Foundations of Computing: From Hardware

Essentials to Web Design

1. Introduction to Computers and History: A computer is an electronic device that processes data
under the control of instructions (programs). Early ideas date to the 19th-century (e.g. Charles
Babbage’s Analytical Engine and Ada Lovelace’s programs) 1 . In 1936 Alan Turing described a
theoretical “universal” computing machine. The first practical general-purpose electronic computer was
ENIAC (1946), with room-sized vacuum-tube circuitry. Over time computers shrank (transistor- and
microprocessor-based) and became ubiquitous. By the 1970s microprocessors (e.g. Intel 4004) allowed
personal computers and embedded devices. Today’s computers range from tiny microcontrollers to
massive servers; the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW) – invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 2 –
connect them globally, using HTTP and HTML to share information 3 .

2. Hardware Components: Modern computers have three main parts:

• CPU (Central Processing Unit): Executes instructions. It typically contains an Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU) for calculations, a Control Unit to sequence operations, and registers for very fast
temporary storage. The CPU connects to main memory and I/O via buses. A basic block diagram
is shown below 4 :

Figure: Block diagram of a basic computer system. The CPU (highlighted) contains a Control Unit and
Registers feeding an ALU/“Combinational Logic.” It communicates with Main Memory and Input/
Output devices 4 .
• Instruction Cycle: The CPU repeatedly fetches the next instruction from memory, decodes it,
executes it (e.g. arithmetic operation or memory access), and then moves to the next.

• Instruction Set: The CPU understands a set of machine instructions (binary codes).
Programming at this level uses an Assembly language, but most programmers use high-level
languages compiled to machine code.

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 • Memory (RAM, Cache, Virtual): Memory is organized in a hierarchy by speed and size 5 . At the
top are registers (fastest, few bytes, inside CPU) and CPU caches (L1/L2, small and very fast).
Next is main memory (RAM – volatile, tens of MB–GB, ~50–100 ns access). Beyond RAM,
secondary storage (on-line mass storage) includes disk drives and SSDs (non-volatile, much
larger and slower). Many systems use virtual memory: a portion of disk emulates extra RAM
(paging memory pages to/from disk) 6 . In practice:

• Registers: Only a few bytes, holding operands and intermediate results (1-cycle access).
• Cache: Very small (KB–MB) fast SRAM; uses algorithms to keep copies of recently used memory.
• Main RAM: DRAM chips; holds running programs and data (volatile).

• Secondary Storage: HDD (magnetic disks, mechanically rotating; slower but cheap, can store
TBs) or SSD (flash memory; faster than HDD, no moving parts, more expensive per GB). Others:
optical (CD/DVD) or flash drives.
The memory hierarchy trades speed for size – critical data/instructions are kept as high (fast) as
possible to improve performance 5 .

• Motherboard, Buses, I/O: Components mount on the motherboard, connected by buses (data
bus, address bus, control bus) allowing the CPU, memory, and peripherals to communicate.
Firmware (e.g. BIOS/UEFI in a ROM chip) initializes hardware on power-up and boots the OS
(Power-On Self-Test → load OS). I/O Devices allow user interaction and data transfer: Input
(keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone), Output (monitor, printer, speakers), and Storage
Interfaces (USB, SATA, PCIe cards, network cards). Data from an input device may trigger an
interrupt, causing the CPU to pause its work and handle the event; alternatively, DMA (Direct
Memory Access) hardware can transfer data to memory without CPU involvement.

3. Number Systems and Data Representation: Computers use binary (base-2) internally (0/1 bits).
Other bases are used for human readability: decimal (base-10), octal (base-8), hexadecimal (base-16).
Converting between them uses standard methods (e.g. divide by base for decimal→binary; group bits
for binary→hex). For example, decimal 13 = 1101₂ = D₁₆. Data sizes scale by powers of 1024: 1 byte = 8
bits, ~10^3 bytes = 1 KB, 10^6 bytes = MB, etc (power-of-two prefixes: 1 KiB=1024 bytes). Character data
is encoded in binary: e.g. ASCII (7-bit code for ~128 characters) and Unicode (16-bit or more, supports
global characters). For instance, 'A' is 65 in ASCII (01000001₂).

4. Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates: At the lowest level, data and operations follow Boolean logic.
Boolean algebra uses binary variables (0=false, 1=true) and logical operations AND, OR, NOT (plus XOR,
NAND, etc). A logic gate is a hardware device implementing a Boolean function on input signals 7 . For
example: AND gate outputs 1 only if both inputs are 1; OR outputs 1 if any input is 1; NOT inverts a bit.
The combination of logic gates (wired as circuits) is how arithmetic (via binary adder circuits) and
decision logic are built in the CPU. Truth tables summarize each gate’s output (e.g. 1 AND 0 = 0, 1 OR 0 =
1, NOT 0 = 1). (Such digital circuits follow Boolean algebra rules.)

5. Software (System vs Application): Software is the set of programs run by the computer. System
software includes the Operating System (OS) and utility programs that manage hardware.
Application software is for end-user tasks (word processors, games, browsers, etc.). The OS handles
core tasks: it allocates CPU time, manages memory and storage, handles input/output, enforces
security, and provides a user interface. In essence, an OS “manages computer hardware and software
resources, and provides common services” for programs 8 . It acts as an intermediary: application
programs make system calls to request I/O or memory, which the OS executes 8 .

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Common operating systems include Windows, macOS, Linux (desktop/server), and Android/iOS (mobile)
9 . Many OSes support command-line interfaces (shells) and GUIs. For example, basic file

commands differ: Windows dir vs Linux ls lists directory contents; Windows copy vs Linux cp
copies files. Scripting languages (batch files, Bash scripts) automate sequences of commands.

6. Operating Systems (continued): Key OS functions include process management (running multiple
programs concurrently, scheduling CPU time), memory management (allocating RAM, swapping/paging),
file system management (organizing files on disks), and device management (drivers for printers, disks,
network). For example, OS-level multitasking ensures each program gets CPU “slices” so one cannot
monopolize the system 10 . Virtual memory (paging) makes each program think it has a continuous
memory space, while the OS transparently moves data between RAM and disk as needed.

7. Networking (LAN, WAN, Protocols): Computers often interconnect via networks to share data. A
Local Area Network (LAN) connects devices within a limited area (home, campus, office) 11 . A Wide
Area Network (WAN) spans larger regions (cities, countries) and usually uses leased telecom links 12 .
The Internet is the largest WAN (a global network of networks) 12 . Common LAN technologies include
Ethernet (wired) and Wi-Fi (wireless).

Networks use layered protocols (e.g. TCP/IP): IP (Internet Protocol) provides addressing (IPv4 uses 32-bit
addresses, IPv6 uses 128-bit) and routing; TCP/UDP handle end-to-end transport; HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.
operate at higher layers. For IP addresses, DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) automates
assigning an IP to each device on joining the network 13 . Private networks often use NAT (Network
Address Translation) so many devices share one public IP 14 . DNS (Domain Name System) translates
human-readable names (e.g. “example.com”) into IP addresses, acting as the Internet’s
“phonebook” 15 .

Common network devices: Router (forwards packets between IP networks), Switch (connects devices
on a LAN), Firewall (a security device that monitors/filters traffic) 16 . Client–Server vs Peer-to-Peer
(P2P): In client–server, dedicated servers provide services (e.g. web server serving web pages to clients);
in P2P, every node can act as client or server (e.g. file-sharing networks).

Example protocols/services: - HTTP/HTTPS: Web communication (web browsers request pages from
web servers).
- FTP/SMTP/IMAP: File transfer, email.
- VPN (Virtual Private Network): Creates a secure encrypted “tunnel” over the Internet, so remote
devices can securely connect to a private network. A VPN “encrypts your internet traffic” and hides your
IP, making data interception much harder 17 .
- DNS: As above, crucial for web navigation.

8. Computer Security: Computers face threats from malware (viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware)
and attacks (phishing, hacking). Basic defenses include: - Antivirus/anti-malware software: Scans and
removes malicious programs.
- Firewall: Either hardware or software, it blocks unauthorized access. A firewall “monitors all incoming/
outgoing traffic” and applies rules to accept or drop packets 16 . It effectively isolates the internal
trusted network from untrusted networks (like the Internet).
- Encryption: Protects data by scrambling it into unreadable form without a key. For example, TLS/SSL
encrypts web (HTTPS) traffic; full-disk encryption (like BitLocker or FileVault) protects stored data.
Encryption algorithms (AES, RSA, etc.) are fundamental to security.

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In addition, practices like strong passwords, regular software updates (patching security holes), and
principle of least privilege (users/applications only get needed permissions) are essential.

9. Software Licensing and Open Source: Software is distributed under licenses that dictate usage
rights. Proprietary (closed-source) software (e.g. Windows, Microsoft Office) restricts copying/
modification; you typically purchase a license to use it. Free/Open-Source Software (FOSS) is
distributed under licenses that allow use, modification, and redistribution. Open-source licenses (GPL,
MIT, Apache, etc.) “grant the recipient the rights to use, examine, modify, and distribute” the software 18 .
This promotes collaborative development and transparency. For example, Linux (OS kernel) and
LibreOffice (office suite) are open-source, meaning their source code is public and licensed for free use/
modification.

Understanding license terms is important: some (permissive) allow proprietary derivatives (e.g. MIT
license), while copyleft licenses (like GPL) require derivatives to remain open-source. The open-source
model contrasts with the proprietary model, but they often coexist in modern computing (e.g. a
company may use Linux servers and Microsoft desktop).

10. Introduction to Spreadsheets (Excel): Spreadsheets (e.g. Microsoft Excel) are applications for
organizing and analyzing tabular data. A spreadsheet is essentially a large table of cells (each identified
by row and column) where you can enter data and formulas. For example, a typical Excel worksheet has
columns A, B, C… and rows 1, 2, 3…; cell A1 might contain a number and cell B1 a label. Formulas
(entered with an = ) can perform calculations across cells. Common formula examples:
=SUM(A1:A10) adds all values in A1 through A10; =A1*0.1 multiplies cell A1 by 0.1. Cells can
reference each other by address (e.g. =A1+B1 ). You can format cells (number formats, fonts, borders)
and create charts/graphs from data. A simple dataset in Excel might look like this 19 :

Figure: Example Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (creative commons). Each cell (intersection of row and column)
can hold data or formulas; here columns (LAT, LONG, TEMP…) are labeled and numeric values are shown 19 .
Spreadsheets support many built-in functions (SUM, AVERAGE, IF, VLOOKUP, etc.) and data analysis
features (pivot tables, filters). They are widely used in business, science, and personal finance for
budgeting, modeling, and reporting.

11. Introduction to Cloud Computing: Cloud computing provides on-demand access over the
Internet to shared computing resources (servers, storage, applications) that can scale dynamically 20 .

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Instead of owning hardware/software locally, users access services hosted in remote datacenters. Key
service models include: - IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Users rent virtual machines, storage, and
networks (e.g. Amazon EC2, Google Compute Engine).
- PaaS (Platform as a Service): Users deploy applications on a cloud-hosted platform without
managing OS/infra (e.g. Google App Engine, Heroku).
- SaaS (Software as a Service): Users use fully managed software over the web (e.g. Office 365, Google
Workspace, Salesforce) – no software installation needed.
These models are often depicted as overlapping (see figure below). Benefits include elasticity (scale up/
down), self-service provisioning, and pay-per-use billing. The cloud abstracts away hardware details,
treating the provider’s resources as an “amorphous pool” 20 . Organizations may use public clouds
(shared infrastructure), private clouds (dedicated to one entity), or hybrid combinations for flexibility
and cost-effectiveness.

Figure: Cloud computing models. Modern cloud services are often described by combinations of IaaS, PaaS,
and SaaS (“Everything as a Service”) 20 .

12. Internet Basics and Web Publishing: The Internet is a global network of networks connecting
millions of computers. Data travels in packets via Internet protocols (IP/TCP). Web publishing is done on
the World Wide Web (WWW) – a system of interlinked documents. Web pages are written in HTML and
delivered over HTTP. The Web uses web servers (software like Apache or Nginx) that serve HTML/CSS/JS
content to client browsers. Domain names (via DNS) map to server IPs for addressing.

Key concepts: - URL: Uniform Resource Locator, the address of a web resource (e.g. https://
www.example.com/index.html ).
- HTTP/HTTPS: The protocol for web transfers (HTTPS is HTTP over TLS/SSL for security).
- Web Browser: Software (Chrome, Firefox, Edge, etc.) that requests pages and renders HTML/CSS into
visual pages.
- Publishing: To publish a website, one obtains a domain name, writes HTML/CSS/JS files, and uploads
them to a web server (or a cloud host) so they are accessible on the Internet.

13. Introduction to HTML and CSS for Web Design: HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is the
standard language for structuring web pages 21 . HTML uses tags enclosed in <...> to denote
elements. A minimal HTML page structure is:

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 <!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>My Page</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="styles.css">
</head>
<body>
<h1>Welcome!</h1>
<p>This is a sample page.</p>
</body>
</html>

Here <h1> is a heading tag, <p> a paragraph tag. HTML elements like <img> , <a href="URL">
(links), <ul> / <li> (lists), <table> , and form inputs build content. Elements can have attributes
(e.g. href , src , id , class ) to specify details.

CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is used to style HTML. CSS rules select elements and apply styles, for
example:

h1 { color: blue; font-size: 24px; }

p { color: #333; line-height: 1.5; }

This CSS makes all <h1> headings blue and sets paragraph text color and spacing. CSS can be inline
( <p style="color:red"> ), in a <style> block in HTML, or in an external stylesheet (as linked
above). Good web design separates content (HTML) from style (CSS).

Together, HTML and CSS define the structure and look of web pages 21 . Modern pages often also use
JavaScript (a scripting language) for interactive behavior (e.g. form validation, dynamic content
updates).

Summary: This guide has covered the full spectrum of computing foundations, from hardware (CPU,
memory, I/O) and data representation (binary, logic) through software (operating systems,
applications), to networking and security, and finally basic productivity (spreadsheets) and web
technologies (cloud, Internet, HTML/CSS). Understanding these topics equips a new student with the
essentials needed for more advanced study.

1 Computer architecture - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_architecture

2 3 World Wide Web - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web

4 Central processing unit - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit

5 6 Memory hierarchy - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_hierarchy

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 7 Category:Logic gates - Wikimedia Commons
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Logic_gates

8 9 10 Operating system - Wikipedia

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11 12 Local area network - Wikipedia

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13 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol

14 Network Address Translation (NAT) | GeeksforGeeks

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/network-address-translation-nat/

15 What is DNS? | How DNS works | Cloudflare

https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/dns/what-is-dns/

16 Introduction of Firewall in Computer Network | GeeksforGeeks

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/introduction-of-firewall-in-computer-network/

17 What is a VPN? How It Works, Types, and Benefits of VPNs

https://usa.kaspersky.com/resource-center/definitions/what-is-a-vpn?
srsltid=AfmBOopaYOgMUZnphNZBuIUuI4aNt4F23EpASNlSfnAoXgqkRLrOmWPt

18 Open-source license - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_license

19 Introduction to MS Excel | GeeksforGeeks

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/introduction-to-ms-excel/

20 Cloud computing - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing

21 HTML - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML