Production And Operation Management:

UNIT IV

 Work Study:
 Method Study:
 Process Chart:
 Work Measurement:

 Work Study:

Work Study
Work study is a means of enhancing the production efficiency (productivity) of the
firm by elimination of waste and unnecessary Operations. It is a technique to identify
non-value adding operations by investigation of all the factors affecting the job.
Work study is a combination of two groups of techniques, method study and work
measurement, which are used to examine people's work and indicate the factors
which affect efficiency. Measure the amount of work involved in the method used
and calculate a “standard time” for doing it.

Role of Work Study :

1. To standardise the method of doing a work,
2. To minimise the unit cost of production,
3. To determine the standard time for doing a task,
4. To minimise the material movement, and operators movement,
5. To eliminate unnecessary human movements,
6. To utilise facilities such as man, machine and materials most effectively, and
7. To a systematic investigation of all factors.

Objectives of Work Study:

1. Increased efficiency,
2. Better product quality,
3. To choose the fastest method to do a job,
4. To improve the working process,
5. Less fatigue to operators and workers,
6. Effective labour control,
7. Effective utilisation of resources,
8. To decide equipment requirements,
9. To pay fair wages,
10. To aid in calculating exact delivery,
11. To formulate realistic labour budgeting, and
12. To decide the required manpower to do a job.

Basic Procedure of Work-Study:

• Select - The task to be studied.
• Record - By collecting data at source & by direct observation.
• Examine - By challenging the purpose, place, sequence & method of work.
• Develop - New methods, drawing on contribution of those concerned.
• Evaluate - Results of alternative solutions.
• Define.
• Install.
• Maintain.

 Method Study:

Method study is the process of subjecting work to systematic, critical scrutiny to

make it more effective and/or more efficient. It is one of the keys to achieving
productivity improvement. It is the technique of systematic recording and critical
examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work and developing an easier
and economical method. Method study is to simplify the job and develop more
economical methods of doing it. It is systematic both in investigation of problem
being considered and in the development of its solutions. It can be stated as one of
most penetrating tools of investigation available to management.
  Objectives of Method Study:
1. Improvement of manufacturing processes and procedures.
2. Improvement of working conditions.
3. Improvement of plant layout and work place layout.
4. Reducing the human effort and fatigue.
5. Reducing material handling
6. Improvement of plant and equipment design.
7. Improvement in the utility of material, machines and manpower.
8. Standardisation of method.
9. Improvement in safety standard.

 Basic Procedure For Method Study :

The basic procedure for conducting method study is as follows:
1. Select the work to be studied.
2. Record all facts about the method by direct observation.
3. Examine the above facts critically.
4. Develop the most efficient and economic method.
5. Define the new method.
6. Install the new method
7. Maintain the new method by regular checking

1. Select
While selecting a job for doing method study, the following factors are considered:
(a) Economical factors.
(b) Human factors.
(c) Technical factors.

(a) Economical Factors

The money saved as a result of method study should be sufficiently more. Then only
the study will
be worthwhile. Based on the economical factors, generally the following jobs are
selected.
(a) Operations having bottlenecks (which holds up other production activities).
(b) Operations done repetitively.
(c) Operations having a great amount of manual work.
(d) Operations where materials are moved for a long distance.

(b) Human Factors:

The method study will be successful only with the co-operation of all people
concerned viz., workers, supervisor, trade unions etc.
Workers may resist method study due to
1.The fear of unemployment.
2. The fear of reduction in wages.
3. The fear of increased work load. then if they do not accept method study, the
study should be postponed.

(c) Technical Factors :

To improve the method of work all the technical details about the job should be
available. Every machine tool will have its own capacity. Beyond this, it cannot be
improved. For example, a work study man feels that speed of the machine tool may
be increased and HSS tool may be used. But the capacity of the machine may not
permit increased speed. In this case, the suggestion of the work study man cannot be
implemented. These types of technical factors should be considered.

2. Record :
All the details about the existing method are recorded. This is done by directly
observing the work. Symbols are used to represent the activities like operation,
inspection, transport, storage and delay. Different charts and diagrams are used in
recording. They are:
1. Operation process chart: All the operations and inspections are recorded.
2. Flow process chart
(a) Man type All the activities of man are recorded
(b) Material type All the activities of the material are recorded
(c) Equipment type All the activities of equipment or machine are recorded.
3. Two-handed process chart: Motions of both lands of worker are Right hand-Left
hand chart recorded independently.
4. Multiple activity chart: Activities of a group of workers doing a single job or the
activities of a single worker operating a number of machines are recorded.
5. Flow diagram: This is drawn to suitable scale. Path of flow of material in the shop
is recorded.
6. String diagram: The movements of workers are recorded using a string in a
diagram drawn to scale.

3. Examine:
Critical examination is done by questioning technique. This step comes after the
method is recorded by suitable charts and diagrams. The individual activity is
examined by putting a number of questions.
The following factors are questioned
1. Purpose – To eliminate the activity, if possible.
2. Place – To combine or re-arrange the activities.
3. Sequence – -do-
4. Person – -do-
5. Means – To simplify the activity.
By doing this questioning
Unwanted activities can be eliminated 
Number of activities can be combined or re-arranged 
Method can be simplified. 
All these will reduce production time.

4. Develop :
The answer to the questions given below will result in the development of a better
method.
1. Purpose – What should be done? 
2. Place – Where should it be done? 
3. Sequence – When should it be done? 
4. Person – Who should do it? 
5. Means – How should it be done?

5. Define :
Once a complete study of a job has been made and a new method is developed, it is
necessary to
obtain the approval of the management before installing it. The work study man
should prepare a report giving details of the existing and proposed methods. He
should give his reasons for the changes suggested. The report should show
(a) Brief description of the old method.
(b) Brief description of the new method.
(c) Reasons for change.
(d) Advantages and limitations of the new method.
(e) Savings expected in material, labour and overheads.
(f) Tools and equipment required for the new method.
(g) The cost of installing the new method including.
1. Cost of new tools and equipment.
2. Cost of re-layout of the shop.
3. Cost of training the workers in the new method.
4. Cost of improving the working conditions.

6. Install :
This step is the most difficult stage in method study. Here the active support of both
management
and trade union is required. Here
the work study man requires skill in getting along with other people
and winning their trust. Instal stage consists of
(a) Gaining acceptance of the change by supervisor.
(b) Getting approval of management.
(c) Gaining the acceptance of change by workers and trade unions.
(d) Giving training to operators in the new method.
(e) To be in close contact with the progress of the job until it is satisfactorily
executed.
7. Maintain:
The work study man must see that the new method introduced is followed. The
workers after some time. may slip back to the old methods. This should not be
allowed. The new method may have defects. There may be difficulties also. This
should be rectified in time by the work study man. Periodical review is made. The
reactions and suggestions from workers and supervisors are noted. This may lead to
further improvement. The differences between the new written standard practice
and the actual practice are found out. Reasons for variations are analysed. Changes
due to valid reasons are accepted. The instructions are suitably modified.

 Work Measurement:
Work measurement/Time study is a structured process of directly observing
and measuring human work using a timing device to establish the time
3required for completion of the work by a qualified worker when working at a
defined level of performance.

 Role of time study :

(i) It is useful in determining the standard time for various operations, which
helps in fixing wages and incentives.
(ii) It is useful to estimate the cost of a product accurately.
(iii) It helps in production control.
(v) Using the time study techniques, it can be found that how much machines
an operator can run.

 Objectives of work measurement :

• To reduce or eliminate non-productive time.
• To fix the standard time for doing a job.
• To develop standard data for future reference.
• To improve methods.

 Uses of work measurements:

1. To compare the efficiency of alternate methods. When two or more methods are
available for doing the same job, the time for each method is found out by work
measurement. The method which takes minimum time is selected.
2. Standard time is used as a basis for wage incentive schemes.
3. It helps for the estimation of cost. Knowing the time standards, it is possible to
work out the cost of the product. This helps to quote rates for tenders.
4. It helps to plan the workload of man and machine.
5. It helps to determine the requirement of men and machine. When we know the
time to produce one piece and also the quantity to be produced, it is easy to
calculate the total requirement of men and machines.
6. It helps in better production control. Time standards help accurate scheduling. So
the production control can be done efficiently.
7. It helps to control the cost of production. With the help of time standards, the cost
of production can be worked out. This cost is used as a basis for control.
8. It helps to fix the delivery date to the customer. By knowing the standard time we
will be able to calculate the time required for manufacturing the required quantity of
products.

 Process Chart Symbols :

The recording of the facts about the job in a process chart is done by using standard
symbols. Using of symbols in recording the activities is much easier than writing
down the facts about the job. Symbols are very convenient and widely understood
type of short hand. They save a lot of writing and indicate clearly what is happening.
1. Operation
A large circle indicates operation. An operation takes place when there is a change in
physical or chemical characteristics of an object. An assembly or disassembly is also
an operation. When information is given or received or when planning or calculating
takes place it is also called operation.
2. Inspection
A square indicates inspection. Inspection is checking an object for its quality, quantity
or identifications.
3. Transport
An arrow indicates transport. This refers to the movement of an object or operator
or equipment
from one place to another. When the movement takes place during an operation, it
is not called transport.
4. Delay or temporary storage
A large capital letter D indicates delay. This is also called as temporary storage. Delay
occurs when an object or operator is waiting for the next activity.
5. Permanent storage
An equilateral triangle standing on its vertex represents storage. Storage takes place
when an object is stored and protected against unauthorized removal.
6. Combined activity
When two activities take place at the same time or done by the same operator or at
the same place, the two symbols of activities are combined

 Operation Process Chart :

An operation process chart is a graphic representation of the sequence of all
operations and inspections taking place in a process. It is also known as outline
process chart. It gives a bird‘s eye view of the overall activities. Entry points of all
material are noted in the chart.
The conventions followed in preparing the chart are
1. Write title at the top of the chart.
2. Begin the chart from the right hand side top corner.
3. Represent the main component at the right extreme.
4. Represent the sequence of operations and inspections by their symbols. Connect
them by vertical flow lines.
5. Record the brief description of the activity to the right side of the symbols.
6. Note down the time for each activity to the left of the symbol.
7. Number all operations in one serial order. Start from the right hand top (from
number 1).
8. Similarly number all inspections in another serial order (starting from 1).
9. Continue numbering, till the entry of the second component.
10. Show the entry of purchased parts by horizontal lines.

 Flow Process Chart :

A flow process chart is a graphical representation of the sequence of all the activities
(operation, inspection, transport, delay and storage) taking place in a process.
Process chart symbols are used here to represent the activities. There are three
types of flow process charts. They are
Man type flow process chart
This flow process chart records what the worker does.
Material type flow process chart
This flow process chart records how the material is handled or treated.
Equipment type flow process chart
This flow process chart records how the equipment or machine is used.
General guidelines for making a flow process chart
1. The details must be obtained by direct observation—charts must not be based on
memory.
2. All the facts must be correctly recorded.
3. No assumptions should be made.
4. Make it easy for future reference.
5. All charts must have the following details:
(a) Name of the product, material or equipment that is observed.
(b) Starting point and ending point.
(c) The location where the activities take place.
(d) The chart reference number, sheet number and number of total sheets.
(e) Key to the symbols used must be stated.

Two-Handed Process Chart (or) Right Hand, Left Hand Chart :

It is the process chart in which the activities of two hands of the operator are
recorded.
It shows whether the two hands of the operator are idle or moving in relation to
one another, in a timescale.
It is generally used for repetitive operations.
Operation: Represents the activities grasp, position, use, release etc. of a tool,
component or material.
Transport: Represents the movement of the hand or limb to or from the work or a
tool or material.
Delay: Refers to the time when the hand or limb is idle.
Storage (Hold): The term ‗hold‘ is used here instead of storage. This refers to the
time when the work is held by hand. The activity ‗inspection‘ by hand is considered
as an operation. Hence, the symbol for inspection is not used in this chart. Two-
handed process chart can be used for assembly, machining and clerical jobs.

 General guidelines for preparing the chart :

• Provide all information about the job in the chart.
• Study the operation cycle a few times before starting to record.
• Record one hand at a time.
• First record the activities of the hand which starts the work first.
• Do not combine the different activities like operations, transport etc. Summary of
the number of each activity can be tabulated at the bottom of the chart. The chart is
first drawn for the existing method. This chart is analysed and if it is found that one
hand is over loaded than the other, modification are done in the layout of the
workplace or in the sequence of activities. Then a new chart is made for the
proposed cycle.

 Man-Machine Chart:
A man-machine chart is a chart in which the activities of more than one worker or
machine are recorded. Activities are recorded on a common time scale to show the
inter-relationship. It is also known as multiple activity chart. It is used when a worker
operates a number of machines at a time. It is also used when a number of workers
jointly do a job. Activities of workers or machines are recorded in separate vertical
columns (bars) with a horizontal time scale.
The chart shows the idle time of the worker or machine during the process. By
carefully analyzing the chart, we can rearrange the activities. Work load is evenly
distributed among the workers or machines by this the idle time of worker or
machine is reduced. Multiple activity chart is very useful in planning team work in
production or maintenance. Using the chart we can find out the correct number of
machines that a worker can operate at a time. We can also find out the exact
number of workers needed to do a job jointly. To record the time, ordinary wrist
watch or stop watch is used. High accuracy is not needed. Man-machine chart is a
type of multiple activity chart. Here, the activities of a number of machines are
recorded.

 Flow Diagram :
In any production shop, repair shop or any other department, there are movements
of men and material from one place to another. Process charts indicate the sequence
of activities. They do not show the frequent movements of men and material. If
these movement are minimized, a lot of savings can be achieved in cost and effort. If
the path of movement of material is not frequent and simple, a flow diagram is used
for recording the movement. A flow diagram is a diagram which is drawn to scale.
The relative position of machineries, gang ways, material handling equipment etc.
are drawn first. Then the path followed by men or material is marked on the
diagram. Different movements can be marked in different colours. Process symbols
are added to the diagram to identify the different activities at different work centres.
The flow diagram are used for the following purposes:
• To remove unwanted material movement.
• To remove back tracking.
• To avoid traffic congestion.
• To improve the plant layout.

 Calculation of Standard Time:

Standard time is derived by adding allowance to normal time. Allowance is
frequently added, which will force the worker to stop the work, and do other things.
There are categories of allowance, first, personal allowance, second, fatigue
allowance, and third, delay allowance. Environmental aspects were also used to
obtain allowances. In order to determine allowances of operator, this is based on
allowances that are recommended by International Labor Organization (ILO). ILO
standard is classified into two categories, constant and variable allowance, to
calculate worker allowances. Based on observation and evaluate operator according
ILO recommended allowances, allowances of worker at assembly line was:
Standard Time = (Observed time * Rating factor) + Relaxation
Allowances + Other Allowances

WORK SAMPLING
When you want to purchase a bag of rice or wheat, you check the desired features by
taking a sample. A housewife checks whether the rice is cooked by checking one or
two grains. A doctor checks one or two drops of blood only to know Complete Blood
Picture (CBP). A civil engineer decides the strength of the bricks by breaking one or
two bricks to know the force required to break. The performance of a group of
bombs is estimated by testing on a sample. Thus. we can notice here that the
sampling technique is a powerful tool to Itnow the behaviour of a group or individual
particularly, when it is not possible or not feasible or costly to conduct 100%
inspection. Why not with the work study'? Yes, the answer of this question is nothing
but called work sampling or activity sampling. Ratio Delay Analysis. It was tirst
devised by L. H. C. Tippet in 1934 to apply in British Textile Industry. Later Morrow
developed with several investigations. The studies through work sampling yielded
results very close to that of all day stopwatch time study in most of the cases and
hence got popularity by the virtue of its reduced work of the observer. And it is also
to be noted that the time study is not economical in the case of long and/or irregular
work cycles for which the work sampling is the only alternative.

Objectives :

The main objectives of the work sampling are : to measure the fair day's work. In
other words, it is to measure the activities and delays that a rnan is working and the
percentage that he is not working. To cstablish the time standards for a given job at a
certain conditions of work.

 Procedure :
The following steps are adopted for carrying out work sampling :
(a) State the objective and define by describing each element to be measured.
(b) Get the approval of the foreman and obtain the agreement of co-operation from
the workers on whom the study is to be conducted by making them understood the
importance.
(c) Set desired accuracy of the final results in the form of percentage or standard
error.
(d) Set the confidence level.
(e) On the basis of past experience. estimate (preliminary) the percentage
occurrence of the activity or delay to be measured for one day. (t) Design the study.
This includes - (i) Designing the Number of Observations to be made.
(ii) Number of Observers needed for the study.
(iii) Days or shifts required for the study.
(iv) Planning the visits and the routes.
(v) Form of observation.
(g) Make observations and record the data in appropriate form.
(h) Summarize the obtained data at the end of each day.
(i) Check the accuracy/precision at the end of the study.
(j) Prepare a final report with the results and recommendations.
From the above steps, it is very clear that the observers need to observe whether the
operator is on the work or delay or idle or not working, etc. with which it is estimated
the percentage of working or not working on any normal day. Thus, this study uses
sampling theory of statistics and all the rules and conditions will hold good.
1) The sample should be:
(a) Representative
(b) Unbiased
(c) Repetitive
(d) Accurate
(e) Efficient
(f) Sufficient

 Micro-Motion Charts:

Micro motion study technique is best suited for those operations or activities
which are of short duration and which are repeated hundreds of time. These
are the operations or motions which require very small time and it is quite
difficult to measure time for these motions accurately and the time required by
these motions cannot be neglected due to repetitive operations.

In such activities it is interesting to go into greater details in order to find out

which movement and effort can be avoided. All this is done to develop the best
possible pattern of movement so that the operator can perform the operations
repeatedly with a minimum effort and fatigue.

Purpose of Micro Motion Study:

1. To study the nature and path of movements for obtaining the elements of an
operation.

2. To study the activities of the machine and the operator.

3. To impart training to the workers or operators regarding motion; economy
so that unnecessary movement by the workers may be avoided.

4. To study the relationship between the activities of operator and the

machine.

5. To keep permanent record of the most efficient way of performing a task for
future reference.

6. To obtain motion time data for developing synthetic time standards for
various elements.