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  
Range of f : In   , 0 , [cos x] ă [sin x] = 1
 2 
 from (1), f (x) = loge1 = 0
Hence range f = {0}
Note : Here f is a many-one function.

Illustration 1 7
Find the range of the following functions :

 
(i) f  x   ln x 2  4x  5 (ii) f ( x )  3 sin x  8 cos  x    5
 3

1  1 2 2x  2
(iii) f  x   sin   x  (iv) f x  2
 2  x  2x  3
([.] denotes the greatest integer function)
Solution :

2
(i) Here f(x) = ln x 2  4x  5  ln x  2  1

i.e. x2 + 4x + 5 takes all values in [1, )  f(x) will take all values in [0, ).
Hence range of f (x) is [0, ).

 
(ii) Here f (x) = 3 sin x + 8 cos  x    5
 3

= 3 sin x + 4 (cos x + 3 sin x) + 5 = (3 + 4 3 ) sin x + cos x + 5.

Put 3 + 4 3 = r cos  and 4 = r sin  so that

1 4
r  73  24 3 and   tan 3  4 3  f x   73  24 3 sin (x + ) + 5

 
 Range of f(x) is 5  73  24 3 , 5  73  24 3 
 

 1 1 2
(iii) Here f x   sin  2  x 
 

1 2
For any value of x,   x  is a non-negative integer and sină1 x is defined only for two
2 
non-negative integers 0 and 1.

 
 the range of f  0, 
 2

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2x  2
(iv) Here f  x  2
x  2x  3
2x  2
Let y = f (x) i.e. y =  yx2 ă 2 (y + 1) x + 3y + 2 = 0
2
x  2x  3
which is a quadratic in x. For above quadratic to have real roots   0
 4(y + 1)2 ă 4y (3y + 2)  0
1 1
 y2  y 
2 2

 1 1 
Hence the range of f(x) is   , .
 2 2

Na t ur e of Fu n c t io n
Wo r k i n g Ru l e :
1. (a) A function f (x) is odd if f (ă x) = ă f (x) i.e. f (ă x) + f (x) = 0
(b) A function f (x) is even if f (ă x) i.e. f (ă x) ă f (x) = 0
(c) Graph of an even function is symmetrical about y-axis.
(d) Graph of an odd function has the property that its part in first and third quadrants are
symmetric about the origin and its part in second and fourth quadrants are symmetrical
about the origin.
2. Properties of odd and even functions.
(a) a constant function is an even function
(b) a zero function is both an odd and an even function.
(c) For two functions, the following are the rules for their respective operations.
Functions Sum Difference Product Division
even ă even even even even even
even ă odd neither even neither even odd odd
nor odd nor odd
odd ă even neither even neither even odd odd
nor odd nor odd
odd ă odd odd odd even even
(d) (i) if f (x) + f (ă x) = 0  f is odd function.
(ii) if f (x) ă f (ă x) = 0  f is odd function.
(e ) The derivative of an odd function is an even function and derivative of an even function is
an odd function.
(f) The square of even or an odd Function is always an even Function.
(g) Any function y = f (x) can written as y = f (x) = [odd part of f (x)] + [even part of f (x)]

 f  x   f   x    f  x   f  x  
i.e. y  f  x     
 2   2 
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Illustration 1 8

t t
If f  t   t
  1 , show that f (t) is an even function.
e 1 2
Solution :
1 t
Since f t   t
 1 ... (i)
e 1 2

t t
Now, f  t   t
 1
e 1 2

tet t
 t
 1 ... (ii)
e 1 2

Subtracting (ii) from (i), we get

f t   f   t  
t
1  e   t
t

 e 1t

= ă t+ t= 0
 f (ă t) ă f (t) = 0. Hence f (t) is an even function.

Illustration 1 9
Find out whether the given function is even, odd or neither even nor odd.

x x , x  1 
 
where, f  x   1  x   1  x  ,  1  x  1
 
 x x , x1 
where || and [ ] represents modulus & greatest integer function.
Solution : The given function can be written as :

 x 2 , x  1 
 
f  x   2  x    x  , 1  x  1 
 2 
 x , x1 

 x2 , x 1 
 
2  1  0 , 1  x 0 
 
f  x   2 , x 0 
2  0  1 , 0  x  1
 
 x2 , x  1 

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  x2 , x  1 
 
1 ,  1  x 0 
 
f  x   2 , x 0 
1 , 0  x  1
 
 x2 , x  1 


which is clearly even as if f (ă x) = f (x)

Thus, f (x) is even.

Illustration 20
Find out whether the given function is even or odd function, where
x  sin x  tan x 
f x 
x   1 , where x  n

    2
 
[ ] denotes greatest integer function.
Solution :

x  sin x  tan x  x  sin x  tan x 

f  x  
 x    1  x  1
   2    1 2
 

x  sin x  tan x 
f  x 
x 
    0.5
 

 x  sin   x  tan   x  
f   x 
 x 
    0.5
 

 x sin x  tan x 
 , x  n 
  x 
f   x    1      0.5 
   
0 , x n 
 

 
 x  sin x  tan x  
f   x    
  x 1 
    2 
   
f(ă x) = ă f(x)
 It is an odd function (if x  n)

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Ident ic al func t ion

Two functions f and g are identical if
(i) domain f = domain g
(ii) f(n) = g(n)  n  domain f or domain g.

Illustration 21
Find for what values of x the following functions are identical

(i) f (x) = x and g  x   x 2

x2
(ii) f  x  , g  x  x
x

Solution :
(i) Domain of g = ] ă , [
Domain of f = ] ă , [

g  x   x2 = positive square root of x = |x| = x, if x  0

2

and f (x) = x
 f (x) and g (x) are identical  x  [0, [
(ii) Domain of f = R ă {0} = ] ă , 0 [] 0, [
Domain of g = ] ă ,  [= R

x2
f  x   x , when x  0
x

 f (x) and g (x) are identical  x  0

Ex p l i c i t Fu n c t i o n
If x and y are two variables connected by a relation such that y is expressed explicitly in terms
of x or x is expressed explicitly in terms of y, i.e., y = f(x) or f(x) = y. Such functions are known as explicit
functions.
For examples y = x + 2, xy + y ă 5 = 0, x2 + y2 = 5 are explicit functions.

I m p l i c i t Fu n c t i o n
If the variables x and y are connected by a relation such that neither y is expressed explicitly as
a function of x nor x is expressed explicitly as a function of y. Such functions are known as implicit
functions. These functions are expressed in the form
f (x, y) = 0
For example, x 3 + y3 + 3axy = 0, tan (x2 + y2 ) + cos (x + y) = ex are implicit functions, of x, y.

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y
PERIODI C FU N CT I ON
A function f : D  R is said to be a periodic
function if there exists a positive real number p
such that
f (x + p) = f (x) for all x D. The least of all x
ă2 ă1 0 1 2 3
such positive numbers p is called the principal
period of f. In general, the principal period is called
the period of the function e.g. sin x and cos x are
periodic functions, each having period 2.
{x} = x ă [x] is a periodic function, the period being 1. The graph of x ă [x] is as shown in the figure.

Ru l e s f o r f i n d i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e p e r i o d i c f u n c t i o n s :
(i) If f (x) is periodic with period p, then a f (x)  b, where a, b  R (a  0) is also a periodic
function with period p.

(ii) If f (x) is periodic with period p, then f (ax  b), where a  R ă {0} and b R, is also periodic

p
with period a .

(iii) Let us suppose that f (x) is periodic with period p and g (x) is periodic with period q. Let r
be the LCM of p and q, if it exists.

(a) If f (x) and g (x) cannot be interchanged by adding a least positive number k, then
r is the period of f (x) + g(x).

(b) f (x) and g (x) can be interchanged by adding a least positive number k and if k < r,
then k is the period of f (x) + g (x). Otherwise r is the period.

(iv) If f (x), g (x) are periodic functions with periods T1, T 2 respectively then; we have,

h (x) = a f (x)  b g (x) has period as,

LCM of T1 , T2  ; if h  x  is not an even function


1
 LCM of T 1, T 2 ; if h  x  is an even function
2

 a c e  LCM of  a, c, e
Note : (1) LCM of  , ,   HCF of , ,
b d f b d f 
(2) LCM of rational with rational is possible
LCM of irrational with irrational is possible
But LCM of rational and irrational is not possible.

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Fo l l o w i n g r e s u l t s m a y b e d i r e c t l y u s e d
(i) sin x, cos x, sec x and cosec x are periodic functions with period 2.
(ii) tan x and cot x are periodic functions with period .
(iii) |sin x|, |cos x|, |tan x|, |cot x|, |sec x|, |cosec x| are periodic functions with period .
(iv) sinnx, cos nx, sec n x and cosecnx are periodic functions with period 2 and  according as n is
odd or even respectively.
(v) tan nx and cot nx are periodic functions with period , whether n is odd or even.

Illustration 22

1  sin x cos x 
Find the period of the function f  x     
2  cos x sin x 

Solution : Period of |sin x|, |cos x| = 

Period of sin x, cos x = 2

sin x
Period of = L.C.M. of  and 2 = 2
cos x

cos x
Period of = L.C.M. of  and 2 = 2
sin x

1  sin x cos x 
Period of 2  cos x  sin x  = L.C.M. 2 and 2 = 2
 

Illustration 23
Find the period of the following functions :

x
(i) f (x) = sin x + {x} (ii) f  x   tan  sin 2x
3
(iii) f (x) = |sin x| + |cos x|
Solution :
(i) Here f (x) = sin x + {x}
Period of sin x is 2 and that of {x} is 1. But the L.C.M. of 2 and 1 does not exist. Hence
sin x + {x} is not periodic.
(ii) Here f (x) = tan x/3 + sin 2x. Here tan (x/3) is periodic with period 3  and and sin 2x is
periodic with period . Hence f (x) will be periodic with period 3 .

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(iii) Here f (x) = |sin x|+ |cos x|.

2 1  cos2 x
Now, sin x  sin x  , which is periodic with period .
2

Similarly, |cos x| is periodic with period .

Hence, according to rule of LCM, period of f (x) must be .

   
But sin   x   cos x and cos   x   sin x [see rule (3) part (b)]
 2   2 

Since /2 < , period of f (x) is /2.

Illustration 24
Which of the following functions are periodic ? Also find the period if function is periodic.
(i) f (x) = 10 sin3x (ii)  x + b cos
f (x) = a sin x (iii) f (x) = sin3x

(iv) f (x) = cosx 2 (v) f (x) = sin x (vi) f x   tan x

(vii) f (x ) = x ă [x] (viii) f (x) = xcosx

where x is integral part of x
Solution :
(i) f (x) = 10sin3x
Let f (T + x) = f (x)
 10sin {3T + 3x)} = 10 sin3x  sin (3T + 3x) = sin3x
 3T + 3x = n + (ă 1)n3x, where n = 0,  1,  2, .......
The positive values of T independent of x are given by
3T = n, where n = 2, 4, 6, .......


 least positive value of T  2
3

2
Hence f (x) is a periodic function with period
3

(ii) f (x) = asinx + bcosx

 a b 
= a 2 b2  sin x  cos x 
 a2  b2 a2  b2 
 

b
= a2  b2 cos  sin  x  sin  cos  x , where tan  
a

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= a2  b2 sin  x   

2
Which is a periodic function of period 

3sin x  sin 3 x 3 1
(iii) f(x) = sin3x =  sin  sin3 x
4 4 4

2
Sin x is a periodic function of period 2  and sin 3x is a periodic function of period .
3

2 2  L.C.M. of 2  and 2 
Now L.C.M. of and 
1 3 H.C.F. of 1 and 3

2
=  2
1
Hence f (x) is a periodic function of 2.

(iv) f (x) = cosx 2

Let f (T + x) = f (x)  cos (T + x)2 = cosx2
 (T + x)2 = 2n  x2
From this no positive value of T independent of x is possible because x2 on R.H.S. can be
cancelled out only when T = 0
 f (x) is a non periodic function.

(v) f (x) = sin x

Let f (T + x) = f (x)             sin T  x  sin x

n
 T  x  n     1 x

This will give no positive value of T independent of x because x on R.H.S. can be cancelled
out only when T = 0.
 f (x) is a non periodic function.

(vi) f  x   tan x

Let (T + x) = f(x)  tan T  x  tan x

 tan (T + x) = tan x
 T + x = n + x, = 0,  1,  2, .....

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From this positive values of T independent of x are given by

T = n, n = 1, 2, 3
 least positive value of T independent of x is .
 f (x) is a periodic function of period .

(vii) f (x) = x ă [x], where [x] is the integral part of x.

Let f (T + x) = f (x)
 (T + x) ă [T + x] = x ă [x]
 T = [T + x] ă [x] = an integer
Hence, least positive value of T independent of x is 1.
Hence f (x) is a periodic function of period 1.

(viii) f (x) = xcosx

Let f (T + x) = f (x)  (T + x) cos (T + x) = xcosx
 Tcos (T + x) = x [cos x ă cos (T + x)]
From this no value of T independent of x is possible becase on R.H.S. one factor is x which is
an algebraic function and on L.H.S. there is no algebraic function in x and hence x cannot be
cancelled out.
Hence f (x) is a non periodic function.

Illustration 25
Let f (x, y) be a periodic function satisfying f (x, y) = f (2x + 2y, 2y ă 2x) for all x, y. Let g (x)
= f (2x, 0). Show that g (x) is a periodic function with period 12.
Solution : Given, f (x, y) = f(2x + 2y, 2y ă 2x) ... (1)
 f (x, y) = f (2x + 2y, 2y ă 2x)
= f [2(2x + 2y) + 2(2y ă 2x), 2(2y ă 2x) ă 2(2x + 2y)]  putting x = 2x + 2y 
 
= f (8y, ă 8x)  & y = 2y ă 2x 
Thus f (x, y) = f (8y, ă 8x)
= f (ă 64x, ă 64y)
= f [(ă 64) (ă 64x), (ă 64) (ă 64y)]
= f (2 12x, 212y)
 f (x, 0) = f (2 12x, 0)
Now, g (x) = f (2 x, 0)
= f (212.2x, 0)
= f (2x+12, 0)
= g (x + 12)
Hence g (x) is a periodic function with period 12.
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Illustration 26
Let f be a real valued function defined for all real numbers x such that for some fixed

1
f  x    f  x   for all real x. Show that f (x) is a periodic function. Also
2
a > 0, f  x  a   
2

find its period.

1
f  x   f  x   x  R
2
Solution : Given, f  x  a   ... (1)
2

2
 1
 f  x  a     f  x   f  x  
2

 2

2
 1 1
=   f  x   
 2 4

2 2
 1  1 1
 f x  a     f x    ... (2)
 2  2 4

2 2
 1  1 1
  f  x  2a      f  x  a     ... (3)
 2  2 4

2 2
 1  1
(3) ă (2)   f  x  2a     f  x    0
 2  2

1 1
 f  x  2a    f  x 
2 2

1
[ from (1), f (x + a) ă  0  xR
2

1 1
 f (x ă a + a) ă  0 or, f (x) ă  0  x R
2 2

 f (x + 2a) = f (x)  x  R and fixed a > 0

Hence f (x) is a periodic function with period 2a.

Find the range of the following functions

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T RA N SFORM A T I ON S
Transform at ion 1 :
Drawing the graph of y = f (x)  a, from the graph of y = f(x)
(a) To draw the graph of y = f (x) + a,
shift the graph of y = f (x), a units in upward direction.
(b) To draw the graph of y = f (x) ă a
shift the graph of y = f (x), units in downward direction.
Logic : The graph can be taken as
y  a = f (x), so we are just changing the value of y here.

Illustration 27
Plot the following :
(a) y = |x| ă 2 (b) y = sină1 x ă 1
Solution :
(a) y = |x| ă 2
we know the graph of y = |x| (i.e. modulus function) and the given function can be written
as y + 2 = |x| also.
applying the transformation for y = f (x) + a
shift the curve of y = |x| by 2 unit downward.

y = |x|

y = |x|–2

ă2

(b) y = sină1x – 1
or we can write y + 1 = sină1x
put y+ 1  y
now, y = sină1x
Y Y
2

2
ă1
applying
x x
transformation
ă1
2
ă1
2

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Illustration 28
Plot the following :
(a) y = sin x + 5 (b) y = cos2 x
Solution :
(a) y = sin x + 5
writing it as y ă 5 = sin x
applying y–5  y
 y = sin x

y y
6

5
O yă5 y
4
x
O
y = sinx

(b) y = cos2 x
we dont know the graph of cos 2x but we do know the graph of cos x.
since cos 2x = 2 cos2x ă 1
 2 cos2 x = cos2x + 1

cos2x  1
 cos2x =
2

cos2x  1
 y=
2

1 cos 2x
 y 
2 2

1 cos 2x
 y 
2 2
applying transformation yă1/2  y

cos 2x
 y
2

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cos2x
here have half the period of cos x & also half of amplitude.
2
y y
1
2 1
ă  ă 
2 2 x y ă 1/2 y 2 2
O  1
4 2 x
ă1 O
2

Transform at ion 2 :
To draw the graph of y = f (x  a) from y = f (x)
(a) To draw y = f (x + a) from y = f (x) shift the graph of f (x) in ÂaÊ units to left.
(b) To draw y = f (x ă a) from y = f (x) shift the graph of f (x) by ÂaÊ units to right.

–a a
y = f(x - a)
y = f(x + a)

y = f(x)

Illustration 29
Plot
 z
(a) y = |x + 2| (b) y  sin  x   (c) y = 4.2x
 4

Solution : (a) for y = |x + 2|

by putting x  x + 2
y = |x|

x x+ 2
O ă2 0

y = |x+2|
y = |x|

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 
(b) y = sin  x  
 4

here we will draw the above graph from y = sin x

putting x for x ă /4

y = sinx

0 x x /4 O /4

(c) y = 4.2x
or we can write this as
y = 2 2.2x = 2x+2
we know the curve of 2x, so

1 4

1
O x x+2

Transform at ion 3
To plot the curve of y = f (ă x) from y = f (x)
1. Draw the graph y = f (x)
2. Then take the mirror image of y = f (x) in y-axis or we can say, turn the graph of f (x) by
180Ĉ about y-axis.

Illustration 30
Draw the graph of the following :
(a) y = e ăx (b) y = log (ă x)

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Solution :
(a) We will go stepwise for solving these curves.
Step 1 : Draw the graph of y = f (x)
so here putting ă x as x
 y = ex

1 stepă2 (0, 1)
x x
taking mirror
image

(b) y = log (ă x)
ă x  x
drawing the graph of y = log x

x x
(0, 1) mirror
image

y = log x

Transform at ion 4
To draw the graph of y = ă f (x) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw the graph of y = f (x)
Step 2 : Then take the mirror image of y = f (x) in x-axis.

Illustration 31
Plot the graph of the following curve :

1
(a) y = ă ex (b) y  log  
x

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Solution :
(a) y = ă ex
we know the curve of y = ex

step ă1
y

(0, 1) STEP
x
–f(x) f(x)
(0,ă1)
taking mirror
image
x
y = ăe

1
(b) y  log  
x

this can be written as y = log xă1

or y = ă log x {by log properties}
now we have y = ă log x

y y

x x
(0, 1) taking mirror (ă1, 0)
image

Transform at ion 5
To plot y = f (|x|) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : plot y = f (x) curve
Step 2 : Remove the left portion of the graph
Step 3 : Take the reflection of right portion in y-axis (including right part also)

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Illustration 32
Plot the curves of the following :
(a) y = log |x| (b) y = x 2 ă 2 |x| + 3
1
(c) y
x 1
Solution :
(a) given y = log |x|
Step 1 : draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : remove left part already there is no left part here

STEP 3

|x| x

(ă1, 0) (1, 0)

y = log x

(b) y = x2 ă 2 |x| + 3
This is transformation of |x|  x
Step 1 : putting |x|  x
 y = x 2 = 2x + 3 drawing the curve
Step 2 : Remove the left part
Step 3 : taking reflection

(0, 3)
(0, 3)

y = x2 - 2x + 3 y = x2- 2|x|+ 3

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1
(c) y
x 1
This one includes 2 transformations
1
1. |x|  x  y
x 1

1
2. x+ 1 x  y
x

1
So first drawing the curve y 
x

applying
transformation
'2'

y = ă1 applying
y = 1/x
transformation
'1' now

1
y= removing the left part
|x| + 1

Note : The order of applying the transformations is very important, otherwise we will get wrong
answer.

Transform at ion 6
To plot y = |f(x)| from the curve of y = f(x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Take mirror image of portion below x-axis in x-axis. (removing the lower portion).

Illustration 33
Plot the graph of the following curves
(a) y = |log x| (b) y = |x 2 ă 3x + 2|

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Solution :
(a) given y = |f(x)| = |log x|
where f (x) = log x

STEP 1 y STEP 2

x Mirror
(1, 0) image of
lower portion

(b) y = |x2 ă 3x + 2|
 y = |(x ă 1) (x ă 2)
applying transformation |f(x)|  f (x)
 f (x) = (x ă 1) (x ă 2)

(0, 2) (0, 2)
|f(x)|
(1, 0) (2, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0)

Transform at ion 7
To plot the graph of |y| = f (x) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Remove the lower portion i.e. below x-axis.
Step 3 : Take mirror image of upper part in lower part, keeping the upper part also.

Illustration 34
Draw the graph of the following :
(a) |y| = (x ă 2) (x ă 3)
(b) |y| = log x

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Solution :
(a) given |y| = (x ă 2) (x ă 3)
applying the 3 steps
STEP ă 1 STEP ă 2 STEP ă3

(0, 6)

(2, 0) (3, 0)
removing
lower part
& taking
mirror image
(b) |y| = log x

STEP 2

removing
this taking mirror
y = log x |y| log x
image

Transform at ion 8
To plot x = f (y) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Take reflection in line y = x, also called reflection about origin.

Illustration 35
Plot the graph of the following :
(a) x = log y (b) x = |y|
Solution :
(a) now here x & y are interchanged original function was y = log x

taking
mirror image
in y = x line
y = log x x = log y

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(b) we have x = |y| & we know the graph of y = |x|, which we get by replacing x by y & y by x.

(y = |x|) (x = |y|)

Transform at ion 9
To plot x = |f( y)| from the graph x = f(y)
Step 1 : Draw the graph of x = f(y), using transformation 8.
Step 1 : Take reflection of Left portion in y axis.

Illustration 36
Plot the graph of the following :
(a) x = |log y|
Solution :
Firstly drawing the graph of x = log y from y = log x

(0, 1)

(1, 0)

y = log x
now applying step 2 for modulus function

x = |log y|

Note : This transformation is not valid for g (x) = |f(y)| i.e. on L.H.S. only x should be there &
no other function.

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Transform at ion 10
To plot the graph of y = [f (x)] from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Draw horizontal lines after every unit distance i.e. y  k, where k integers.
Step 3 : From the point of intersection (as obtained from step 2), draw vertical lines.
Step 4 : From the intersection points draw horizontal lines upto the nearest vertical line (towards
right). The line drawn should be below the curve for that region.
We will understand the steps with the help of examples.

Illustration 37
Draw the graph of following curves :
(i) y = [x] (ii) y = [x 3 ] (iii) y = [2sinx ]
Solution :
(a) We will go stepwise, so as to understand the procedure.
we have y = [x]
Step 1 : draw y = x Step 2

4
3
drawing 2
horizontal
lines 1

ă1 1 2 3 4

ă2
ă3

Step 3 y

drawing x
final lines

drawing vertical lines downward to x-axis final graph of y = [x]

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(b) y = [x3]
Step 1 Step 2 & 3 Step 4

y=[ ]

(c) y = [2 sin x]
drawing first 2 sin x, which is almost same curve as sin x but has an amplitude of 2 rather
than 1.

applying step 2 & 3

y
2
2
1
1  5 7 11
0 6 6 6
ă1 x
ă2 ă1
y = 2 sin x ă2

applying step 2 & 3

applying step

2
1

0
ă1
ă2

Transform at ion 11
To plot y = f ([x]) from the graph of y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Draw vertical lines on every integral point of x i.e. x = k where k I (integers)
Step 3 : Draw horizontal lines from point of intersection to the nearest right vertical line.

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Illustration 38
Plot the following curves :
(a) y = e [x ] (b) y = sin [x]
Solution :
(a) given y = e[x]
we know the graph of y =ex

Step 1

(0, 1)
Step 2
ă4 ă3 ă2 ă1 1 2 3 4 ă4 ă3 ă2 ă1 1 2 3 4

ă2 ă1 1 2 3

(b) y = sin [x]

here we know the graph of y = sin x

ă3
O Step 2 2 1 23 4

ă1

y = sin x

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In step 2 we have marked lines for x = k (where k  integers)

Note here that  has a value 3.14 (approx.), so now we can understand that we will get point
x = 1, 2, 3 between 0 and .

sin2
sin1
3 2 sin3 5
ă1 1 2 3 4

Note here that the figure in step 2 has parts above and below x-axis in (3, 4) but in final
graph the graph between (3, 4) is above x axis.
This is so because, for 3  x < 4, [x] = 3 only, so the value will be sin 3.
Also do not get confuse in values sin 1, sin 2 & sin 3.
for 1  x < 2; sin [x] = sin 1 ~ .84
2  x < 3; sin [x] = sin 2 ~ .909
3  x < 4; sin [x] = sin 3 ~ .14
& 1, 2 & 3 are in radians.

Transform at ion 12
To plot [y] = f (x), from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Draw horizontal lines at a unit distance i.e. y = k (k belongs to set of integers)
Step 3 : Draw vertical lines from the point of intersection up till next upper horizontal line
Include only the lower point.

Illustration 39
Plot the following graph :
(a) [y] = x 3
(b) [y] = x 2 ă 2

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Solution :
(a) given [y] = x3 , we known the graph of y = x3
Step 1 & 2
y
3

x
ă1

ă2

ă3

ă1

ă2

(b) [y] = x2 ă 2
This one includes two transformations :
1. [y]  y   y = x2 ă 2
2. y + 2  2  y = x2
drawing first y = x2 y=2
y=1

applying y = ă1
transformation
(0, ă2)

So, you can note here that

upper points on the vertical ă1

lines are not included. ă2

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Transform at ion 13
To plot x = [f (y)] from x = f (y)
Step 1 : draw x = f (y) by using transformation 8.
Step 2 : draw vertical lines at a unit distance
i.e. x = k (k  integers)
Step 3 : draw vertical lines from the point of intersection uptil the above intersection point.

Illustration 40

Draw the graph of x =  y 

Solution :

Given x =  y 

first we will draw the graph of x = y

for x = y , y  0 (as it is a property of under root function)

squaring  x 0
 x2 = y
here we will draw in the region where x  0 as stated by (1)

16

9
4
1

1 2 3 4 1 2 3

x= y [ x ]= y

Note : This transformation is not valid for functions of form g (x) = [f (y)]

Transform at ion 14
Plot the graph of y = f ({x}) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : draw the graph of y = f( x) in the interval [0, 1]
Step 2 : Repeat the same graph as in step 1, with a period of 1.

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Illustration 41
Plot the graph of the following :

2x
(a) y = sin (x ă [x]) (b) y 
2 [ x]
Solution :
(a) given y = sin (x ă [x])
& we know that x ă [x] = {x}
 we have to draw y = sin x in [0, 1]

sin 1
sin 1

1 1 2 3
2 ă1

2x
(b) y
 x
2
this could be written as y = 2x ă [x]
 y = 2 {x}
for this we will draw y = ax with a > 0
for {x} graph we will only check for the output between 0 and 1.

2
x
1 y= 2
1 [x]
2

Transform at ion 15
To draw the graph of y = {f (x)} from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw the graph of y = f (x)
Step 2 : Transfer the graph between the interval
y= 0 & y = 1

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Illustration 42
Plot the graph of the following :

(a) 
y  e x 1  (b) y = {2sinx}
Solution :

(a) given that y  e  

x1

1. {f (x)}  f (x)  y = exă1

2. xă 1  x  y = ex

3
2
1
(0, 1) eă1
applying

x transformation 2 1 x -1
y=e y=e

1 log2+1 log3+1

(b) y = {2sinx}
We know the graph of y = 2 sin x, as we have done that earlier also.

2
1

ă1
ă2

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Transform at ion 15
y = f (x)  {y} = f (x)
To draw {y} = f (x). Draw the graph of y = f ( x) then retain the graph of y = f (x) which lies between
y  [0, 1) and neglect the graph for other values. Also repeat this graph in the same interval for x,
but for all intervals y  [n, n + 1).

Illustration 43
Plot the graph of {y} = eăx
Solution :

(i)  y  e x 
y   y
y  e x

Y Y
y ă 4 =e x
4
3 y ă 3 = ex
1 y ă2 =e x
2
X 1 y ă 1 = ex
0 X
0 y = ex
y+1 = x
ă1 e
ă2 y + 2 = ex
y +3 = x
ă3 e
Graph of y = ex
Graph of y = e x

Transform at ion 16
x  f  y   x   f  y 
To draw x = { f (y)}. Draw x = f (y). Draw vertical lines corresponding to integral values of x.
Transfer the graph between two consecutive vertical lines to the region lying between x = 0 & x = 1.
DonÊt include the points lying on x = 1.

Illustration 44
Plot (i) x = {2y}
x = {2y} x = 2y Y
Solution : f(y) = f{y} 6
Y 5
ă5 4
ă4 3
ă3
ă2 2
ă1 1 X
X 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 ă1
ă2
ă3
ă4
ă5
Graph of x = {2y}
Graph of x = 2y
Note : This transformation is not valid for drawing g (x) = {f (y)} from g (x) = f (y)
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Transform at ion 17

y  f  x   y  sgn  f  x  

To Draw y = sgn (f (x)). Draw y = f (x). Then draw y = 1 for which f (x) > 0 and y = ă 1 for which
f (x) < 0 and y = 0 for which f (x) = 0.

Illustration 45
Plot the graph of y = sgn (log x)
Solution :

y  sgn  log x   y  log x

y   y

Y Y

X X
O 1 O 1
ă1

Graph of y = loge x Graph of y = sgn (logx)

COM POSI T E FU N CT I ON S
Let us consider two functions, f : X  Y1 and g : Y1  Y. We define function h : X  Y such that
h (x) = g (f(x)). To obtain h(x), we first take the f-image of an element x X so that f (x)  Y1, which
is the domain of g (x). Then take g-image of f(x), i.e. g(f(x) i.e. g (f(x)) which would be an element of
Y. The adjacent figure clearly shows the steps to be taken.

f g

x f(x) g(f(x))

X Y1 Y
h = gof

The function ÂhÊ defined above is called the composition of f and g and is denoted by gof.
Thus (gof)x = g( f(x). Clearly Domain (gof) = {x : xDomain (f), f (x)  Domain (g)} Similarly we
can define, (fog)x = f (g(x)) and Domain (fog) = {x : x  Domain (g), g (x) Domain (f)}. In general
fog  g of.

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Ex p l a n a t i o n :
(i) To understand the concept of complete function consider fog (x) :

x g(x) fog(x)
g f
Ist IInd

in the above diagram for Ist block ÂxÊ is the independent variable and corresponding g( x) is
the dependent variable. But for IIrd block f (x) i.e. the dependent variable of Ist block is
independent variable of the IInd block and corresponding fog (x) is the dependent variable
of IInd block.

x f(x) fof(x)
(ii) fof(x) is f f
Ist IInd

x f(x) g gof(x)
(iii) gof(x) is f
Ist IInd

x g(x) g gog(x)
(iv) gog(x) is g
Ist IInd

Ge n e r a l s t e p s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g c o m p o s i t e f u n c t i o n s
Step 1 : Find critical points
(a) Draw graph of first block.
(b) Draw y = k (horizontal lines)
k critical pt(s) for second block
(c) Make pt(s) of intersection & find corresponding values of x.
(d) Critical pt(s) of first block & values obtained in c are critical pt(s) of composite
function.
Step 2 : Divide interval about critical point.
Step 3 : In each and every interval find appropriate definition of the function.

Illustration 46
Consider the function as defined as under

1  x , 0  x  2
f x  
3  x ; 2  x  3

Evaluate f [f (x)]

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Solution :
Here we have to evaluate fof (x)

x f(x) fof
f f

According to the rules that we have mentioned above,

Step 1 : It says draw the graph of first block.
i.e. f (x)

1  x ; 0  x  2 3
we know f  x  
3  x ; 2  x  3 2

1 2 3

(b) Now we have to y = k where k  critical points of the above function which is 2 in this
question.
 draw y = 2 line & find the point of intersection, which comes out to be 1

2 y=2

1 2 3

(c) now the critical point found will be the critical point of the composite function. Also the critical
point of first block will add to the critical points of composite function.
Step 2 : For composite function; now
the interval will be divided as follows
0  f (x)  2 & y
2 < f (x)  3
3
& now seeing for values, for these values. 3ăf(x)
2

1 1+f(x)

x
1 2 3

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Step 3 : Now finding appropriate values for their intervals

1  f  x  0  x  1 
 
f  f  x    3  f  x 1  x  2
 
1  f  x  2  x  3

as can be seen in the above graph.

Now put values of f (x) corresponding to the interval of x.

1  1  x 0  x  1
 
fof   3   1  x  1  x  2 
 
 1   3  x  2  x  3

2  x 0  x  1 
 
fof   2  x 1  x  2 

4  x 2  x  3
 

Illustration 47
Evaluate and draw the graph of following functions :
(a) f (x) = sin ă1 (sin x) (b) f (x) = sin (sină1 x )
Solution :
(a) f (x) = sină1 (sin x)
This can be considered a composite function with f (g (x)) as sină1 (sin (x))
It is clear that Df R, since sin x is valid for all values of x & it value ranges from ă 1 to + 1 which
satisfies sină1 function also.

 3
We know the graph of y = sin x from we get critical points as 2 , 2 ...  2n  1  (We will cover
2

critical points later also).

3
2

2
2

For now you can say that in such curves the points on which the tangent is parallel to x-axis are
the critical points.

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
for 0  x  sin ă1 (sin x) = x
2

 3
for  x  sin ă1 (sin x) =  ă x
2 2

Now this is important to understand this point, whenever we use inverse functions we represent
them in their principal value branch.

     3 
& sină1 x principal value branch is  ,  so for value between  ,  we have to convert
 2 2  2 2

them into principal values, which we do by subtracting it from .

3 5
So similarly for interval  x , we will subtract them by 2 and so on.
2 2
So the final graph becomes

y=x
  
x ;   x
 2 2 5
3 2
 3
 sin x     x
2
f  x   sin 1 2 2 2
;  x
 2 2
y=xă2
 3 5 y= –x
 x 2 ;  x
 2 2

(b) f (x) = sin (sină1 x)

first of all we will find the domain of the function for sină1 x, x can only take values
between ă 1 & 1
 Df  [ă 1, 1]
 
& since values between ă 1 & 1 lie between & (i.e. the principal value branch)
2 2
sin (sină1 x) = x
y
 f (x) = sin (sină1 x) = x; ă 1  x  1

ă1
x
1

ă1

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Illustration 48
Draw the following graphs :
(a) y = tan ă1 (tan x)
(b) y = sec (secă1 x )
Solution :
(a) given y = tană1 (tan x)
Again here, first of all we will try to find out the domain of the function
We know tană1 x will be valid for all x  R


& tan x returns real values for x  R ă (2n + 1)
2

 D f  R   2n  1
2
& Range will be according to the outer function which is tană1 here

   
 Rf   , 
 2 2
We know the graph of y = tan x

Which is discontinuous at x   2n  1 
2

so  2 n  1  for n = 0, 1, 2 ...
2
0 2
3
become its critical points. 2

 
so for x  tan ă1 (tan x) = x
2 2

 3
& for x  tană1 (tan x) = x ă 
2 2

 
again according to principal value branch which  2 , 2  for tan
ă1
x.

Y

  3   2
x   2
 x
2 
 
  
 y  tan 1  tan    x
x  
x  3 3
X
 2 2  2 2 2
2
  3 
x    x
2  2
 2

Note :  2n  1  points are not included as they are not part of domain.
2

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(b) y = sec (secă1 x)

we know the graph of sec ă1 x
D f  (ă , ă 1]  [1, )

2
 
Rf  [0, ] ă  
 2
y = sec x
and for this range the sec function is also valid.
 Df  (ă , ă 1]  [1, )
& Rf  (ă , ă 1]  [1, ) (as equal to the range of normal sec x function)
 y = sec (secă1 x) = x (for the given domain)
Note : The funda of principal value branch comes only when the outer function is an inverse
function because it is the property of inverse functions only.
So, drawing the graph now

ă1
1

ă1

Illustration 49
Draw the following graphs :

 2x   1  x2 
y  sin  1  y  cos 1 
(a)  1  x 2  (b)  1  x 2 
   

1  2 x 
Solution : (a) given, y  sin  2

1 x 

   
These kind of problems are solved by substitution by putting x = tan  &    ,  the principal
 2 2
branch value for tan

 1  2 tan    2 tan  
we get sin  2   sin ce  sin 2 
 1  tan    1  tan2  
= sină1 (sin 2)

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So, now the function becomes

y = sină1 (sin 2)
2

  3 
 x   2
 x
2 
 
   
but we know the graph of sină1 (sin x) i.e. y   x  x  replacing x by 2
 2 2 
  3 
  x  x
2 
 2

replacing x by 2

  3  
 2    ;
2
 2 
2 
 
   
y  2 ;  2  
 2 2 
  3 
  2 ;  2 
2 
 2

  3  
 2    ;
4

4 
 
 y  2 ;   /4     /4 
  3 
  2 ;  
 4 4 

and we substitute x = tan 

   
          = tan ă1 x & also    , 
 2 2
replacing the value of  in above values

 1   
 2 tan x   ;   tan  1 x 
2 4 
 
   
 y  2 tan 1 x ;   tan  x 
1

 4 4 
 1   
  2 tan x ;  tan 1 x 
 4 2 

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 1     
 2 tan x   ; tan    x  tan  
  2  4 
     
 y  2 tan 1 x ; tan    x  tan   
  4  4  
    
  2 tan 1 x ; tan  x  tan   
 4  2  

 2tan  1 x   ;    x   1
 
 y  2 tan 1 x ;  1  x 1 
 
  2tan 1 x ; 1  x   


Now we will draw the graph of the final function we know the graph of tană1 x, so drawing the
final graph from it.

2
y = tan ă1x y = ă2tan ă1x

so the final graph is


2

ă1
0 1
ă
2

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 1  x2 
y  cos 1 
(b)  1  x 2 
 

here putting x = tan 

   
&    ,  {make a rule to write down constraint as they come
 2 2

1  tan 2 
 cos 2
1  tan2 

 y = cosă1 (cos 2) 2

 x ,    x  0
y  cos 1  cos x   2
x , 0x 

for those who do not know this graph, try to solve it on your own.

 2 ;    2  0
 y  cos1  cos 2    
2  ; 0  2   

  
 2 ;
2
  0 

y  
  2  
; 0
 2 

replacing  by tană1 x

 1  
  2 tan x ;   tan1 x  0 
2 
  
 2 tan 1 x ; 
0  tan 1 x  
 2 

 2 tan 1 x ;    x  0 
y  ă2tană1x 2tană1x
 1

 2 tan x ; 0  x   
O
 Final graph is

FUN C TIO N S