UNIT-1

#1.What is Mobile Computing?

Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice
and video via a computer or any other wireless enabled device without
having to be connected to a fixed physical link. It enables people to
access information, applications, and communication services anytime
and anywhere, without being tethered to a fixed physical location.

It combines the mobility of devices like smartphones, tablets, laptops,

and wearables with wireless communication technologies like Wi-Fi,
cellular networks (4G/5G), and Bluetooth.

Key Components of Mobile Computing:

Mobile communication
The mobile communication in this case, refers to the infrastructure put in
place to ensure that seamless and reliable communication goes on. These
would include devices such as protocols, services, bandwidth, and portals
necessary to facilitate and support the stated services. The data format is
also defined at this stage. This ensures that there is no collision with
other existing systems which offer the same service.

Mobile Hardware
Mobile hardware includes mobile devices or device components that
receive or access the service of mobility. They would range from portable
laptops, smartphones, tablet Pc's, Personal Digital Assistants.
These devices will have a receptor medium that is capable of sensing and
receiving signals. These devices are configured to operate in full- duplex,
whereby they are capable of sending and receiving signals at the same
time. They don't have to wait until one device has finished communicating
for the other device to initiate communications.

Mobile software
Mobile software is the actual program that runs on the mobile hardware.
It deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications.
This is the engine of the mobile device. In other terms, it is the operating
system of the appliance. It's the essential component that operates the
mobile device.

Since portability is the main factor, this type of computing ensures that
users are not tied or pinned to a single physical location, but are able to
operate from anywhere. It incorporates all aspects of wireless
communications.

Characteristics of Mobile Computing:

Ubiquity: means present everywhere. In the context of mobile

computing, ubiquity means the ability of a user to perform computations
from anywhere and at any time. For example, a business executive can
receive business notifications and issue business transactions as long he
is in the wireless coverage area.

Location awareness: A hand-held device equipped with a global

positioning system (GPS) can transparently provide information about the
current location of a user to a tracking station. Many applications,
personalized services require location-based services. For example, a
person travelling by road in a car, may need to find out a car maintenance
service that may be available nearby. He can easily locate such a service
through mobile computing where an application may show the nearby
maintenance shop.

Adaptation: Adaptation in the context of mobile computing implies the

ability of a system to adjust to bandwidth fluctuation without
inconveniencing the user. In a mobile computing environment, adaptation
is crucial because of intermittent disconnections and bandwidth
fluctuations that can arise due to a number of factors such as handoff,
obstacles, environmental noise, etc.
Broadcast : In mobile networks, broadcast allows one-to-many data
transmission, efficiently reaching multiple users at once.
For example, all users at a specific location, such as those near a railway
station, may be sent advertising information by a taxi service operator.
This is useful for location-based alerts, emergency notifications, and mass
updates.

Personalization: Services in a mobile environment can be easily

personalized according to a user’s profile. This is required to let the users
easily avail information with their hand-held devices. For example, a
mobile user may need only a certain type of information from specific
sources. This can be easily done through personalization.

📱 Applications of Mobile Computing

🚗 1️⃣ Vehicles
●​ Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB):​
Sends road updates, news, music, and weather info to vehicles.​

●​ Personal Communication:​
People can make calls and send messages through GSM (Global
System for Mobile Communication) while traveling.​

●​ Position Tracking:​
Vehicles use GPS to find their location and help with navigation.​

●​ Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication:​
Nearby vehicles form small local networks to prevent accidents and
share traffic updates.​

●​ Maintenance Data:​
Vehicles like buses and trains can send data ahead of time for quick
maintenance.​

🚑 2️⃣ Emergencies
●​ Faster Medical Data Transmission:​
Patient data can be sent to hospitals even before arrival for early
 treatment.​

●​ Temporary Communication Networks:​

In disasters like earthquakes or floods, mobile systems replace
damaged communication networks.​

●​ Wireless Medical Devices:​

Doctors and nurses now use Tablet PCs and WLAN to collect and
share patient information quickly.​

💼 3️⃣ Business (Travelling Salesmen)

●​ Customer Data Access:​
Salespeople can access customer details directly from central office
databases while on the move.​

●​ Mobile Office:​
Sales teams use Tablet PCs and smartphones for presentations
and sharing information between the office, hotel, and client
meetings.​

●​ Consistent Databases:​
All sales agents can access the same updated information no
matter where they are.​

🌐 4️⃣ Replacement of Fixed Networks

●​ Remote Sensors:​
Used in areas like weather stations or earthquake monitoring
where fixed lines aren’t practical.​

●​ Trade Shows:​
Temporary wireless networks can be set up for fast internet at
events and exhibitions.​

●​ Historic Buildings:​
Wireless LANs can be used where installing cables is difficult or
prohibited.​
🎮📚 5️⃣ Entertainment & Education
●​ Outdoor Internet Access:​
Connect to the internet while traveling or sitting in a park.​

●​ Smart Travel Guides:​

Travel apps give location-based tourist info and recommendations.​

●​ Ad-hoc Gaming Networks:​

Create temporary local networks for multiplayer mobile games
without internet.​

📍 6️⃣ Location Dependent Services

●​ Location-Aware Services:​
Detect nearby services like printers, phones, and servers
automatically.​

●​ Follow-On Services:​
Calls and workspace data move along with the user wherever they
go.​

●​ Information Services:​

○​ Push services: Automatically send you special offers nearby

(e.g., discounts at a supermarket).​

○​ Pull services: Let you search for something (e.g., where to

find a Black Forest Cherry Cake nearby).​

●​ Support Services:​
Mobile devices carry saved data like cache, temporary results, or
session states while moving through different networks.
#2. Fixed Assignment MAC Protocols

Fixed Assignment Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols allocate a fixed

portion of the channel resources (time, frequency, or code) to each user,
regardless of whether they have data to transmit or not. These protocols
are efficient in scenarios with continuous traffic but may lead to
underutilization in bursty traffic conditions.

Types of Fixed Assignment MAC Protocols:

●​ Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

●​ Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
●​ Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) :

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is a technique where the

total available bandwidth (or frequency range) is divided into several
smaller frequency bands called channels. Each user is assigned a unique
channel for communication. In a mobile communication system, every
user who makes a call is given two separate frequency bands—one for
sending signals from their mobile device to the base station (called the
forward link) and another for receiving signals from the base station to
their device (called the reverse link). This allows full duplex
communication, meaning the user can talk and listen at the same time,
just like a regular phone call.

However, once a frequency band is assigned to a user, it cannot be used

by any other user for the duration of the call. Even if the person pauses
while talking, the frequency band remains reserved, resulting in wasted
bandwidth. Similarly, if no one is using a particular channel, that part of
the spectrum stays idle. Because of this, FDMA does not use the available
bandwidth very efficiently, especially during periods of silence or low
activity. While FDMA provides simple and reliable access, it lacks the
flexibility and efficiency of more dynamic protocols.
While FDMA is relatively simple to implement and provides a predictable,
interference-free communication experience, it suffers from poor
spectrum efficiency. If a user is not actively transmitting data or speech
(for example, during silent periods in a call), the allocated frequency band
remains unused but still reserved. This leads to wastage of bandwidth,
as no other user can utilize that frequency during this idle time.

FDMA was widely used in first-generation (1G) analog mobile

systems, such as the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS). Though it
has largely been replaced by more efficient methods like TDMA and CDMA
in modern digital systems, FDMA remains a fundamental concept and is
still used in satellite and some radio communication systems.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) serves as a channelization

protocol that allows multiple users to share the same frequency channel
by dividing the communication time into distinct time slots. Unlike FDMA,
which separates users by frequency, TDMA separates users based on
time. Each user is assigned a specific time slot in which they are allowed
to transmit or receive data. The users take turns transmitting in rapid
succession — one after the other — but because the switching between
users is so fast, it appears as if communication is happening
simultaneously.

In TDMA, the available frequency is divided into time frames, and each
frame is further divided into multiple time slots. Each user is allotted a
particular slot in each frame. This means that during their assigned time
slot, users have exclusive access to the channel to send or receive data.
After their time slot ends, the system switches to the next user’s slot. This
process continues cyclically, repeating for each frame.

To support full-duplex communication, TDMA systems typically use two

frequency bands — one for the uplink and one for the downlink — and
divide time slots within each band accordingly. This allows the user to
both transmit and receive, although not at the exact same time, but
quickly enough that the user does not perceive a delay. This technique is
commonly referred to as Time Division Duplexing (TDD) or is
combined with FDMA in some systems for duplexing.

However, TDMA requires precise synchronization between users to

ensure they transmit only in their allocated time slots. Any misalignment
can lead to time slot overlap, causing interference. Therefore, TDMA
systems rely heavily on time synchronization mechanisms and often
involve complex scheduling algorithms to manage access.

TDMA was widely used in second-generation (2G) digital mobile

systems such as GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications). It is
also used in wireless communication standards like DECT (Digital
Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications) and some satellite
communication systems.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital communication

technique where multiple users share the same frequency band
simultaneously, but each user is assigned a unique code to distinguish
their communication from others. Unlike FDMA (which separates users by
frequency) or TDMA (which separates users by time), CDMA allows all
users to transmit at the same time and on the same frequency band
by encoding their signals with unique spreading codes. These codes are
also known as pseudo-random noise (PN) codes or spreading
sequences.

The working principle of CDMA relies on a technique called spread

spectrum. In this method, the original data signal is multiplied by a
high-frequency code, which spreads the signal over a much wider
frequency band than the original. This process is called spreading. At the
receiver’s end, the signal is de-spread by multiplying it with the same
code used at the sender’s end.

Because all users transmit simultaneously on the same frequency, CDMA

systems must manage the problem of interference through power
control. This ensures that signals from different users arrive at the base
station with approximately equal power levels, preventing a situation
where a strong signal drowns out weaker ones (known as the near–far
problem).
One of the main challenges in CDMA is the complexity of code
management and synchronization. Each user must be assigned a unique
code, and both the transmitter and receiver must be tightly synchronized
in time to properly encode and decode the signals.

CDMA has been widely used in 3G mobile systems, particularly in

technologies such as IS-95 (cdmaOne) and CDMA2000. It has also
been used in GPS, military communications, and other wireless
systems that require secure and reliable data transfer.
#3. Random Assignment MAC Protocols
(Random Access Schemes)
In Random Assignment Schemes, any device can attempt to transmit
data at any time. There is no fixed order or pre-allocation of the
channel as in Fixed Assignment schemes like FDMA, TDMA, or CDMA.
Instead, users compete for the channel, and collisions may occur when
two or more devices transmit simultaneously. The protocols are designed
to detect or avoid these collisions and retransmit data as necessary.

These schemes are mostly used in environments where the number of

users is large but data transmissions are infrequent, such as in
LANs or Wi-Fi networks.

ALOHA Scheme:

It is a simple communication scheme that was developed at the

University of Hawaii. The basic (also called pure) ALOHA scheme is a
simple protocol. If a node has data to send, it begins to transmit. Note
that the first step implies that Pure ALOHA does not check whether the
channel is busy before transmitting. If the frame successfully reaches the
destination (receiver), the next frame is sent. If the frame fails to be
received at the destination, it is sent again.

​
The simple ALOHA scheme works acceptably, when the chances of
contention are small (i.e., when a small number of senders send data
infrequently). However, the collisions can become unacceptably high if the
number of contenders for transmission is high.
In fig there are four stations that contend with one another for access to a
shared channel. All these stations are transmitting frames. Some of these
frames collide because multiple frames are in contention for the shared
channel. Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 2.2 survive. All other
frames are destroyed.

Slotted ALOHA:

Slotted ALOHA is an improvement over the pure ALOHA scheme. In this

system, time is divided into equal-sized slots, and a packet can only be
sent at the start of a slot. This reduces the chances of collisions, as all
nodes must synchronize their transmissions to these time slots. Beacon
signals are sent at regular intervals to mark the beginning of each slot,
allowing nodes with data to transmit at that time.

In slotted ALOHA, if any station is not able to place the frame onto the
channel at the beginning of the slot i.e. it misses the time slot then the
station has to wait until the beginning of the next time slot.

However, even with these improvements, slotted ALOHA still faces

challenges when there are many nodes trying to send data
simultaneously. If a node misses the start of a time slot, it must wait for
the next one, which can cause delays. Additionally, when the network
becomes congested with heavy traffic, slotted ALOHA's efficiency
decreases, and the likelihood of collisions increases. In such high-traffic
situations, protocols like Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) are more
effective because they offer better management of shared communication
channels. Despite these limitations, slotted ALOHA remains a simple and
useful method for managing access to a shared channel in lower-traffic
environments.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA):

The Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) scheme is a popular

medium access control (MAC) technique where a node checks the channel
before starting its transmission. If the channel is free, the node begins
transmitting. If the channel is busy (i.e., another node is transmitting),
the node waits. This method helps to reduce the likelihood of collisions by
ensuring that nodes do not transmit simultaneously. However, two
extensions of this scheme—CSMA/CD (Collision Detection) and
CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)—address different challenges in wired
and wireless networks.

What is Vulnerable Time in CSMA?

Vulnerable time is the short period when there’s a chance that two
devices on a network might send data at the same time and cause a
collision.
In networks like Wi-Fi or Ethernet, devices first listen to see if the
network is clear before sending their data. However, after a device checks
and finds the network free, there’s a small delay before it starts sending
data. During this time, another device might also try to send data, which
can lead to both data packets crashing into each other (a collision). This
period, where a collision might happen, is called the vulnerable time.

In CSMA/CD, the device starts transmitting once it senses the channel is

clear. However, even if it starts transmitting, a collision can still occur. This
works well in wired networks because when a collision happens, the
device can detect it and stop sending immediately. But in wireless
networks, detecting collisions is much harder because the device sending
the data has a much stronger signal than any other devices, making it
difficult to notice if something else is interfering. This can waste
bandwidth and lead to delays since the transmission has to be repeated.

CSMA/CA is a method designed for wireless networks to prevent

collisions before they happen. When a device finishes transmitting, other
devices might start sending data right away, causing a collision. To avoid
this, CSMA/CA makes devices wait for a random period before they can
send data. If the channel is still busy, they wait again for another random
period. This process reduces the chances of multiple devices transmitting
at the same time and helps avoid collisions in busy wireless networks.
#4 .MAC
What is MAC and Its Protocols? (Explained Simply)

MAC stands for Medium Access Control. It is a sub-layer of the Data

Link Layer in the OSI model that controls how devices in a network
share and access a common communication medium (like Wi-Fi,
Ethernet cables, etc.). Its main job is to make sure that data is sent and
received without collisions or confusion, especially when many
devices are trying to use the same network at the same time.

Think of MAC as a traffic controller that tells each device when it can
talk and when it must wait, so the network runs smoothly.

Properties Needed for MAC Protocols

MAC protocols need these qualities to work well:

1.​ Fairness: All devices get a chance to send data, not just one
hogging the channel.
2.​ Efficiency: Uses the channel fully, avoiding wasted time or clashes.
3.​ Fast Access: Sends data quickly, important for calls or videos.
4.​ Scalability: Works even with many devices.
5.​ Energy Saving: Saves battery for phones or sensors.
6.​ Reliability: Works despite noise or moving devices.
7.​ Simplicity: Easy to set up and use.
8.​ Flexibility: Adapts to different data needs (e.g., small texts or big
videos).

TYPES:

1. Fixed Assignment MAC Protocols

In this type, each device gets a fixed share of the channel. It’s like
everyone in a group getting a specific time or space to talk.

a. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

 ●​ The total frequency is divided into smaller channels.
●​ Each user gets a unique frequency band.
●​ Used in: old mobile systems, satellite communication.​

b. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

●​ Time is split into slots.

●​ Each user gets a time slot to transmit.
●​ Used in: GSM networks.​

c. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

●​ All users transmit at the same time and frequency.

●​ Each one uses a unique code to separate their signal.
●​ Used in: 3G mobile communication.

🔸 2. Random Access MAC Protocols

Here, devices transmit data whenever they want, but use rules to reduce
the chance of data collision.

a. ALOHA

●​ Devices send data anytime.

●​ If collision happens, they wait and resend.
●​ Simple but high chance of collision.

b. Slotted ALOHA

●​ Time is divided into slots.

●​ Devices send only at the beginning of a slot.
●​ Reduces chances of collision.

c. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

●​ Device listens before sending.

●​ If the channel is busy, it waits.
○​ CSMA/CD (Collision Detection) – used in Ethernet (wired)
○​ CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance) – used in Wi-Fi (wireless)

🔸 3. Reservation-Based MAC Protocols

In this type, a device reserves the channel before it sends data, avoiding
collisions.

●​ Works in systems with a central controller (like base stations).

●​ Suitable for real-time traffic (video, voice).
●​ Examples: Polling, Token Passing, Reservation ALOHA.

🔸 4. Dynamic Assignment Protocols (Hybrid)

These protocols combine the features of fixed, random, and
reservation-based schemes.​
They adjust dynamically depending on network traffic.

●​ Example: In light traffic, use random access; in heavy traffic, switch

to reservation.
●​ Used in: Advanced mobile systems (like LTE).

Main Uses of MAC Protocols:

1.​ Avoiding Collisions​

○​ Only one device should use the medium at a time.

○​ MAC protocols ensure that multiple devices don’t send data at
the same moment, preventing data collisions.​

2.​ Efficient Use of the Medium

○​ Helps manage the available bandwidth (time, frequency, or
code).
○​ Ensures fair and optimal usage so that no device overuses or
underuses the medium.​

3.​ Coordinating Access in Shared Networks

○​ In wired LANs (like Ethernet) and wireless networks (like
Wi-Fi), many devices share the same channel.
○​ MAC protocols coordinate access so that devices don’t
interrupt or overlap each other’s transmissions.​

4.​ Providing Quality of Service (QoS)

○​ Prioritizes data like voice or video over normal data.
 ○​ Helps in applications where timing and reliability are
important (like video calls, gaming, etc.).​

5.​ Supporting Different Network Types

○​ MAC protocols are designed differently for:
■​ Wired networks (like Ethernet: CSMA/CD)
■​ Wireless networks (like Wi-Fi: CSMA/CA)
■​ Cellular networks (like FDMA, TDMA, CDMA in mobile
networks)​

6.​ Power Saving​

○​ Especially in wireless and mobile networks, MAC protocols

help devices reduce power consumption by avoiding
unnecessary transmissions or idle listening.​

7.​ Security and Access Control​

○​ MAC can also restrict unauthorized access by controlling which

device can transmit and when.

(i) How does the MAC Protocol for Wireless Networks differ
from Wired Networks?

📌 Key Differences and Justification:

1.​ Medium Behavior:​

○​ Wired Networks: Use cables where the medium is stable and

predictable.
○​ Wireless Networks: Use air, which is more unpredictable due
to interference, fading, and obstacles.
○​ ✅ Justification: In wireless, signals can be blocked or overlap
due to buildings or other devices, which doesn’t happen in
wired systems.​

2.​ Collision Detection vs. Avoidance:​

○​ Wired (Ethernet): Uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple

Access with Collision Detection) – devices can detect collisions
while transmitting.
 ○​ Wireless (Wi-Fi): Uses CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance) –
devices cannot detect collisions during transmission, so they
try to prevent them.
○​ ✅ Justification: In wireless, it’s hard for a device to “hear”
others while sending because its own signal is much stronger.
So, it avoids collisions instead of detecting them.​

3.​ Hidden and Exposed Node Problems:​

○​ Wired Networks: Rarely have hidden or exposed node

problems because the physical cable connection ensures all
devices hear each other.
○​ Wireless Networks: Have hidden terminal (not all devices can
sense each other) and exposed terminal problems.
○​ ✅Justification: This affects when and how devices should
transmit, requiring more complex coordination in wireless
MAC.​

4.​ Acknowledgement (ACK):​

○​ Wired: Often doesn’t need ACK for every frame as collision

detection handles errors.
○​ Wireless: Requires ACK after each successful transmission due
to unreliable medium.
○​ ✅Justification: Wireless links are more error-prone, so ACK
ensures data is received correctly.​

5.​ Power Management:​

○​ Wired: Devices are usually plugged in and always on.​

○​ Wireless: Devices like smartphones or sensors need MAC

protocols that allow sleep modes to save battery.​

○​ ✅ Justification: Wireless MAC protocols include features like

doze/awake cycles for energy efficiency.

🧠 Conclusion:
MAC protocols in wireless networks are more complex because they must
handle an unreliable medium, avoid collisions instead of detecting them,
deal with hidden/exposed nodes, and save power. In contrast, wired MAC
protocols are simpler and more efficient due to the predictable nature of
cables and easier collision handling.