INA122
instrumentation amplifier was selected as it eliminated several external
resistors and it provides a very stable gain over a wide temperature. It also
provides excellent rail-to-rail operation allowing full use of the 10 volt input
range of the DS2438. The 40.2K ohm resistor sets the gain to 10. The
variable resistor allows adjustment of the offset voltage from 2.0v to 4.0v.

Figure 8.7: Circuit for 1-wire Barometer

Calibration:
Hardware calibration is simply a matter of setting the offset voltage to the
value listed in table 8.4 for your altitude. A jumper on the input of the
DS2438 allows the use of the DS2438 to measure the offset. Put the jumper
in the A-C position and using the iButton Viewer for the DS2438, set the

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voltage to the table value using the 25-turn pot. Once it is set, put the
jumper in the A-B position to read pressure.
For altitudes in between the values listed in the table, simple interpolation
will give accurate results. An Excel spreadsheet can be used to calculate
intermediate values.
Routines currently exist to measure the DS2438s Vad voltage. Once this
voltage is measured, the pressure is calculated using:
Press = slope * Vad + intercept
Where the slope and intercept are the values listed in table 8.1 for your
altitude. The prototype code had an external text file to store the slope and
intercept values. This allows the user to edit the file to fine-tune the
calibration if desired.
Fine-tuning can be accomplished by monitoring the pressure and comparing
it with a known reference source, such as a nearby airport or national
weather service. Start by adjusting the intercept. When the reference station
indicates a pressure near mid-scale (30.00 inHg), adjust the software
intercept value until your weather station matches. Now monitor the
pressure extremes to determine if the slope needs adjustment.
Future Options:
A fixed resistor could replace the variable resistor. This would eliminate any
hardware adjustments. The value would have to be calculated for a given
altitude. Another possibility is to use several DS2406 1-wire switches or a
programmable potentiometer to set the offset programmatically.

8.6 Summary
In this unit some example of real world electronic design were presented. All
the designs require clear understanding of application requirements, and
accordingly design decisions are taken. While the traffic light controller was
purely digital, temperature and weather forecast system design included use
of sensors and analog components. We also learnt about various types of
switches and the terminology associated with them.

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Let us recapitulate the important concepts discussed in this unit.

 Traffic Signal Systems is an automatic traffic light controller and can be
implemented by programming any gate array based logic (GAL) device
such as FPGA.
 Switch is a device that can be used to either establish or remove (also
called make or break) connections between at least two points in an
electric or electronic circuit.
 Actuator is the mechanical or electromechanical part which helps the
contacts to physically touch and separate.
 A normally open (‘NO’) switch has its contacts open by default and the
contacts close only when the switch is operated.
 Electronic scoring circuitry provided is responsive to the concurrent
depressing of buttons by both players indicating who has won a
particular point.
 1-wire barometer design will utilize the Motorola MPX4115A pressure
transducer
Self Assessment Questions
1. The mechanical or electromechanical part which helps the contacts to
physically touch and separate are called ______________.
2. All control signals that drive traffic lights can be mapped into
_____________functions.
3. A switch can be considered to be a _________which either allows or
disallows certain entity.
4. Electronic scoring equipment keeps track of the points, games, sets and
matches won by each player and each side (True or false).
5. ________________is pressure transducer.

8.7 Terminal Questions

1. Design a traffic light controller for a three road junction.
2. Describe various types of electrical switches.
3. Explain the design of an electronic tennis scoring system.

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8.8 Answers
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Actuators
2. Boolean
3. Gate
4. True
5. Motorola MPX4115A

Terminal Questions
1. Refer Section 8.2
2. Refer Section 8.3
3. Refer Section 8.4

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