GRAPH THEORY

Introduction:

Graph theory is a branch of mathematics that studies the properties and applications of graphs, which
are structures composed of vertices (nodes) connected by edges (links). It explores relationships
between objects and finds applications in various fields like computer science, biology, and social
networks.

In mathematics and computer science, graph theory is the study of graphs, which are mathematical
structures used to model pairwise relations between objects. A graph in this context is made up of
vertices (also called nodes or points) which are connected by edges (also called arcs, links or lines). A
distinction is made between undirected graphs, where edges link two vertices symmetrically, and
directed graphs, where edges link two vertices asymmetrically. Graphs are one of the principal objects
of study in discrete mathematics.

By Leonhard Euler on the Seven Bridges of Königsberg and published in 1736 is regarded as the first
paper in the history of graph theory.[20] This paper, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the
knight problem, carried on with the analysis situs initiated by Leibniz. Euler's formula relating the
number of edges, vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron was studied and generalized by Cauchy[21]
and L'Huilier,[22] and represents the beginning of the branch of mathematics known as topology.

More than one century after Euler's paper on the bridges of Königsberg and while Listing was
introducing the concept of topology, Cayley was led by an interest in particular analytical forms arising
from differential calculus to study a particular class of graphs, the trees.[23] This study had many
implications for theoretical chemistry. The techniques he used mainly concern the enumeration of
graphs with particular properties. Enumerative graph theory then arose from the results of Cayley and
the fundamental results published by Pólya between 1935 and 1937. These were generalized by De
Bruijn in 1959. Cayley linked his results on trees with contemporary studies of chemical composition.[24]
The fusion of ideas from mathematics with those from chemistry began what has become part of the
standard terminology of graph theory.

In particular, the term "graph" was introduced by Sylvester in a paper published in 1878 in Nature,
where he draws an analogy between "quantic invariants" and "co-variants" of algebra and molecular
diagrams:[25]
Application of Graph Theory:

Graphs are also used to represent the micro-scale channels of porous media, in which the vertices
represent the pores and the edges represent the smaller channels connecting the pores. Chemical graph
theory uses the molecular graph as a means to model molecules. Graphs and networks are excellent
models to study and understand phase transitions and critical phenomena. Removal of nodes or edges
leads to a critical transition where the network breaks into small clusters which is studied as a phase
transition. This breakdown is studied via percolation theory.[15]

Social sciences

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Graph theory in sociology: Moreno Sociogram (1953).[16]

Graph theory is also widely used in sociology as a way, for example, to measure actors' prestige or to
explore rumor spreading, notably through the use of social network analysis software. Under the
umbrella of social networks are many different types of graphs.[17] Acquaintanceship and friendship
graphs describe whether people know each other. Influence graphs model whether certain people can
influence the behavior of others. Finally, collaboration graphs model whether two people work together
in a particular way, such as acting in a movie together.

Biology

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Likewise, graph theory is useful in biology and conservation efforts where a vertex can represent regions
where certain species exist (or inhabit) and the edges represent migration paths or movement between
the regions. This information is important when looking at breeding patterns or tracking the spread of
disease, parasites or how changes to the movement can affect other species.

Graphs are also commonly used in molecular biology and genomics to model and analyse datasets with
complex relationships. For example, graph-based methods are often used to 'cluster' cells together into
cell-types in single-cell transcriptome analysis. Another use is to model genes or proteins in a pathway
and study the relationships between them, such as metabolic pathways and gene regulatory networks.
[18] Evolutionary trees, ecological networks, and hierarchical clustering of gene expression patterns are
also represented as graph structures.

Graph theory is also used in connectomics;[19] nervous systems can be seen as a graph, where the
nodes are neurons and the edges are the connections between them.
Mathematics

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In mathematics, graphs are useful in geometry and certain parts of topology such as knot theory.
Algebraic graph theory has close links with group theory. Algebraic graph theory has been applied to
many areas including dynamic systems and complexity.

Other topics

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A graph structure can be extended by assigning a weight to each edge of the graph. Graphs with
weights, or weighted graphs, are used to represent structures in which pairwise connections have some
numerical values. For example, if a graph represents a road network, the weights could represent the
length of each road. There may be several weights associated with each edge, including distance (as in
the previous example), travel time, or monetary cost. Such weighted graphs are commonly used to
program GPS's, and travel-planning search engines that compare flight times and costs.