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CHAPTER – 1

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

1. What is Computer

A computer is an electronic device, which executes software programs. It consists of 2 parts-

hardware and software. The computer processes input through input devices like mouse and
keyboard. The computer displays output through output devices like monitor and printer. The
size of a computer varies considerably from very small to very big. The speed of computers
also has a very large range. Computers have become indispensable in today’s world. Millions
of people use computers all over the world

Standard Computer Model:

2. Computer organization at a glance

A basic computer consists of three major components: CPU (Central Processing Unit), IO
(Input/Output), and Memory as illustrated in Figure 1.

Data comes through Input and the CPU processes the data based on a program which is in
Memory. The result is returned to Memory or is presented to the user.

Personal Computing History

3. Generation of Computer

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different

generations of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major
technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting
in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.

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3.1 The Five Generations of Computers

3.1.1 First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and
were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in
addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause
of malfunctions. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-
generationcomputing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a
business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

3.1.2 Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late
1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become
smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than the first-generation.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to
damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. The first computers of this
generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

3.1.3 Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on siliconchips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Users interacted with third
generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating
system, which allowed the device; to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a
mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

3.1.4 Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated

circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls—on a single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in
1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. As these small computers became more powerful, they
could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the
Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and
handheld devices.

3.1.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The
goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input
and are capable of learning and self-organization.

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4. Computer types

Since the invention of computers from first generation and fourth generation computers, they
have been classified according to their types and how they operate that is input, process and
output information. Below you will get a brief discussion on various types of Computers we
have.Computer types can be divided into 3 categories according to electronic nature. Types of
computers are classified according to how a particular Computer functions. These computer
types are:

4.1 Analogue Computers

Analogue types of Computer uses what is known as analogue signals that are represented by
a continuous set of varying voltages and are used in scientific research centers?, hospitals
and flight centers

4.2 Digital Computer type

With these types of computers operation are on electrical input that can attain two inputs,
states of ON=1 and state of OFF = 0. With digital type of computers data is represented by
digital of 0 and 1 or off state and on state. Digital computer type recognizes data by counting
discrete signal of (0 0r 1), they are high speed programmable; they compute values and stores
results.

4.3 Hybrid type of Computer

Hybrid computer types are very unique, in the sense that they combined both analogue and
digital features and operations. With Hybrid computers operate by using digital to analogue
converter and analogue to digital converter. By linking the two types of computer above you
come up with this new computer type called Hybrid.

5. Types of Computer according size and capacity

There are lots of way to describe the types of computer with its size and capacity. Different
technologies and ideas describe the types of computer in different ways. The common types
of computer by size and capacity are as follows:

5.1 Supercomputers

The most powerful category of computer is the Super Computer. These are special high
capacity computer ad it is a multi-user system. Near about 200 users can work at a time.
These are used for jobs that take massive amounts of calculating, like weather forecasting,
engineering design and testing, economic forecasting, scientific research etc. Example: Cray-
II, Columbia

5.2 Mainframe Computers

The Mainframe is the workhorse of the business world. A main frame is the heart of a network
of computers or terminals. Near about 80 terminals or more can be connected to it and 80

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users can work at the same time on the same data. Large corporations, banks and universities
find use for the mainframe. Examples – IBM 6120, NCR N8370work It requires a special
environment - cold and dry.

5.3 Mini Computer

Minicomputers have been stand-alone computers (computer systems with attached terminals
and other devices) sold to small and mid-size businesses for general business applications
and to large enterprises for department-level operations. In recent years, the minicomputer
has evolved into the "mid-range server" and is part of a network. Near about 14 terminals or
more can be connected to it and 14 users can work at a time. Examples – PDP-II, IBM S/34,
IBM S/36.

5.4 Micro Computer

A microcomputer is a complete computer on a smaller scale and is generally a synonym for

the more common term, personal computer or PC, a computer designed for an individual. It is
a single user computer and only one user can work at a time. Examples – Desktop, Personal,
Home, Laptop & Pocket.

6.1Input Devices

A hardware device that sends information to the computer. Without any input devices a
computer would simply be a display device and not allow users to interact with it, much like a
TV. This is the way by which we give instruction to the computer to do something. Some
common input devices are:

6.1.1 Web Camera- most cameras like this are

used during live conversations. The camera
transmits a picture from one computer to another,
or can be used to record a short video.

6.1.2 Compact Disc (CD) - CDs store

information. The CD can then be put into another
computer, and the information can be opened and
added or used on the second computer.
Note: A CD-R or CD-RW can also be used as an
OUTPUT device.3

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6.1.3 Keyboard - The keyboard is a way to input

letters or numbers into different applications or
programs. A keyboard also has special keys that
help operate the computer.

6.1.4 Mouse – The Mouse is used to open and

close files, navigate web sites, and click on a lot of
commands (to tell the computer what to do) when
using different applications.

6.1.5 Digital Camera - A digital camera can be

used to take pictures. It can be hooked up to a
computer to transfer the pictures from the camera
to the computer. Some digital cameras hold a
floppy disk, and the floppy disk can be taken out of
the camera and put directly into the computer.

6.1.6 Drawing Tablet - A drawing tablet is similar

to a white board, except you use a special pen to
write on it and it's connected to the computer.
Then the word or image you draw can be saved on
the computer.

6.1.7 Microphone - A microphone is used to

record sound. The sound is then saved as a sound
file on the computer.

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6.1.8 Scanner - A scanner is used to copy pictures

or other things and save them as files on the
computer.

6.1.9Joystick - A joystick is used to move the

cursor from place to place, and to click on various
items in programs. A joystick is used mostly for
computer games.

6.1.10 Touch Screen - A touch screen is a

computer screen or other screen that you can
touch with your finger to enter information.
Examples of touch screens include a smart board,
a microwave, a dishwasher, or an ATM at a bank.

6.1.11Bar Code Scanner - A bar code scanner

scans a little label that has a bar code on it. The
information is then saved on the computer. Bar
code scanners are used in libraries a lot.

6.2 Output Devices

An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the
results of data processing carried out by computer) to the outside world. Some common output
devices are:

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6.2.1 Monitor - A monitor is the screen on

which words, numbers, and graphics can be
seem. The monitor is the most common
output device.

6.2.2 Compact Disk - Some compact disks

can be used to put information on. This is
called burning information to a CD.
NOTE: A CD can also be an input device.

6.2.3 Printer - A printer prints whatever is on

the monitor onto paper. Printers can print
words, numbers, or pictures.

6.2.4 Speaker - A speaker gives you sound

output from your computer. Some speakers
are built into the computer and some are
separate.

6.2.5 Headphones - Headphones give

sound output from the computer. They are
similar to speakers, except they are worn on
the ears so only one person can hear the
output at a time.

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6.2.6 Plotter - Plotter is a computer printing

device for printing vector graphics. In the past,
plotters were widely used in applications such
as computer-aided design, though they have
generally been replaced with wide-format
conventional printers, and it is now
commonplace to refer to such wide-format
printers as "plotters," even though they
technically aren't.

7. Primary system components of a PC:

There are several components can be used in a complete computer system.

Figure : A Complete Computer System

The minimum hardware to understand a complete computer system are:

System Unit (It includes processor, motherboard, RAM and any other device).
Keyboard (It is used to input data).
Mouse (It is also used as an input device).
Monitor (It is used to give output data).

7.1 System Unit

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Figure: Inside System Unit

A computer system unit contains many parts.

Components of System Unit:

 Motherboard.
 CPU( Central Processing Unit) or Processor.
 Power supply unit.
 Fan.
 Heat sink.
 Expansion card such as video card, sound card
 Data cables.
 CD-ROM or DVD drive.
 Hard Disk Drive.
 Floppy Disk Drive.
 RAM

7.3 Mainboard/Motherboard

All the components of a system unit are assembled through the motherboard. A motherboard
is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern computers and holds many of the
crucial components of the system, while providing connectors for other peripherals. The
motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the main board, system board, or, on
Apple computers, the logic board. When you look at the motherboard inside your computer,
you notice that there are a number of different items connected to this board.

Figure: Motherboard

Components of a Motherboard:
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 Processor Slot/Socket
 RAM slot
 Expansion slot
 Communication ports
 Parallel port
 USB port
 Keyboard/mouse connector
 Power connector
 Floppy disk controller
 BIOS chip
 CMOS Battery

Concept on Processor of a PC.

The microprocessor is the component of the personal computer that does the actual
processing of data. A microprocessor is a central processing unit (CPU) that fits on one
microchip. It is the “brain” of the computer, but that is a rather pretentious term since it it really
just a very complex switching circuit that executes simple instructions very rapidly.

The microprocessor integrated circuit package holds a silicon chip that contains millions of
transistors and other components fabricated into the silicon. Because the transistors on the
chip are very tiny, even a small zap of high voltage current (such as from static electricity) can
destroy a chip. This is why all large-scale integrated circuits must be handled in ways that
minimize the possibility of static electric discharge.

Because of the large amount of circuitry packed into such a tiny area, microchips produce a lot
of heat and they require cooling systems to keep the chip from overheating. On computer
motherboards the CPU chip is covered by a large metal heat sink with “fins” to allow airflow
from cooling fans to carry the heat away.

Clock Speed

The digital chips on a motherboard are keep in sync with each other by the clock signal (a
stream of pulses) of the motherboard. You can think of it like a “heartbeat” of the computer.
The faster the clock pulses, the faster the computer runs; but, the clock can’t run faster than
the speed rating of the chips, or they will “glitch” and drop data. As chip technology has
improved, the speed that chips can run at has gotten faster. The CPU runs faster than the rest
of the motherboard (which is clocked at a fraction of the rate of the CPU).

Clock speed is measured in units of cycles per second, which is called a Hertz (Hz). Computer
boards and CPUs run at rates of millions and billions of Hertz, megahertz (MHz) and gigahertz
(GHz). A good speed for a PC microprocessor in 2004 was 4 GHz. You will want a fast
processor, of course, but so does everyone else—and only a fraction of the chips produced in
a batch are the fastest (they are all tested and rated after fabrication)—so faster CPUs cost
more.

You may recognize the terms megahertz and gigahertz from radio broadcasts. FM radio and
TV broadcast in the MHz range, and some mobile phones broadcast in the GHz range. So,
computer circuitry produces radio frequency interference that could cause problems for nearby

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devices. To prevent this, a computer contains thin metal shielding inside its case (if the case is
not metal).

CPU Speed

Clock speed is only one aspect that contributes to the overall processing speed of a
microprocessor. The architecture of the chip also is a factor. This includes such considerations
as the word size of the chip, which is how many bits it can input/output and process at a time.
Early microprocessors used 8-bit word size; the newest microprocessors use 64-bit word size.

The design of the chip may also include high speed cache memory that the processor can use
to hold recently used instructions or data in case it needs them again, so that it doesn’t need
to go back to the much slower main RAM memory to get them. Computers spend a lot of time
in loops, repeating the same sequence of instructions, so this can greatly improve
performance. (Depending on whether the cache memory is located on the CPU chip itself, or
on nearby chips with a high-speed link, it is called Level 1 or Level 2 cache).

Other aspects of chip architecture that affect speed include the ability of some CPUs to work
on multiple instructions at the same time. Also, some CPUs are CISC (Complex Instruction
Set Computing), while others are RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing). RISC chips
have a smaller set of simpler instructions; they need multiple instructions to perform an action
that a CISC chip does with one instruction, but the RISC chip is faster overall at completing
the operation.

The result is that you can’t simply compare different processors by looking at their clock speed
ratings. A PowerPC chip with half the clock speed of a Pentium has roughly equivalent
processing speed.

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Processors

9. We read about the various devices located inside the systems Unit. These individual
devices interact with one another.. As a result, a compact working system comes into being.
Here we shall study the device that is right at the core of a PC. It is often termed as the brain
of the computer. This core device is called the Processor.

10. The Processor is the most important device inside the Systems Unit of a computer. It is
located at the core of the unit. It is roughly the size of a large postage stamp it is an integrated
ship housed in a plastic case. It has metal legs that fasten it to a circuit board made of
fiberglass. They also carry electrical impulses into and out of the CPU.

11. The Processor of a PC is made up of a single integrated circuit, which is also called a
microprocessor. This circuit is a maze of transistors and other electrical circuits embedded in a
small piece of silicon crystal. Transistors are microscopic (very, very small) switches that can
be switched on and off.

12. If we view the Processor of a PC through a microscope, it shall look like an aerial
photograph of a town. Inside the plastic case is the CPU itself – a piece of silicon just the size
of a finger nail looking at it, it is hard to believe that this tiny piece can run the entire computer.

13. The Processor is certainly the most important PC component. Let us briefly study that
name:

a. It is a processor, because processes (move and calculates) data.

b. It is central, because it is the center of PC data processing.
c. It is a unit, because it is a chip, which contains millions of transistors.

Support Devices

14. The CPU is located inside a box called the Systems Unit in the company of several
other devices and tools that support it in carrying out its functions. Some support devices are
as follows:

a. The Clock Chip. It serves as the computer’s metronome and sets the space at
which its various components work.

b. ROM Chip/Chips. They contain a part of the regular operating system

c. Math coprocessor Chip. It assists the CPU to perform specific types of

mathematical operations.

d. The Bus. It is a set of circuitry that carries data and instructions back and forth
between various devices other motherboard. It consists of a collection of high-speed
conveying belts. It carries data and instructions between the CPU and the memory (both ROM
and RAM). Also it connects them both to other devices.

15. Parts of a Processor: The Processor has five distinct parts that work together to
carry out its functions:

a. Bus Interface Unit

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b. Prefect Unit
c. Segment and paging Unit
d. Decode Unit
e. Execution Unit that has three sub-parts:

(1) Control Unit.

(2) Registers.
(3) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
Models of Processor-Chips.

16. Processor chips are of different models. The first 32-bit processor used in MS-MOS-
based PCs is 80386 Microprocessor. It can manipulate up to 32 bits of data at one time. Its
processing speed is 2-3 times as fact as that of its predecessor 80286.

17. The models of their Processors – 80286, 80386, 80486 and the Pentium etc, classify
computers. The leftmost two digits are generally omitted wile referring to the various models.
We often say – My Computer is 286, 386, or 486 etc. So, if anybody says that he has a 386
computer, it means that he has an IBM computer with an 80386 – chip – Remember that CPU
– chips used in Macintosh computers are 68000, 68020 and 68040.

Processors – brief review

19. Processors history starts in 1971, when a small unknown company, Intel, for the first
time combined multiple transistors to form a Microprocessor – a chip called Intel 4004.
However, it was 8 years before the first PC was constructed.

20. PCs are designed around different CPU generations. Intel is not the only company
manufacturing Processors but by far the leading one. The following table shows the different
Processor generations. They are predominantly Intel chips, but in the 5 th generation we see
alternatives:

PC CPUs Year Number of transistor

1st. Generation 8086 and 8088 1978-81 29,000
2nd Generation 80286 1984 134,000
3rd Generation 80386DX and 80386SX 1987-88 275,000
4th Generation 80486SX, 80486DX, 1990 – 1992 1,200,000
80486DX2 and 80486DX4
5th Generation Pentium 1993 – 95 3,100,000

21. Please notice that the mobile Microprocessors as well as Pentium III include very large
on-die L2 caches. These caches consist of millions of transistors. We will now see what the
Microprocessor really does.

Types of Microprocessors

The most commonly used CPU in PCs are made by Intel. Since IBM chose the Intel 8088 chip
for the original IBM PC, most PC clones have used one of the Intel series of CPUs:
8088 - used in IBM PC
80286 - used in IBM PC AT
80386 - used in first PC clone from Compaq
80486 - you heard phrases like “I have a 486 PC”

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Pentium - Intel couldn’t trademark a number, such as 80586
Pentium II - (Hexium or sexium just wouldn’t sound right)
Pentium III
Pentium 4 - Most desktop PCs in 2004 used the P4 chip.
Pentium D
Dual Core
Core to Due
Core i3
Core i5
Core i7

Another manufacturer of microprocessors for the PC is AMD (Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.).
Their line of Athlon processors have been successful in taking a substantial fraction of the PC
CPU market away from Intel.

The Macintosh series of computers from Apple originally used the Motorola 68000 series of
microprocessors. The Motorola CPUs use a different instruction set than Intel CPUs, which is
why you couldn’t easily run PC software on a Mac and vice versa (but transferring data files is
no problem). Apple later used the RISC PowerPC CPU (developed jointly by Apple, Motorola,
and IBM). New Macs in 2004 used either PowerPC G4 chips from Motorola, or the newer
PowerPC G5 from IBM. As of 2006, Apple switched to using Intel processors in their new
Macs (which then made it possible to run Windows software directly on the Mac).

23. Motherboard/Main Board of A PC. All the electronic components inside the
systems Unit are mounted on a piece of fiberglass. The piece is called the motherboard. As
fiberglass does not conduct electricity, each component remains safely insulated from other
components.

Storage Devices

Just like humans, computers rely a lot on memory. They need to process and store data, just
like we do. However, computers store data in digital format, which means the information can
always be called up exactly the way it was stored. Also, unlike our memory, the computer's
memory doesn't get worse over time. Computer data storage, often called storage or memory,
refers to computer components and recording media that retain digital data used for
computing for some interval of time. Computer data storage provides one of the core functions
of the modern computer, that of information retention. It is one of the fundamental components
of all modern computers. Some common output devices are:
4.1 Random-access memory (RAM)- RAM is
a form of computer data storage. Today, it takes
the form of integrated circuits that allow stored
data to be accessed in any order (i.e., at random).
"Random" refers to the idea that any piece of data
can be returned in a constant time, regardless of
its physical location and whether or not it is related
to the previous piece of data. Note that, it is a
temporary memory. As long as the power is on,
data remains on this device. If the computer is
going to shut down or restart, all the data in the
RAM is destroyed.

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4.2 Read-only memory (ROM)- Read-only

memory (usually known by its acronym, ROM) is
a class of storage media used in computers and
other electronic devices. Because data stored in
ROM cannot be modified (at least not very quickly
or easily), it is mainly used to distribute with the
manufacturer. It is a permanent memory.

3.1 Hard Disk Drive (HDD)- The hard disk

drive is the main, and usually largest, data storage
device in a computer. The operating system,
software titles and most other files are stored in
the hard disk drive.

3.2 Tape Drive- A tape drive is a data storage

device that reads and writes data on a magnetic
tape. It is typically used for off-line, archival data
storage. Tape media generally has a favorable unit
cost and long archival stability.

3.3 Compact Disc- A Compact Disc (also

known as a CD) is an optical disc used to store
digital data. It was originally developed to store
sound recordings exclusively, but later it also
allowed the preservation of other types of data.

3.4 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)- It is an

optical disc storage media format, and was
invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba,
and Time Warner in 1995. Its main uses are video
and data storage. DVDs are of the same
dimensions as compact discs (CDs), but are
capable of storing more than six times as much
data.

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3.5 USB Flash Memory- A USB flash drive

consists of a flash memory data storage device
integrated with a USB (Universal Serial Bus) 1.1
or 2.0 interfaces. USB flash drives are typically
removable and rewritable, and physically much
smaller than a floppy disk. Most weigh less than
30gm. Normally it is called “Pen Drive”.

Concept on RAM , ROM

Memory

The memory of a microcomputer is where programs and data are stored when they are
currently in active use. We will cover different kinds of memory your microcomputer contains:
RAM
ROM
CMOS
RAM is the main memory space of your computer. The term RAM means Random Access
Memory, and it comes from the early days of computers when mainframes had two types of
memory: Random access, in which any bit of memory could be addressed at any moment;
and Sequential memory (such as data stored on tape) where bits could only be accessed in a
certain order. All of the memory in your computer is random access, so don’t worry about
sequential memory.

The RAM is the workspace of your computer. If your computer has more RAM, it can open
more and larger programs and documents simultaneously. It’s like you having a large
worktable to spread work papers out on instead of a tiny desk. The documents you are
currently editing (and the programs your computer is using to let you do it) are stored in the
RAM.

RAM consists of banks of microchiptransistors that are either on or off (representing a 1 or a

zero). RAM chips need constant power to remember what is stored in them; a power
interruption of even a fraction of a second (perhaps caused by nearby lightning) can cause the
RAM to lose its contents. For this reason, RAM is said to be volatile (from “easily evaporated”)
and this is why it is important to save your work often to a more permanent storage such as
a hard disk.

The specific type of RAM used by your computer could be SDRAM (synchronous dynamic
RAM), or RDRAM (Rambus dynamic RAM), or DDR SDRAM (Double-data-rate SDRAM)—but
don’t worry about the details. Just be sure to get the proper kind for your system when you
purchase more RAM.

RAM is usually installed into sockets on the motherboard as DIMMs (Dual Inline Memory
Module), small circuit boards that hold the RAM chips. You can even install more RAM into
your computer, but you must take precautions not to allow static electricity to damage the
RAM or motherboard. The architecture of a given motherboard will limit the amount of extra
RAM you can add.

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RAM size is measured in bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, etc., as discussed in the section on
binary numbers. A typical computer in 2004 might have 512 MB of RAM installed.

Virtual Memory

The amount of RAM limits how large and how many programs and data files you can have
open at once. You normally couldn’t simultaneously open a two programs that each require 70
MB of RAM on a computer that has only 128 MB of RAM.
However, modern operating systems use virtual memory to get around this roadblock. If
everything won’t fit into RAM at once, the OS can automatically swap out currently unused
data to the hard disk, and swap in whatever data are needed. But this comes at a price! Hard
disks (mechanical devices) are much slower than RAM (electronic storage), so your computer
will run much slower if using virtual memory. If you run into this, it’s best to just buy more
RAM.

ROM

Microcomputers also have some ROM (Read Only Memory) on the motherboard. ROM does
not need power to remember its contents, so this is where a computer stores the programs
that are needed to start up (boot up) the computer system. (The instructions can’t be stored in
RAM, since RAM loses its contents when the computer is off; and they can’t be kept on the
hard disk, since just reading data from a hard disk requires programs.)
When the computer is first turned on, the program stored in the ROM is feed to the processor.
This initial program checks to see that everything is in order and looks for storage devices on
which it can locate a copy of the operating system; it then loads the first part of the OS into
RAM, then hands control over to that program to finish the boot process.The startup
instructions stored on ROM in a PC are part of the BIOS (Basic Input Output System). The
BIOS also contains the low-level interface code needed to access the drives, keyboard, and
produce simple display output.

Note that what we call “ROM” is in most cases nowadays stored on an EEPROM chip
(Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM). The motherboard includes special circuitry that
allows the “permanent” contents of the chip to be updated if needed, but this is rarely done
(EEPROM can only be re-written a limited number of times—but that limit may be 10,000
times).

CMOS

The “CMOS memory” of a computer is a small amount of “semi-permanent” storage where

changeable data can be stored that needs to remain available while the computer is turned
off. A small battery on the motherboard keeps the CMOS ‘alive’ when power is off.

The CMOS memory (called PRAM or “Parameter RAM on the Macintosh) can store such
information such as what hard drive or copy of the OS you want to boot from, what are your
default monitor settings, etc. The BIOS picks up this information and uses it during boot up.
The CMOS memory can also hold the time and date so that your computer remembers this
even when power its has been off. If your computer can’t remember the proper time, or can’t
remember system settings when it’s off, the small battery may need to be replaced.

Note that I used the term “CMOS memory” in quotes. CMOS (pronounced ‘See-Moss’) is a
type of transistor memory that requires very little power to store data, so this type of chip was

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used in the early days for storing semi-permanent data. However, almost ALL of the chips in
your computer nowadays (such as the RAM) uses CMOS technology, and (irony) the “CMOS
semi-permanent memory” in many modern PCs is NOT stored on CMOS chips, but may use
flash memory (a kind of EEPROM). But the terms “CMOS memory” and “the CMOS” are still
used to refer to the semi-permanent memory.

Cache Memory. Special high-speed memory area that the CPU can quickly access, it
comprises a small area of RAM created in addition to the computers main memory (RAM), a
copy of the most frequently used data and instructions is kept in the cache.

a. Level 1 Cache. All Members of the 486 families includes as standard

feature with either 8K or 16K of cache memory. This cache is basically is an area of
very fast memory built in to the processor that is used to hold some of the current
working set to code and data, Cache memory can be accessed with no wait states
because it can fully keep up with the processor speed.

b. Level 2 Caches. This memory is external cache memory outside form the
processor and directly connected to the processor bus.

Video Card.

All the information is stored in the computers memory, we know. To make this information
fully useful, we need to have it displayed on the monitor so that we may correct the errors, if
any. The job is node for us by the video card that is called display Adapter Card as well. This
card serves as a link between the PCs memory and the video screen (monitor)

Expansion Slots.

36. An expansion slot is where an expansion card can be fitted. Each expansion slot leads
to the bus on the motherboard. The bus is a channel or path that enables the various parts of
a computer to communicate with one another. It serves as a road along which signal are sent.
An expansion bus allows extra hardware (cards etc) to be attached to the system.

37. Expansion slots allow the expansion cards to he plugged in. The cards offer extra
options – the options that are not available on the basic PC. For example, Empty RAM Chip
Slots are used to add extra RAM chips to expand the memory of the computer.

Hard Disk.

38. The hard disk is the computers permanent storage unit. It can hold large amounts of
data and instructions. The information stored on the hard disk is not affected even when the
PC is turned off . It remains quite intact unless he hard disk is damaged in some way or you
instruct the PC to overwrite it. One thing more, the user cannot change the information stored
on the hard disk.

39. There may be only one hard disk or more than one in the systems Unit of a computer.
If the disks are more than one each of them is called a platter.

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Concept on BIOS, POST, BITS, & Bytes

Concept on BIOS Instruction.

49. To properly test a computer, the BIOS needs to know exactly what it is testing—what
peripherals are installed, how much memory it must look through, and whether you have
installed a coprocessor. In order to boot a computer the BIOS needs to know exactly what kind
of disk is connected to it. In order for you to see what is going on when your system boots up,
the BIOS needs to know what kind of display system you have.

50. To let the BIOS know what option are installed in a given system, all PCs vital setup
information that can be referenced quickly. The storage system for this data—that is, system
setup memory has one requirement, and it must be nonvolatile. Other than that the storage
format are method are flexible because the BIOS isolates them from the rest of your software.
The BIOS looks up this system data and transfers it to the BIOS data area for reference by
your programs.

51. Common BIOS Setup Entry Points.

BIOS Maker Entry Key When

AMI Del During POST
Award Ctrl-Alt-Esc Anytime
DTK Esc During POST
IBM PS/2 Ctrl-Alt-Ins After Ctrl-Alt-Del
Phoenix Ctrl-Alt-Esc or Ctrl-Alt-S Anytime

This flexibility has given designers freedom to use a number of storage technologies for this
setup information.

BOOT Instruction.

52. The BIOS starts to work as soon as you switch your system on. When all modern Intel
microprocessors start to work they immediately set themselves up in real mode and look at a
special memory location that is exactly 16byte. This location holds a special program
instruction that is called BOOT instruction. There are three type of Booting such as:

a. Cold Boot describes the process of starting your PC and loading its operating
system by turning the power on. If your PC is running, you cold boot by first switching
it off than back on.

b. Warm boot describes process of starting your PC and loading its operating
system a new after it already been running and has booted up at least once before.
You start a warm boot by giving the infamous “three finger salute” by pressing Ctrl, Alt
and Del keys at the same time.

c. Hot boot describes what you get when you slide a piece of footwear in to your
oven in a mistaken attempt at the preparation of filet of sole. The term is not used to
describe the PC boot up process.

53. At the operating system level, a cold boot and a warm boot are essentially same. Your
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PC starts from the beginning and loads the operating system from scratch.

Concept on POST.

45. POST means power-On Self-Test. The POST operates whenever any PC is powered
up(switch on). When IBM first began shipping the IBM PC in 1981, it included safety features
that had been never been seen in a personal computer. These features were the POST and
parity checked memory. The following provides much more detail on the POST, a series of
program routines buried in the motherboard ROM-BIOS chip that tests all the main system
components at power on time. This program series causes the delay when you turn on an
IBM-compatible system; the POST is executed before the computer loads the operating
system.

46. Whenever you start up your computer, it automatically performs a series of tests that
checks the primary components of your system. Item such as the CPU, ROM, motherboard
support circuitry, memory and major peripherals (such as an expansion chassis) are tested.
The POST process provides error or warning messages whenever a faulty component is
encountered.

47. Concept on Start-Up Instruction.

Here is an illustration of the start-Up process:

ROM (Read Only Memory)
POST Program in chips at the
(Power On Self-Test) motherboard
Test program
Setup data from CMOS

BIOS ROM chips with

(Basic Input Output BIOS programs
System) BIOS Copied from
System Software adapters (VGA)
Copied to RAM

BOOTING
The Start-up program has to find a boot sector
at a disk.
DOS, WINDOWS 98, NT or another Operating
system loaded from the disk

Bits and Byte

40. Because data storage consists of digits that are either on or off, these series are read
as ones (on) or zeros (off). When arranged in a special order, the series of ones and zeros
are interpreted as data and instructions.

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41. Since there are only two digits that comprise this code, it is known as Binary Code.
Each one or zero is known as a binary digit or bit. Information, as humans perceive it, is
usually associated with text or numeric characters. For a computer to store a character, it
must be stored as binary code.
42. Binary code, or binary storage, requires eight bits to store one character or number, A
collection of eight bits forms a Byte. Therefore, 8 bits = 1 Byte, and 1 Byte = 1 Character, for
example, the word computer would require eight Bytes or 64 bits to store it in memory or on
disk.

The word computer = 8 characters (letters)

8 characters (letters) = 8 Bytes
8 Bytes = 64 bits (8 x 8 = 64)

43. The plural, Bytes is used extensively to describe physical parameters such as disk drive
size, file size, the amount of memory etc. The metric prefixes are used (kilobyte, Megabyte,
Gigabyte, Terabyte, Petabyte and Exabyte) to describe large amounts of information.

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Data Equivalents
1b 1 bit 1 binary digit = a zero or a one
1B 1 Byte 1 Character = 8 bits
1 KB 1 Kilobyte 1, 024 Bytes
1 MB 1 Megabyte 1,024 KB = 1, 048, 576 Bytes
1 GB 1 Gigabyte 1,024 MB = 1, 073, 741, 824 Bytes
1TB 1 Terabyte 1,024 GB= 1, 099511, 627, 776 Bytes
1PB 1 Petabyte 1,024 TB= 1, 125, 899, 906, 842, 624 Bytes
1XB 1 Exabyte 1,024 PB=1, 152, 921, 504, 606, 846, 976 Bytes

Figure Table of data Equivalents

44. A sense of the magnitude of those units can be obtained form the following
comparisons:

Item Measurement Units

Machine ode instructions 1-10 Bits
Words 1.15 Bytes
Pages of text 1.20 kilobytes
Books 1.25 Megabytes
8 X 10 true color picture (1200 dpi) 2.3 Gigabytes
NOTE: Lange databases may store on away of Gigabyte drives.

Expansion Card

In computing, the expansion card, expansion board, adapter card or accessory card, is a
printed circuit board that can be inserted into an electrical connector, or expansion slot on a
computer motherboard, backplane or riser card to add functionality to a computer system via
the expansion bus.

Sound Card

Alternatively referred to as an audio output device, sound board, or audio card. A sound card
is an expansion card or IC for producing sound on a computer that can be heard through
speakers or headphones. Although the computer does not need a sound device to function,
they are included on every machine in one form or another, either in an expansion slot or built
into the motherboard (onboard).

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Figure: Sound Card

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Sound card connections

The picture is an example of a sound card audio ports or audio jacks on the back of your
computer, associated colors, and the connector symbols.

Digital Out (White or Yellow; words: "Digital" or "Digital Out") - Used with surround sound or
loudspeakers.
Sound in or line in (Blue; Arrow pointing into waves) - Connection for external audio sources,
e.g. tape recorder, record player, or CD player.
Microphone or Mic (Pink; Microphone) - The connection for a microphone or headphones.
Sound out or line out (Green; Arrow pointing out of waves) - The primary sound connection for
your speakers or headphones. This sound card also has a second (black) and third (orange)
sound out connector.
Firewire (Not pictured) - Used with some high-quality sound cards for digital video cameras

and other devices.MIDI or joystick (15 pin yellow connector) - Used with earlier sound cards to
connect MIDI keyboard or joystick.

Tip: Usually the cables connecting to the devices are also color-coded and will match or be
close to the colors the cables connect into. For example, the end of the speakers cable may
have a green line or be completely green.

Uses of a computer sound card

 Games
 Audio CDs and listening to music
 Watch movies
 Audio conferencing
 Creating and playing Midi
 Educational software
 Business presentations
 Record dictations
 Voice recognition

Video Card

A video card connects to the motherboard of a computer system and generates output
images to display. Video cards are also referred to as graphics cards. Video cards include a
processing unit, memory, a cooling mechanism and connections to a display device.

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Figure: Video Card

Network Card

A Network interface card, NIC, or Network card is an electronic device that connects a
computer to a computer network, usually a LAN. It is considered a piece of computer
hardware. Today, most computers have network cards.

Figure: LAN Card

Booting Process of a PC

The boot process is something that happens every time you turn your computer on. You don't
really see it, because it happens so fast. You press the power button come back a few
minutes later and Windows XP, or Windows Vista, or whatever Operating System you use is
all loaded.

However, what really happens when you press the power button and turn your computer on?
This process is called the boot process and this article will help you understand the process of
turning on your computer. The following is a list of what typically happens in a pc, but it will
differ depending on your bios and manufacturer.

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The first step your computer does when you press the power button, is to turn the Computer
Power Supply on. Once a 'Power Good' signal is sent to the motherboard, the CPU then
(understanding that the power supply is stable) looks for the ROM bios.

The CPU looks to the ROM bios for the first instruction, and the first instruction is to run the
POST (Power-On-Self-Test).

The POST first checks the bios and then tests the CMOS RAM. If there is no problems with
this then POST continues to check the CPU, hardware devices such as the Video Card, the
secondary storage devices such as the Hard Drive, Floppy Drives, Zip Drive or CD/DVD
Drives.
If there are any errors found then an error message is displayed on screen or a number of
beeps are heard. These beeps are known as POST beep codes. The reason the computer
sometimes uses beep codes instead of displaying an error message is because the video card
has not yet been initiated or there may be an error with the card.

Next the bios finds the video card and runs the video card's bios. This usually is the first thing
that modern machines display on the screen. After that the computer looks at the other
devices and runs their bios' if they have one.

The bios then displays the system configuration.During the display more tests are conducted
including the test that shows your computer testing the memory. If there are any problems
found from now on they will be displayed in a text message on the screen.After that the bios
searches for something that it can boot from. This can be set in the CMOS under boot
sequence. It can be set to the A: Drive (Floppy) C: (Hard Drive, Primary Partition) D: (CD/DVD
Drive) or others such as the USB drive or network card (depending on the bios).

Once the target boot device has been selected the bios will search for the Master Boot Record
(MBR). If it is searching for a hard drive it looks at cylinder 0, head 0, sector 1.

Once a valid volume boot sector is found the bios has done its job and hands over control to
the Operating System that completes the booting process. It will also conduct a few hardware
tests.

If no valid boot record is found the computer will display an error such as the following:
Non-System Disk or disk errorReplace and press any key when ready

If a valid boot record is found but it cannot read the Master Boot Record then the computer will
display a message such as:

Disk boot failure, insert system disk and press enterThis concludes this article on the boot
process that happens to your computer when you press that power button. Were you
surprised at how much work the computer has to do when it starts? It surprised me when I first
heard about.

Switching ON /OFF Procedure of a PC

Switch ON.

a. Confirm all connections including power cables are correct.

b. Ensure there is no diskette in the DVD drive.
c. Switch ON Monitor.
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d. Switch ON CPU.
e. Wait for some time. After displaying various information and Windows logo the
windows startup screen will be displayed. This may differ little bit from computer to
computer.

Switching OFF.

a. Close all application program and return to windows start screen.

b. Click Start Menu.
c. Click Shutdown.
d. Select Shutdown.
e. Click Ok. (A message like 'It is now safe to turn OFF your Computer' will appear)
f. If CPU is not automatically turned off then switch off CPU.
g. Switch OFF Monitor

Reference: Internet

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CHAPTER – 2

OPERATING SYSTEM CONCEPT

Function of Operating system in a PC

An operating system is an important part of almost every computer system. A computer

system can be roughly divided into four components: the hardware, the operating system, the
application programs, and the users. The hardware, memory and input/output provide the
basic computing resource. The application programs define the way in which these resources
are used to solve the computing problems of the users. The operating system controls and
coordinates the use of the hardware among the various application programs for the various
uses. An operating system is similar to a government. The components of a computer system
are its hardware, software, and data. The operating system provides the means for the proper
use of these resources in the operation of the computer system like a government; the
operating system performs no useful function by itself. It simply provides an environment
within which other programs can do useful work.
So functions of an operating system are as follows:

a. We can view an operating system as a resource allocator.

b. An operating system is a control program.
c. An operating system is convenience for the user.
d. Efficient operation of the computer system

Historical overview of OS Software

 By in the early 1960s, when the commercial computer merchants started supplying the
extensive apparatus for reformation of the development, execution of jobs, and scheduling on
batch processing systems.

 With the advancement of the time we have come across a number of operating system
software. Starting from the DOS, a lot much operating system software has got
developed through out the ages like the UNIX, Oracle etc depending on the requirement.

 The most commonly-used modern desktop and laptop operating system is the
MicrosoftWindows.

 Though more powerful servers make the use of FreeBSD, Linux, and other Unix-like
systems a lot.

 Though, these types of operating systems, particularly Mac OS X, are also

installed on the personal computers.

Types of Operating Systems Software:

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Operating Systems for Single User Systems: Single User Systems provides a base for only
single user at a particular time. These types of Operating Systems software
are more popularly with Desk Tops.

Operating Systems for Multi User Systems: Multi User Systems provide a
regulated admittance for a certain number of users by keeping up a database of identified
users.
Microsoft Contributions for Evolution of Operating Systems.

Microsoft has designed and marketed the Windows Operating Systems as a collection of
several Operating Systems.

Microsoft was the first to introduce the idea of an operating setting which was named as
Windows in November 1985 as an attachment to the MS-DOS in reply to the increasing
curiosity in Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs).
Microsoft Windows in the end started to govern the world market of the personal
computers, going far ahead of Mac OS, which was predominating before its era.
The latest version of Windows present in the market is Windows Vista while the latest server
version of it is the Windows Server 2003.

The descendant to Windows Server 2003 will be the Windows Server 2008
which is still in beta version and is at present being under tested.

Evolution of Operating Systems Example:

Two obvious examples of Evolution of Operating Systems are: case sensitivity and character
utilized to separate directories.

Security for Evolution of Operating Systems:

Computer Operating Systems also comprise some standards of security.

Security is based on the two concepts. The Operating Systems offers admission to a number
of resources, directly or indirectly, like files on a local disk, personal information about users,
privileged system calls, and the services presented by the programs running on the system.
The Operating Systems is competent of unique between some requesters of these resources
who are authorized to access the resource and others who are forbidden. Internal security is
regarded as an already running program. On some systems, a program once it is running has
no limitations, but frequently the program has an individuality which it keeps and is used to
check all of its requests for resources. To launch identity there may be a process of
authentication. Often a username must be cited and each username must possess a
password. Other procedures of authentication are magnetic cards or biometric data, may be
utilized instead. In some cases, especially connections from the network, resources may be
admittance with no confirmation at all.

Differences between System Software and Application Software

Operating System Application Software

Operating system is software, which Program or programs designed to carry out

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activates the computer hardware and helps a specific task to satisfy a user’s specific
us to run other software smoothly in a needs.
computer.
Without operating system a computer can With out A/S a computer can work.
not work
All task centrally control by a O/S. A/S can format only One task with the help
of O/S.
A computer system need only one 0/S. A computer system need one or more A/S.
DOS, Windows, UNIX, LINUX are the MS-Word, MS-Excel, MS-FoxPro are the
examples of O/S examples of A/S

Precautions before installing operating system in a PC

Before you begin the installation process, use this checklist to make sure that you are
prepared:

You have the Windows XP CD.

You have the product key available. The product key is located on your Windows XP CD case
and is required to install and activate Windows XP.
Your computer hardware is set up. At a minimum, you should connect your keyboard, mouse,
monitor, and CD drive. If available, you should connect your computer to a wired network.
You have Windows XP drivers available. Drivers are software that Windows XP uses to
communicate with your computer’s hardware. Most new computers include a CD containing
drivers. If you do not have drivers available, Windows XP may already include drivers for your
hardware. If not, you should be able to download them from your hardware manufacturer’s
Web site after you set up Windows XP.
If you are reinstalling Windows XP on an existing computer, you need a backup copy of your
files and settings. The installation process will delete all of your files. You can use the File and
Settings Transfer Wizard to store your files and settings on removable media and then restore
them after installation is complete. All versions of Windows XP CD are bootable. In order to
boot from CD/DVD-ROM you need to set the boot sequence from BIOS Setup. Look for the
boot sequence under your BIOS setup and make sure that the first boot device is set to
CD/DVD-ROM.

Install Windows XP

Most new computers come with Windows XP installed, so many people never have to install it.
However, you may need to install Windows XP if:

• You replaced your hard disk drive with a new hard disk drive that does not have
Windows XP installed.

• You are reinstalling Windows XP on a computer because you want to clean off your
hard drive and remove any unwanted programs, such as spyware.

• You purchased a computer without an operating system.

Fortunately, you do not need to be a computer expert to install Windows XP. Installing
Windows XP is a straightforward process that takes between one to two hours. Of that time,
you need to be present for only about 30 minutes.

You can then perform the following steps to install Windows XP:
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Step 1 - Start your PC and place your Windows XP CD in your CD/DVD-ROM drive. Your PC
should automatically detect the CD and you will get a message saying "Press any key to boot
from CD". Soon as computer starts booting from the CD your will get the following screen:

Step 2 - You will then get a Windows XP Professional Setup screen. You have the option to do
a new Windows install, Repair previous install or quit. Since we are doing a new install we just
press Enter to continue.

Step 3 - You will be presented with the End User Licensing Agreement. Press F8 to accept
and continue.

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Step 4 - This step is very important. Here we will create the partition where Windows will be
installed. If you have a brand new unformatted drive you will get a screen similar to below. In
our case the drive size is 8190MB. We can choose to install Windows in this drive without
creating a partition, hence use the entire size of the drive. If you wish to do this you can just
press enter and Windows will automatically partition and format the drive as one large drive.
However for this demonstration I will create two partition. The first partition will be 6000MB (C:
drive) and second partition would be 2180MB (E: drive). By creating two partition we can have
one which stores Windows and Applications and the other which stores our data. So in the
future if anything goes wrong with our Windows install such as virus or spyware we can re-
install Windows on C: drive and our data on E: drive will not be touched. Please note you can
choose whatever size partition your like. For example if you have 500GB hard drive you can
have two partition of 250GB each.
Press C to create a partition.

Step 5 - Windows will show the total size of the hard drive and ask you how much you want to
allocate for the partition you are about to create. I will choose 6000MB. You will then get the
screen below. Notice it shows C: Partition 1 followed by the size 6000 MB. This indicates the
partition has been created. We still have an un-partitioned space of 2189MB. Next highlight
the un-partitioned space by pressing down the arrow key. Then press C to create another
partition. You will see the total space available for the new partition. Just choose all the space
left over, in our case 2180MB.

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Step 6 - Now you will see both partition listed. Partition 1 (C: Drive) 6000MB and Partition 2 (E:
Drive) 2180MB. You will also have 8MB of un-partitioned space. Don't worry about that. Just
leave it how its is. Windows normally has some un-partitioned space. You might wonder what
happened to D: drive. Windows has automatically allocated D: drive to CD/DVD-ROM.
Select Partition 1 (C: Drive) and press Enter.

Step 7 - Choose format the partition using NTFS file system. This is the recommended file
system. If the hard drive has been formatted before then you can choose quick NTFS format.
We chose NTFS because it offers many security features, supports larger drive size, and
bigger size files.

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Windows will now start formatting drive C: and start copying setup files as shown on the two
images below:

Step 8 - After the setup has completed copying the files the computer will restart. Leave the
XP CD in the drive but this time DO NOT press any key when the message "Press any key to
boot from CD" is displayed. In few seconds setup will continue. Windows XP Setup wizard will
guide you through the setup process of gathering information about your computer

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Step 9 - Choose your region and language.

Step 10 - Type your name and organization.

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Step 11. Enter your product key.

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Step 12 - Name the computer, and enter an Administrator password. Don't forget to write
down your Administrator password.

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Step 13 - Enter the correct date, time and choose your time zone.

Step 14 - For the network setting choose typical and press next.

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Step 15 - Choose workgroup or domain name. If you are not a member of a domain then leave
the default settings and press next. Windows will restart again and adjust the display.

Step 16 - Finally Windows will start and present you with a Welcome screen. Click next to
continue.

Step 17 - Choose 'help protect my PC by turning on automatic updates now' and press next.
(If you have internet connection).

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Step 18 - Ready to activate Windows? Choose yes if you wish to active Windows over the
internet now. Choose no if you want to activate Windows at a later stage.

Step 19 - Add users that will sign on to this computer and click next.

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Step 20 - You will get a Thank you screen to confirm setup is complete. Click finish.

Step 21. Log in, to your PC for the first time.

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Step 22 - You now need to check the device manager to confirm that all the drivers has been
loaded or if there are any conflicts. From the start menu select Start -> Settings -> Control
Panel. Click on the System icon and then from the System Properties window select the
Hardware tab, then click on Device Manager.

If there are any yellow exclamation mark "!" next to any of the listed device, it means that no
drivers or incorrect drivers has been loaded for that device. In our case we have a Video
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Controller (VGA card) which has no drivers installed.
Your hardware should come with manufacturer supplied drivers. You need to install these
drivers using the automatic setup program provided by the manufacturer or you need to
manually install these drivers. If you do not have the drivers, check the manufacturers website
to download them.

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To install a driver manually use the following procedure:

(a) From the device manager double click on the device containing the exclamation mark.

(b) This would open a device properties window.

(c) Click on the Driver tab.

(d) Click Update Driver button. The Wizard for updating device driver pops up as shown
below:

You now get two options. The first option provides an automatic search for the required driver.
The second option allows you to specify the location of the driver. If you don't know the
location of the driver chooses the automatic search which would find the required driver from
the
Manufacturer supplied CD or Floppy disk. Windows would install the required driver and may
ask you to restart the system for the changes to take effect. Use this procedure to install
drivers for all the devices that contain an exclamation mark. Windows is completely setup
when there are no more exclamation marks in the device manager.

Windows 7 Installation Step by Step

In order to install your copy of the Windows 7 operating system please make sure to have
thefollowing items:
-Windows 7 Installation disk
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-Drivers CD: * Use after installation process if needed.
NOTE: Please make sure to back up all of your important data before proceeding with this
installation.

Step 1. Insert the Windows 7 operating system disk into your DVD drive, and then restart your
computer

Step 2.You will see a prompt that says ‘Press any key to continue’ after the ZT logo
disappears. Whenyou see this press any key immediately.
*NOTE: The following screen shots may differ from what you may see during your installation.
(i.e. Win7version, HDD disk space etc..)

Step 3 ‘Starting Windows’ with the Windows7 logo will appear.

Step 4. Language options, by default English will be set along with “time and currency format”
and “keyboard or input method”

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Step 5. Click “Install Now”

Step 6. End User License Agreement (E.U.L.A.), check the box to accept, and click “Next”

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Step 7.“Which type of installation?” window will appear. Upgrade will be greyed out; the only
option you should be able to choose is Custom (advanced).

Step 8.“Where do you want to install windows?” Make sure the partition is highlighted.

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Step 9.Delete the partition by clicking on Drive options (advanced) on the bottom right corner
of the field.Make sure the partition is highlighted and click on Delete. If drive advanced options
is greyed out, then thepartition will not have to be deleted.

*NOTE: Deleting the partitions will erase all data on the system

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Step 10.Disk 0 Unallocated Space should be the only listing at this point. If it is press next, If
not please proceed to delete any additional partitions that may be listed.

Step 11.The next screen will show “Installing Windows”. This process should take
approximately 10 minutes after which the system will reboot

*NOTE: Do not press any keys during this boot up process so as to not disturb the rest of the
installation.

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Step 12.The next screen will show “Installing Windows” again to complete the installation
process.

Step 13. “Setup is starting Windows” will appear on the screen, then you will be asked to
create a user name and a computer name.

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Step 14.The next step will prompt you to create a password for your account (optional).

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Step 15.The next screen will come up and ask you to choose one of three options: “Use
recommended settings”, “Install important updates only” and “Ask me later”.

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Step 16.This screen will allow you to choose your local time zone and also adjust the date and
time.

Step 17.Click on the appropriate location of your computer to enable Windows 7 to apply the
correct network settings.

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The installation is done! You have successfully installed Windows 7 on your computer.

Creating Start Up Disk

Insert the system repair disc into your CD or DVD drive.
Restart your computer using the computer's power button.
If prompted, press any key to start the computer from the system repair disc. ...
Choose your language settings, and then click Next.
Select a recovery option, and then click Next.

Installation procedure of driver software:

VGA Card :

Video Graphics Array (VGA) is the display hardware first introduced with the IBM PS/2 line of
computers in 1987. Through widespread adoption, the term has also come to mean either an
analog computer display standard, the 15-pin D-subminiature VGA connector, or the 640×480
resolution characteristic of the VGA hardware.

Figure: Internal VGA Card

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VGA Driver installation procedure:

If you have a driver disk so Insert driver disk in your DVD drive.
Then open the disk to install the VGA driver.

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Select operating system and bit as like windows 7 32bit

Then select the VGA driver folder and open it to install.

Then setup…

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Double click the Setup.exe

Click Next
Mark I accept the terms in the license agreement

Wait a few moment for installation procedure

Then click next > finish.
Installation complete.

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LAN Driver installation procedure:

If you have a driver disk so Insert driver disk in your DVD drive.
Then open the disk to install the LAN driver.

Select operating system and bit as like windows 7 32bit

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Then select the LAN driver folder and open it to install.

Then setup…

Double click the setup.exe

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Continue installation

Installation complete.

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Printer Driver Installation:

At first insert the printer driver disk. Then open it. Then double click the setup.exe file.

Open this page as like as bellow

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>Then click EPSON LQ-2090

>Click Easy Install

>Install

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Installation Complete

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Then Click Exit

Note: Scanner Driver Installation procedure is as like Printer Driver.

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Installation procedure of Application Software:

Insert the Microsoft Office 2007 setup disk into the disk drive on your computer. The Setup
Wizard will automatically display on-screen after a few moments.
Click on “Start,” select “Run,” then type “D:\setup.exe” to launch the setup wizard if it fails to
automatically display on-screen.
If you do not have an Office 2007 setup disk, navigate to Office Setup at
https://setup.office.com/ and proceed with the following steps.

Enter your 25-character Product Key, then click “Continue.” Your Office 2007 Product
Key can be found inside your product package or in your purchase confirmation

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Select either “Upgrade” or “Custom,” depending on your preferred type of installation.

If you want Office 2007 to replace an earlier version of Office, select “Upgrade.” If you want to
keep your existing version of Office installed on your computer, select “Custom.”

If you select “Custom,” click the radio button next to “Keep all previous versions,” then click on
the “Installation Options” tab and select “Run all from My Computer.” The setup wizard will
then proceed with installation

Wait for Office 2007 to install on your computer. The installation process takes between 15
and 30 minutes to complete

Click on “Close” when the setup wizard informs you Office 2007 was successfully installed.

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Reference : Internet

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CHAPTER – 3

MICROSOFT WORD

Introduction to MS-Word:

Any of you that have used Microsoft Word before and are now trying to use Word 2007 it is
quite different from the old versions.

We are going to start with the basics and then move step by step through each tab at the top
to include the Home tab, Insert, Page Layout, and end with View. Let’s get started.

Even with extensive computer background it took me some time to get use to Microsoft Office
2007. Most beginner computer users will use Word for typing a letter to a family member or
friend, typing up a recipe or creating a fun card or flyer. We are going to have a little fun with
these tutorials and design a greeting card along with editing some other types of documents.
This will allow me to show you all of the features a basic computer user will want to know. We
will even show you how to create and print envelopes for you to use to mail homemade cards.

This tutorial will take you through how to use the features located in the Microsoft Office Logo
in the upper left corner of Word 2007.

When you open Word 2007 it starts you with a new document. All of your basic commands
that you will use on most documents are located at the top of the screen by clicking on the
Microsoft office logo. Click the upper left corner on the Microsoft Office logo to see the list of
options.

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Even though you already have a new document open click on the New icon. The New
Document window will open and give you template options to choose from.

Click on Installed Templates. This will give you a list of templates you can uses that are
already installed on your computer and you do not have to download from the internet. These
can be time savers if you are in a hurry to create a professional looking document.

Below the Installed Templates in a list of other templates you can download off the internet.
These are also great time savers. It just takes a few extra clicks to download the document
online.

Now click cancel. We are going to do things the hard way by designing our own. I just wanted
you to get a feel for all of the features New document has, besides just starting with a blank
page.

We are going to do this tutorial in the order of the tabs at the top. So now that we have a blank
document open click on the Microsoft Office logo at the top left and click Save as.

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The Word 2007 Save As is a little different than past versions. If you are planning to send the
document via email or save it to a disk and use another computer to open it click the Word 97-
2003 Document. If the other computer does not have Word 2007 but has an older version this
selection lets you open the document in an older version of Word.

If you plan on using Word 2007 to open the document each time click the top Word Document
selection.

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Select the file location you would like to save the greeting card. Usually the file location
defaults to My Documents. Type greeting card in the File name: box and click save.

You can also change the document type to open in an older version of word in the Save As
Window by clicking the drop Save as type: down menu and selecting Word 97-2003
Document.

Now that the document is saved let’s close and reopen the document.
Click on the Microsoft Office icon in the upper left corner and at the very bottom click Close.
There are 3 ways to reopen a document. 1. Double click on the My Documents folder from
your desktop and then double click on the greeting card.docx file. This will automatically open
Word 2007 and your saved document.

2. Open Word 2007 and click on the Microsoft Office icon in the upper left corner. The drop
down menu will appear and you can either click on the Open Icon and it will take you to your
My Document folder where you can double click the greeting card.docx file and open it, or

3. In the right hand column of the drop down menu you will see Recent Documents. Scan
down the list of documents until you find greeting card.docx file and click.

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Hardware & Software Requirement for MS- Word:

Familiarization with Various Tab (Home Tab):

Home Tab Has Clipboard Task Pane, Font Dialog Box, Paragraph Dialog Box, Styles Dialog
Box and Editing Box,

Familiarization with Various Tab (Insert Tab):

Pages Dialog Box, Table Pane, Illustrations Dialog Box, Links Pane, Header & Footer Pane,
Text Pane, Symbols Pane.

Familiarization with Various Tab (Page Layout):

Use of Themes, Page setup Dialog Box, Page Background Dialog Box, Paragraph Pane,
Arrange Pane

Familiarization with Various Tab (Review Tab):

Proofing (use of Spelling and Grammar), Comments, Tracking, Changes, Compare, Protect.

Familiarization with Various Tab (View Tab):

Document Views Pane, Show/Hide Pane, Zoom Pane, Window Pane

Familiarization with Various Tab (Office Button):

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New, Open, Save, Save as, Print, Prepare, Send, Publish, Close

Working With Keyboard and Mouse:

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Some shortcut command :

Action Shortcut Command

File save Ctrl + S
File Open Ctrl + O
New File Ctrl + N
Copy Ctrl + C
Cut Ctrl + X
Paste Ctrl + V
Font dialog box Ctrl + D
Bold Ctrl + B
Italic Ctrl + I
Underline Ctrl + U
Left align Ctrl + L
Right align Ctrl + R
Center align Ctrl + E
Justify Ctrl + J
Superscript Ctrl + Shift + +
Subscript Ctrl + =
Font size increase Ctrl + }
Font size decrease Ctrl + {
Find Ctrl + F
Replace Ctrl + H
Go To Ctrl + G / F5
Print Ctrl + P
Print Preview Ctrl + F2
Undo Ctrl + Z
Case change Shift + F3
Minimize / Maximize Win Key + D
Create New Page Ctrl + Enter
Spelling & Grammar F7
{} Ctrl + F9
Help F1

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Go 1st page Ctrl + Home

Go last page Ctrl + End
Close Alt + F4

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Opening, Saving and Exiting From Word:

To Open an MS-Word File:Click Office Button> Then an word window will open

Saving an MS- Word File:After Open an MS-Word file then write something then click to
Office Button > Click Save.

Exiting From Word:Click Office Button> Click on Close.

Typing Practice:

Typing Practice in English:

When you type information into Microsoft Word, each time you press the Enter key Word
creates a new paragraph. You can format paragraphs. For example, you can indent the first
line of a paragraph, you can set the amount of space that separates paragraphs, and you can
align a paragraph left, right, center, or flush with both margins. Styles are a set of formats you
can quickly apply to a paragraph. For example, by applying a style, you can set the font, set
the font size, and align a paragraph all at once. In this lesson, you will learn about the various
formats you can apply to a paragraph and about styles.

Typing practice in Bangla:

Bj¡cl ®cnle¡jh¡wm¡cnz H ®cn HL¢V ü¡d£e ®cnzh¡wm¡cnc£OÑeuj¡p

lš²ru£ k¤Ülj¡dÉjf¡Lq¡e¡c¡l h¡¢qe£l L¡R ®bL 1971 p¡ml 16 C ¢X-
pðlü¡d£ea¡ m¡iLlz HC ü¡d£ea¡ k¤Ü ¢œnmr j¤¢š² L¡j£ Sea¡ n¡q¡c¡vhlZL-
lez

Working with File Menu (Opening, Page setup, Print Preview, Printing and
Exiting from word)

To Open an MS-Word File:Click Office Button> Then an word window will open

Page Setup:

Click the drop down button of Margins. a list will come like as bellow.

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Click to Custom Margins.a page setup dialog box will appear. In Margins tab set
Top/Bottom/Left/Right at 1” for the margin of a page.

Print Preview:Click on Office Button> Print> Print Preview

Printing Word File:Click on Office Button> Print> Print

Exiting From Word: Click Office Button> Click on Close.

Working With Quick Access Toolbar:

The Quick Access Toolbar: The Quick Access toolbar provides you with access to
commands you frequently use. By default Save, Undo, and Redo appear on the Quick Access
toolbar. You can use Save to save your file, Undo to rollback an action you have taken, and
Redo to reapply an action you have rolled back.

Figure: Quick Access Toolbar.

Now we can customize the toolbar as per requirement.

The Icon available here are the following:
New
Open
Save
E-mail
Quick Print
Print Preview
Spelling & grammar
Undo
Redo
Draw table

Working With View Tab:

View Tab

Use of Documents Views dialog box:

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To view the documents in Print Layout/Full Screen/Web Layout/Outline/Draft, click

individually every button of Documents Views dialog box.
Results:
Print Layout Full Screen

Outline

Use of Show/Hide dialog box:

To view Ruler/Document Map/Gridlines/Thumbnails then checked every of options Show/Hide

dialog box.

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Working with Picture, Word Art, Equation, Symbol:

To insert a picture, click Picture button the Insert Picture dialog box will appear. Find out the
picture from the appropriate location and then click Insert button.

Results:

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To modify a picture, select the picture and press Right button of the mouse. Option list will
appear like as bellow then click Format Picture.

From Format Picture we can change Fill

Color & line color using Colors & Lines tab.
To change size use Size tab.
Use Layout tab, select Behind text in wrapping style and select left/right/center/others in
Horizontal alignment for easily move the picture or move picture using up/down/left/right
Arrow.

To washout a picture, go to the Insert Picture dialog box then select Picture. Select Washout
from the drop down button of color in Image Control area.
Results:

Original Washout

To remove a picture, select the picture then press Delete from the keyboard.
To insert Clip Art, click Clip Art button then Clip Art pane will appear like as bellow. Type car
in the Search text box then click Go. If find clip art then will display like the bellow picture.
Select a picture then press Right button of the mouse and click Insert.

Results:

Figure: Format processing like as Insert Picture.

To remove a clip art, select the clip art then press Delete from the keyboard.
To insert a Word Art, click drop down button of Word Art. A few list will appear then select
any one. Edit word art mode will appear then type your text on the text box. Also change font
from the font box. Then click Ok.

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Results:

Format processing like as Insert Picture.

To remove a Word Art, select the Word Art then press Delete from the keyboard

To insert a Equation format to write Equation, click the drop down button of Equation button.
A list will appear like as bellow. Then select one and can write.

Results:

To insert any symbol, click the drop down button of Symbol button. A list will appear like as
bellow. Then select one and can write. Select any one then it will put in the cursor position of
the page.
Select More Symbols to get more symbols.

Results: Bangladesh is our motherland. (This symbol get from more symbols)

Working With Page Layout Tab:

Use of Page Setup dialog box :

Click the drop down button of Margins. a list will come like as bellow.

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Click to Custom Margins. A page setup dialog box will appear. In Margins tab set
Top/Bottom/Left/Right at 1” for the margin of a page.

Gutter used for Spiral Binding of documents.

Orientation Portrait/Landscape. Also used by Orientation button. Page will display like as
bellow.

Portrait Landscape

Bangladesh is beautiful country. Bangladesh is beautiful country.

Bangladesh is beautiful country. Bangladesh is beautiful country.
Bangladesh is beautiful country. Bangladesh is beautiful country.
Bangladesh is beautiful country. Bangladesh is beautiful country.

To paper size, click Paper tab. Set width and height of the page. Also set by Size button.
Click to Layout tab to set header/footer size.

To insert Line number, click Line Number drop down button, select continues.

Results :

1 Bangladesh is beautiful country.

2 Bangladesh is beautiful country.
3 Bangladesh is beautiful country.
4 Bangladesh is beautiful country.

To set Hyphenations, click Hyphenations drop down button, select Automatic.

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Results:
Bangladesh is our home-
land
Bangladesh is our home-
land
Bangladesh is our home-
land

Use of Page Background dialog box :

Click Watermark dropdown button to set watermark in page. Like as bellow.

Use Custom Watermark to set any text/picture in the page.

To remove watermark, Click Watermark dropdown button then click Remove Watermark.

Working with Review Tab:

Use of Proofing dialog box :

To check Spelling & Grammar, Select your wrong word, Click Spelling & Grammar, Spelling
& Grammar dialog box will appear. Selected word will display in Not in Dictionary box and a
few suggestions will display in suggestions box. Appropriate word select and click Change.

To check Thesaurus of a word, Click Research/Thesaurus button then window will appear
like as bellow. Type your word & click Search button (behind right).

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To Translate of a word, Click Research/Translate button then window will appear like as
bellow. Type your word & click Search button (behind right).

Working with table:

To create a table, click the drop down button of table pane then click Insert Table. Insert table
dialog box will appear. Put number of columns: 3 and number of rows: 2 and fixed columns
width: Auto

Results: Bellow table will be created.

To use Merge cell select two cell of the table like as bellow.

Then place the cursor on the selected area and press Right button, drop down list will appear
like as bellow. Click Merge Cells.
Results:

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To use Split cell, put cursor in a cell then click Right Button of the mouse, drop down list will
appear like as bellow. Click Split Cells.

Results:

Cell 1 split with 3 columns and 2 rows.

To change Text Direction, put the cursor in a cell and click Right Button of the mouse, drop
down list will appear like as above figure. Click Text Direction… then chose any one of three
directions.
Result:
BNA

BNA
BNA

To change border color/style, select the table the click Right Button of the mouse, drop down
list will appear like as above figure list2, click Borders and Shading, dialog box will appear.

Here select style: three line style and color: Dark Blue. Bellow result will found.

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To Insert Column/Row, put the cursor left/right cell of inserting column and above/bellow cell
of inserting row then click Right Button of the mouse, drop down list will appear like as above
figure list2, click Insert & select the target.

Inserted column

To delete Column/Row, select the column /row then click Right Button of the mouse, drop
down list will appear like as above figure list2, click Delete columns/rows.

Result: Here one row deleted from two rows.

To insert quick table, click the drop down button of table pane then click Quick Tables and
select any one.
Results:
ITEM NEEDED
Books 1
Magazines 3
Notebooks 1
Paper pads 1
Pens 3
Pencils 2
Highlighter 2 colors
Scissors 1 pair

Working with Quick Parts, Date & Time, Header/ Footer, Object:

To insert any Field, click the drop down button of Quick Parts, click Field. Field list will
appear then select any one.
As a example: select Eq, click Equation Editor results will display like as bellow.

To insert Date & Time, click InsertDate & Time button, a list will appear then select any
format from available formats, click Ok.
Results: 18 December 2014

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Use of Header & Footer pane:

To use Header, click drop down button of Header. A few list will appear then select any one.
Header area will display in text page then type necessary text in Header. Now double click in
the main text area.
To Edit Header, click drop down button of Header. Click Edit Header. Then header area will
active to edit.
To Remove Header, click drop down button of Header. Click Remove Header. Then header
will remove.
To use Footer, click drop down button of Footer. A few list will appear then select any one.
Footer area will display in text page then type necessary text in Footer. Now double click in
the main text area.
To Edit Footer, click drop down button of Footer. Click Edit Footer. Then Footer area will
active to edit.
To Remove Footer, click drop down button of Footer. Click Remove Footer. Then Footer will
remove.
To insert aObjet, click the drop down button Insert Object, click Object. A object list will
appear. Select a object then click Ok.

Results: a MS Excel worksheet inserted bellow.

Figure: Format processing like as Insert Picture.

To remove an Object, select the Object then press Delete from the keyboard.

Working with Shapes (Line Draw, Arrow draw, Rectangle draw, Oval Draw,
Text box, fill color, Line Color, Group/ Ungroup):

Line Draw:

Figure: Line

Arrow Draw:

Figure: Arrow

Rectangle Draw:

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Figure: Rectangle.

Oval Draw:

Figure: Oval

Text Box:

To insert a text box, click drop down button of Text Box. A few list will appear then select any
one and selected box will display in the page like as bellow.

[Type a quote from the document

or the summary of an interesting
point. You can position the text box
anywhere in the document. Use
the Text Box Tools tab to change
the formatting of the pull quote text
box.]

To remove a text box, select the box then press Delete from the keyboard.

Click Fill Color dropdown button to set color in page. Page Layout> Page Color> select
desired color, Like as bellow.

Figure: Fill Color

Line Color: Double click on Text Box > Format> Shape outline> Select Desired Color.

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Figure: Line color

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Group / Ungroup:

3. Use of Grouping:

Insert Shapes

To insert Shapes, click drop down button of Shapes then Shapes gallery will appear like as
bellow. Select any one then mouse pointer will change to (+) and press the Left button of the
mouse continue and move the mouse.

Dhaka

Bangladesh CTG
Sylhet

Figure: Working with shapes

B. Group the shapes:

Select All Shapes by pressing Ctrl Button and then when selection arrow appeared then click
right button to select Grouping> Group

B. Ungroup the shapes:

Select All Shapes by pressing Ctrl Button and then when selection arrow appeared then click
right button to select Grouping> Ungroup

Reference : Internet

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CHAPTER – 4
MS EXCEL 2007

Introduction to Microsoft Excel

Microsoft Excel is an electronic spreadsheet. You can use it to organize your data into rows
and columns. You can also use it to perform mathematical calculations quickly. This tutorial
teaches Microsoft Excel basics. Although knowledge of how to navigate in a Windows
environment is helpful, this tutorial was created for the computer novice.
This lesson will introduce you to the Excel window. You use the window to interact with Excel.
To begin this lesson, start Microsoft Excel 2007. The Microsoft Excel window appears and
your screen looks similar to the one shown here.

Note: Your screen will probably not look exactly like the screen shown. In Excel 2007, how a
window displays depends on the size of your window, the size of your monitor, and the
resolution to which your monitor is set. Resolution determines how much information your
computer monitor can display. If you use a low resolution, less information fits on your screen,
but the size of your text and images are larger. If you use a high resolution, more information
fits on your screen, but the size of the text and images are smaller. Also, settings in Excel
2007, Windows Vista, and Windows XP allow you to change the color and style of your
windows.

The Microsoft Office Button

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In the upper-left corner of the Excel 2007 window is the Microsoft Office button. When you
click the button, a menu appears. You can use the menu to create a new file, open an existing
file, save a file, and perform many other tasks.

The Quick Access Toolbar

Next to the Microsoft Office button is the Quick Access toolbar. The Quick Access toolbar
gives you with access to commands you frequently use. By default, Save, Undo, and Redo
appear on the Quick Access toolbar. You can use Save to save your file, Undo to roll back an
action you have taken, and Redo to reapply an action you have rolled back.

The Title Bar

Next to the Quick Access toolbar is the Title bar. On the Title bar, Microsoft Excel displays the
name of the workbook you are currently using. At the top of the Excel window, you should see
"Microsoft Excel - Book1" or a similar name.

The Ribbon

You use commands to tell Microsoft Excel what to do. In Microsoft Excel 2007, you use the
Ribbon to issue commands. The Ribbon is located near the top of the Excel window, below
the Quick Access toolbar. At the top of the Ribbon are several tabs; clicking a tab displays
several related command groups. Within each group are related command buttons. You click
buttons to issue commands or to access menus and dialog boxes. You may also find a dialog
box launcher in the bottom-right corner of a group. When you click the dialog box launcher, a
dialog box makes additional commands available.

Worksheets

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Microsoft Excel consists of worksheets. Each worksheet contains columns and rows. The
columns are lettered A to Z and then continuing with AA, AB, AC and so on; the rows are
numbered 1 to 1,048,576. The number of columns and rows you can have in a worksheet is
limited by your computer memory and your system resources.

The combination of a column coordinate and a row coordinate make up a cell address. For
example, the cell located in the upper-left corner of the worksheet is cell A1, meaning column
A, row 1. Cell E10 is located under column E on row 10. You enter your data into the cells on
the worksheet.

The Formula Bar

If the Formula bar is turned on, the cell address of the cell you are in displays in the Name box
which is located on the left side of the Formula bar. Cell entries display on the right side of the
Formula bar. If you do not see the Formula bar in your window, perform the following steps:

Choose the View tab.

Click Formula Bar in the Show/Hide group. The Formula bar appears.
Note: The current cell address displays on the left side of the Formula bar.

The Status Bar

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The Status bar appears at the very bottom of the Excel window and provides such information
as the sum, average, minimum, and maximum value of selected numbers. You can change
what displays on the Status bar by right-clicking on the Status bar and selecting the options
you want from the Customize Status Bar menu. You click a menu item to select it. You click it
again to deselect it. A check mark next to an item means the item is selected.
How to Start and terminate Excel.

To Start Excel

Switch ON Computer and come on to the desktop.

b. Click Start.
c. Go to All Program.
d. Click Microsoft Office
e. Click Microsoft Excel 2007

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Microsoft Excel window will appear on the screen.

Figurer: 53 – Microsoft Excel Window

To Terminate Excel.

a. Click Office button..

b. Click Close.

A dialog box will appear on the screen to remind you to save the workbook if you have typed
any thing. But if you don’t type anything this dialog box will not appear.

Figure : - Microsoft Excel Exit dialog box

c. Click Yes (to save) another Save as dialogue box will appear.
d. Click No (not to save).

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Navigation in the Worksheet Environment:

Move Around a Worksheet

By using the arrow keys, you can move around your worksheet. You can use the down arrow
key to move downward one cell at a time. You can use the up arrow key to move upward one
cell at a time. You can use the Tab key to move across the page to the right, one cell at a
time. You can hold down the Shift key and then press the Tab key to move to the left, one cell
at a time. You can use the right and left arrow keys to move right or left one cell at a time. The
Page Up and Page Down keys move up and down one page at a time. If you hold down the
Ctrl key and then press the Home key, you move to the beginning of the worksheet.

Move Around the Worksheet

The Down Arrow Key

Press the down arrow key several times. Note that the cursor moves downward one cell at a
time.
The Up Arrow Key

Press the up arrow key several times. Note that the cursor moves upward one cell at a time.

The Tab Key

Move to cell A1.

Press the Tab key several times. Note that the cursor moves to the right one cell at a time.

The Shift+Tab Keys

Hold down the Shift key and then press Tab. Note that the cursor moves to the left one cell at
a time.

The Right and Left Arrow Keys

Press the right arrow key several times. Note that the cursor moves to the right.
Press the left arrow key several times. Note that the cursor moves to the left.

Page Up and Page Down

Press the Page Down key. Note that the cursor moves down one page.
Press the Page Up key. Note that the cursor moves up one page.

The Ctrl-Home Key

Move the cursor to column J.

Stay in column J and move the cursor to row 20.
Hold down the Ctrl key while you press the Home key. Excel moves to cell A1.

Go To Cells Quickly

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The following are shortcuts for moving quickly from one cell in a worksheet to a cell in a
different part of the worksheet.

Go to -- F5

The F5 function key is the "Go To" key. If you press the F5 key, you are prompted for the cell
to which you wish to go. Enter the cell address, and the cursor jumps to that cell.
Press F5. The Go To dialog box opens.
Type J3 in the Reference field.
Press Enter. Excel moves to cell J3.

Go to -- Ctrl+G

You can also use Ctrl+G to go to a specific cell.

Hold down the Ctrl key while you press "g" (Ctrl+g). The Go To dialog box opens.
Type C4 in the Reference field.
Press Enter. Excel moves to cell C4.

The Name Box

You can also use the Name box to go to a specific cell. Just type the cell you want to go to in
the Name box and then press Enter.

Type B10 in the Name box.

Press Enter. Excel moves to cell B10.

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Select Cells:

If you wish to perform a function on a group of cells, you must first select those cells by
highlighting them. The exercises that follow teach you how to select.

Select Cells:

To select cells A1 to E1:

Go to cell A1.
Press the F8 key. This anchors the cursor.
Note that "Extend Selection" appears on the Status bar in the lower-left corner of the window.
You are in the Extend mode.
Click in cell E7. Excel highlights cells A1 to E7.
Press Esc and click anywhere on the worksheet to clear the highlighting.

Alternative Method: Select Cells by Dragging

You can also select an area by holding down the left mouse button and dragging the mouse
over the area. In addition, you can select noncontiguous areas of the worksheet by doing the
following:

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Go to cell A1.
Hold down the Ctrl key. You won't release it until step 9. Holding down the Ctrl key enables
you to select noncontiguous areas of the worksheet.
Press the left mouse button.
While holding down the left mouse button, use the mouse to move from cell A1 to C5.
Continue to hold down the Ctrl key, but release the left mouse button.
Using the mouse, place the cursor in cell D7.
Press the left mouse button.
While holding down the left mouse button, move to cell F10. Release the left mouse button.
Release the Ctrl key. Cells A1 to C5 and cells D7 to F10 are selected.
Press Esc and click anywhere on the worksheet to remove the highlighting.

Enter Data

In this section, you will learn how to enter data into your worksheet. First, place the cursor in
the cell in which you want to start entering data. Type some data, and then press Enter. If you
need to delete, press the Backspace key to delete one character at a time.

Enter Data

Place the cursor in cell A1.

Type John Jordan. Do not press Enter at this time.

Delete Data

The Backspace key erases one character at a time.

Press the Backspace key until Jordan is erased.

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Press Enter. The name "John" appears in cell A1.

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Edit a Cell

After you enter data into a cell, you can edit the data by pressing F2 while you are in the cell
you wish to edit.

Edit a Cell

Change "John" to "Jones."

Move to cell A1.
Press F2.
Use the Backspace key to delete the "n" and the "h."
Type nes.
Press Enter.

Accessing Excel Commands:

Alternate Method: Editing a Cell by Using the Formula Bar

You can also edit the cell by using the Formula bar. You change "Jones" to "Joker" in the
following exercise.

Move the cursor to cell A1.

Click in the formula area of the Formula bar.

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Use the backspace key to erase the "s," "e," and "n."
Type ker. Press Enter

Alternate Method: Edit a Cell by Double-Clicking in the Cell

You can change "Joker" to "Johnson" as follows:

Move to cell A1.
Double-click in cell A1.
Press the End key. Your cursor is now at the end of your text.

Use the Backspace key to erase "r," "e," and "k."

Type hnson.
Press Enter.

Change a Cell Entry

Typing in a cell replaces the old cell entry with the new information you type.
Move the cursor to cell A1.
Type Cathy. Press Enter. The name "Cathy" replaces "Johnson."

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Wrap Text

When you type text that is too long to fit in the cell, the text overlaps the next cell. If you do not
want it to overlap the next cell, you can wrap the text.

Wrap Text

Move to cell A2.

Type Text too long to fit.
Press Enter.
Return to cell A2.
Choose the Home tab.
Click the Wrap Text button . Excel wraps the text in the cell.

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Delete a Cell Entry

To delete an entry in a cell or a group of cells, you place the cursor in the cell or select the
group of cells and press Delete.

Delete a Cell Entry

Select cells A1 to A2.

Press the Delete key.

Save a File

This is the end of Lesson1. To save your file:

Click the Office button. A menu appears.
Click Save. The Save As dialog box appears.
Go to the directory in which you want to save your file.
Type Lesson1 in the File Name field.
Click Save. Excel saves your file.

Editing and formatting Worksheet

Excel Rows and Columns

Spreadsheets are displayed in a grid layout. The letters across the top are Column headings.
To highlight an entire Column, click on any of the letters. The image below shows the B
Column highlighted:

If you look down the left side of the grid, you'll see numbers, which start at number 1 at the
very top and go down to over a million. (The exact number of rows and columns are 1,048,576
rows and 16,384 columns. You've never going to need this many!) You can click a number to
highlight an entire Row. If you look at the image below, you'll see that Row 5 has been
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highlighted (The image is from Excel 2007. Later are version are the same except less
colorful!).

Spreadsheets are all about individual Cells. A Cell is a letter combined with a number. So if
you combine the B column with Row 5, you get Cell B5. Combine Column D with Row 5 and
you get Cell D5.To see this for yourself, click inside any of the cells on your spreadsheet. In
the Images below, we have clicked inside cell A1 and cell C3.

The first picture is Column A, Row 1 (A1), and the second picture is Column C Row 3 (C3).
Notice that the cells we clicked on have a black border around them. This tells you the cell is
active. The cell that is active will have its Column letter and Row number displayed in the top
left, just above the letters A and B in the pictures. When you click into a cell, you can then type
text and numbers.

To move around the spreadsheet, and make other cells active, you can either just click inside
a Cell, or press the arrow keys on your keyboard. Try it now. Click inside a Cell and notice the
Cell reference appear above the letters A and B. Press your arrow keys and notice how the
active cells moves.
Before going any further, make sure you understand how the spreadsheet grid works. If you
are asked to locate Cell H2, you should be able to do so.

Font Formatting

If you've been following along with the previous tutorials, you should now have a spreadsheet
that looks like this:

Excel 2007 to Excel 2013 have a much wider range of formatting options than previous
versions, and it's relatively easy to turn a dull spreadsheet into something that really shines.
We'll start with changing the font.

Choosing a Font in Excel 2007/2013

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You can pick a different font for the data you enter into cells, as well as choosing the size you
want. The colour of the font, and the cell background, can be changed, too. From Excel 2007
onwards, Themes have been introduced, so that you can format your spreadsheets more
easily. You'll meet these later. First, we'll see how to change the font type.
Highlight cell A1 on your spreadsheet by simply clicking into it
Locate the Font panel on the Excel Ribbon at the top of the page:

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The font in the panel above is set to Calibri. To see more fonts, click the black down arrow:

The good things about Excel 2007 and 2010/2013 is that when you move your mouse over
one of the fonts on the list, the text in your selected cell (A1) will change automatically. This is
just a preview, though. When you have decided on the font you want, click it with the left
mouse button.
You can change the size of the font in the same way - just choose a new font size from the list
of numbers in the drop down box.
If you want to change the font via the Format Cells dialogue box, as you did in previous
versions of Excel, you can click the small arrow in the bottom right of the Font panel (the one
circled below):

When you click the arrow, you'll see the Format Cells dialogue box. You can choose various
options from this dialogue box: Font size, style, size, etc. The dialogue box looks like this:

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You can also set the font color from here, and add text effects. Click OK when you have made
your choices.

When you have changed the font and font size, your A1 cell might look something like this:

Currency Symbols in Excel

Take a look at the following spreadsheet, which you'll shortly be creating:

The C column has a heading of "Price Each". The prices all have the currency symbol. To
insert the currency symbol, do this:
Enter some prices on a spreadsheet (any will do), and highlight the cells
With the cells highlighted, locate the Number panel on the Excel 2007 to 2013 Ribbon bar (on
the Home Tab):

Click the drop down list that says General.

You'll then be presented with a list of options:

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Click the Currency item to add a pound sign. But if you're not in the UK, you'll see the default
currency for your country.
To see other currencies, click on More (or More Number Formats in Excel 2013).The Format
Cells dialogue box appears. In the Category list, click on Currency. Select a Currency sign
from the Symbol list. The dialogue box will then look like this:

Click OK to set the pound sign as the currency.

Using Function and Formulas:

Entering Simple Addition Formula

The first thing we'll do to our spreadsheet from the previous section is to add up all those
numbers, the ones going down under the days of the week headings. The total for each day of
the week will be placed on Row 9. So Monday's total will go in cell B9, Tuesday's total will go
in cell C9, and so on.
Here's our spreadsheet again:

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Our first total will go in cell B9.

Adding up in Excel

Excel needs to know which cells you want to add up. Look at the numbers for the Monday
column. We have a 1 in cell B4, a 7 in cell B5, an 8 in cell B6, and a 1 in cell B7. So we want
the answer to this:
B4 + B5 + B6 + B7
To let Excel know that this is what we want, try this:
Click inside cell B9, which is where we want the answer to appear
Once you've clicked on cell B9, click into the formula bar at the top
Type this:
B4 + B5 + B6 + B7

When you have entered the formula in the formula bar, press the enter key on your keyboard.
Your spreadsheet should look like ours below:

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Something has gone wrong! This is not quite what we were expecting. We wanted Excel to
add up the numbers for us, but it hasn't done anything except enter the cells we typed.
What went wrong was that we didn't "tell" excel to add up. Excel needs you to type an equals
(=) sign first, and then those cell references. If you don't include the equals sign, Excel thinks
it's just plain text, and so doesn't do any calculating.
So enter this inside of your formula bar instead: = B4 + B5 + B6 + B7
In other words, put an equals sign ( = ) before B4. Press your enter key and you should have
the correct answer in cell B9.
Now click back inside the formula bar, and delete the equals sign. Press the enter key again.
You should then just have the same text as in the image above. We're doing this to show you
an easier way to add up - with the SUM function.
The Excel SUM function
The SUM function is used to add things up, and saves you the bother of typing out lots of cell
names and numbers. It looks like this:
=SUM( )
In between the round brackets, you type what you want Excel to add up. Look at our
spreadsheet again. Here it is in Excel 2007:
So with cell B9 selected again, click into your formula bar. If you're following along from the,
you should have this in cell B9:

If you have an equals sign before B4, delete it and press the enter key. Now position your
cursor at the start of the line, before the "B" of B4.
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Type an equals sign first, then the letter SU of SUM.
As soon as you start typing, Excel will present you with a drop down list of available functions.
Click once with the left mouse button on SUM to highlight it:

Now double click on SUM. Excel will add the "M" for you, and the left bracket. It will also
highlight the cells in your formula:

Now press the Enter key on your keyboard. Excel will add the right bracket, and work out the
SUM for you:

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Now click back on cell B9, and look at the Name box (just above the A column, in our image).
It has B9 in it. The formula bar to the right shows you which formula you have in the active cell
(B9).
An easier way to add up number with the SUM function is to use a colon (:) The colon is a
shorthand way of adding up consecutive cells. Instead of typing out all those cell references
like this:
=SUM(B4 + B5 + B6 + B7)
You can just type out the first cell reference, then a colon, then the last cell reference. Like
this:
=Sum(B4: B7)
Excel will then add up the numbers in cells B4 to B7. It knows what the colon means!
Click into cell B9, if it's not already active
Now click on the cell with your right mouse button
You'll see a menu appear:

From the menu, select Clear Contents by clicking the item with your left mouse button
This will clear the formula from the formula bar
Now click back inside of the formula bar and type the following:
=Sum(B4:B7)
Your spreadsheet should look like ours:

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When you have the formula typed out, hit the Enter key on your keyboard. Excel will add up
the numbers for you, and place the correct answer in cell B9.
If everything went well, you should have an answer of 17 in cell B9. Fortunately, we can use
AutoFill for the rest of the answers.
Place your mouse pointer to the bottom right of cell B9
The pointer will turn into a thin black cross:
Hold down your left mouse button
Keep it held down, and drag your mouse to cell H9:

With your mouse pointer over cell H9, let go of the left button. Excel will AutoFill the rest of the
formulas. It uses the same formula from cell B9 to get the answers, and just alters all the cell
references. Without AutoFill, you'd have to type it all out yourself!
The answers on Row 9 of your spreadsheet should be the same as ours in the image below:

Notice the formula bar in the image. It shows the formula in cell H9. This is:
=Sum(H4:H7)
The formula we started with was:
=Sum(B4:B7)

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Excel has changed the letters for us, but not the numbers. In other words, it's adding up the
columns.
If you think of the colon as the word TO, it should make sense:
Add up the cells B4 TO B7
Add up the cells H4 TO H7
The IF Function
The IF function can be quite useful in a spreadsheet. It is used when you want to test for more
than one value. For example, has a bill been paid or not? If it has, you can deduct the amount
from the money you have left to spend; if it hasn't, keep it on your debt list. Later, you'll see
how to use the IF Function to grade student exam scores. If the student has above 80, award
an A grade; if the student has below 30, award a fail grade. First, here's what an IF Function
looks like:

IF(logical_test, value_if_true, value_if_false,)

The thing to note here is the three items between the round brackets of the word IF. These are
the arguments that the IF function needs. Here's what they mean:
logical_test

The first argument is what you want to test for. Is the number in the cell greater than 80, for
example?

value_if_true

This is what you want to do if the answer to the first argument is YES. (Award an A grade, for
example)

value_if_false

This is what you want to do if the answer to the first argument is NO. (Award a FAIL grade.)
If that's not terribly clear, an example may clear things up. Open a new spreadsheet, and do
the following:
Widen the B column a bit, as we'll be putting a message in cell B1
Now click in cell A1 and type the number 6
Type the following in the formula bar (The right angle bracket after A1 means "Greater Than".)

=IF(A1 > 5, "Greater than Five", "Less than Five")

Hit the enter key on your keyboard and your spreadsheet should look like ours below:

(Make sure you have all the commas and double quotes in the correct place, otherwise Excel
will give you an error message. That right angle bracket ( > ) is known as a Conditional
Operator. You'll meet some others shortly.)
But what we're saying in the IF function is this:

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logical_test: Is the value in cell A1 greater than 5?
value_if_true: If the answer is Yes, display the text "Greater than Five"
value_if_false: If the answer is NO, display the text "Less than Five"

So your first tell Excel what you want to check the cell for, then what you want to do if the
answer is YES, and finally what you want to do if the answer is NO. You separate each part
with a comma.

Exercise
Try this:
Click into cell A1
Change the 6 into a 4
Hit the enter key on your keyboard

Exercise

Now type the number 5 in cell A1. What happens now?

For the last exercise above, Excel should tell you that 5 is "Less than 5"! It does this because
the answer to your logical test was NO. We were testing if the number in cell A1 was greater
than 5. Since 5 is not greater than 5, the answer to the question is NO. We've told Excel to
display a message of "Less than 5", if the answer was NO. In other words, we didn't tell Excel
what to do if the value in cell A1 was the same as 5.
The solution to this is to use a different Conditional Operator. We used the Greater Than ( > )
operator. Here's some more:
< Less Than
>= Greater than Or Equal To
<= Less than Or Equal To
<> Not Equal To
For the second and third operators above, you type an angle bracket followed by the equals
sign. There are no spaces between the two. For the final one, it's a left angle bracket followed
by a right angle bracket.
So for our exercise, the symbol we should have used was the one for Greater than Or Equal
To. Change your IF function to this and try again:
=IF(A1 >= 5, "Greater than or Equal to Five", "Less than Five")

Exercise
Test the A1 cell to see if the value is less than or equal to 5. If it is, display a suitable
message. If it's not, display the message "Greater than Five".

Complex If Functions

The If Functions you've just met are considering fairly simple ones. They can get really
complex!
Consider our Student Exam problem. The spreadsheet we created to track our students looks
like this, from an earlier section:

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However, we want to display the following grades as well:

A If the student scores 80 or above
B If the student scores 60 to 79
C If the student scores 45 to 59
D If the student scores 30 to 44
FAIL If the student scores below 30

With such a lot to check for, what will the IF Function look like? Here's one that works:
=IF(B2>=80, "A", IF(B2>=60, "B", IF(B2>=45, "C", IF(B2 >=30, "D", "Fail" ) ) ) )
Quite long, isn't it? Look at the colours of the round brackets above, and see if you can match
them up. What we're doing here is adding more IF Functions if the answer to the first question
is NO. If it's YES, it will just display an "A".
But take a look at our Student Exam spreadsheet now:

After the correct answer is displayed in cell B14 on the spreadsheet above, we used AutoFill
for the rest!
Don't worry if that long IF statement is making your brain hurt - it is quite complicated.

In the next part, we'll take a look at Conditional Formatting. This is about coloring cells
depending on their values. Looks nice on a spreadsheet!
Conditional Formatting
You can use something called Conditional Formatting in your Excel spreadsheets. Conditional
Formatting allows you to change the appearance of a cell, depending on certain conditions.
What we'll do is to colour the Overall Averages on our Student Exam spreadsheet, depending
on the grade. Here's the spreadsheet we'll be working on.

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Open up your Student Exam spreadsheet (You did complete it, didn't you?)
Highlight the cells with Overall Grades, which should be cells B11 to I11
The Overall Averages range from 44 to 85. We'll colour each grade, depending on a scale. A
different colour will apply to the following grades:
50 and below
51 to 60
61 to 70
71 to 80
81 and above
So five different bands, and a colour for each. To set the Conditional Formatting in Excel, do
the following:
With your Overall Averages highlighted, click on the Home menu at the top of Excel
Locate the Styles panel, and the Conditional Formatting item:

The Conditional Formatting menu gives you various options. The easiest one is the Colour
Scales option. Select one of these and Excel will colour the cell backgrounds for you:

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That's not quite what we're looking for, though. We'd like to choose our own values. So click
on More Rules, from the Colour Scales submenu. You'll see the following rather complex
dialogue box:

The one we want is the second option, Format only cells that contain. This will allow us to
set up our values. When you click this option, the dialogue box changes to this:

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The part we're interested in is the bottom part, under the heading Edit the Rule Description.
It says Cell Value and Between, in the drop down boxes. These are the ones we want. We
only need to type a value for the two boxes that are currently blank in the image above. We
can then click the Format button to choose a colour.
So type 0 in the first box and 50 in the second one:

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Then click the Format button. You'll get another dialogue box popping up. This is just the
Format Cells one though. You've met this before. Click on the Fill tab and choose a colour.
Click OK and you should see something like this under Edit the Rule Description:

The Preview is showing the colour we picked. So we've said, "If the Cell Value is between 0
and 50 then colour the cell Red".
Click OK on this dialogue box to get back to Excel. You should find that one of the cells has
turned red. To format the rest of the cells, click on Conditional Formatting on the Styles panel
again. From the menu, click on Manage Rules:

You'll get yet another complex dialogue box popping up! This one:

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Our first rule is already there - Cell Value Between. The only thing we're doing here is adding
New Rules, similar to the one we've just set up. Click the New Rule button then. You'll see the
exact same dialogue boxes you used to set up the first rule. Set a new colour for the next
scores - 51 to 60. Choose a colour, and keep clicking OK until you get back to the Rules
Manager dialogue box. It should now look something like this one:

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We now have to colors in our range. Do the rest of the scores, choosing a colour for each. The
scores are these, remember:
50 and below
51 to 60
61 to 70
71 to 80
81 and above
When you've done them all, your dialogue box should have five colours:

The colours above are entirely arbitrary, and you don't have to select the same ones we did.
The point is to have a different colour for each range of scores. But click OK when you're
done. Your Overall Averages will then look something like this:

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Formatting your spreadsheet in this way allows you to see at a glance relevant information. In
the spreadsheet above, it's obvious who's failing - just look for the red cells!

Copying and Moving data in Excel. Using Cut, Copy and Paste options of the Edit
menu data can be copied/moved from one cell to another cell and also one Worksheet to
another Worksheet.

Using Cut Option.

(1) Create a Worksheet like below:

Using Copy Option.

(1) Create a Worksheet like below:

(2) Place the cursor on A1 cell.

(3) Press the left button of the mouse and move it up to E1 cell.

(A1:E1 will be selected)

(4) Click Copy button on the Standard tools bar. Or Press Ctrl + C to Copy.
(5) Place Cell pointer on A8.
(6) Click Paste button.

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(Text/data of A1:E1 will be copied in A8:E8)

Paste Special

In the previous section, you created new areas of your spreadsheet that look like this:

We have prices in the B column. Under the Number heading, we're going to put how many of
each chocolate bar we ate in one week: how many Mars Bars we ate will go in cell C15, how
many Twix will go in cell C16, how many Bounty bars will go in cell C17, and how many other
chocolate bars we ate will go in cell C18.
But we already have the weekly totals elsewhere in the spreadsheet, so we don't need to
calculate them all over again. We can Copy and Paste the formula over to cells C15, C16, C17
and C18.

Paste Special in Excel 2007 to 2013

We have the weekly totals for each chocolate bar in the J column, under the Individual Totals
heading.
So highlight your four totals in the J column of your spreadsheet
From the Clipboard panel, click Copy
You'll see the marching ants again:

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Now, under the Numbers heading, click into cell C15

Press the enter key on your keyboard to paste the numbers across
What you should notice is that something has gone wrong!

So what happened? Why have all those strange #REF comments appeared in the cells?
If you hold your mouse over the exclamation mark in the yellow diamond, you'll see this:

That complex error message means that Excel tried to paste the formulas over. But the cell
references it has are all for the J column.
To solve the problem, we can paste the values over and not the formula.
Click the left curved arrow at the very top of Excel to Undo (or press CTRL + Z on your
keyboard)

Highlight the four cells in the J column again

From the Clipboard panel, click copy

Highlight the cells C15 to C18

Using your right mouse button, click anywhere in the highlighted area. You'll see the following
menu in Excel 2007:

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From the menu, click Paste Special with your left mouse button
The Paste Special dialogue box will appear:

The item that is selected by default is All, under the Paste option at the top. Select
the Values option instead. Then click the OK button.
In Excel 2010 and 2013, however, the right-click menu looks like this:

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Select Paste Special to see the submenu above. From the submenu select the
Values option, which is circled in red in our image.
What you've just done is to tell Excel to paste only the Values (the numbers) across, and not
the formulas we used to get these values.
If you did it correctly, your spreadsheet should look ours below:

Of course, it would have been easy just to type out the values again, since we only have 4.
But if you have a lot of values to paste over then the Paste Special dialogue box or menu can
save you a lot of time.

Page setup, Page Layout & Preview and Printing.

Print Area set.

a. Click Page Layout

b. Click Print Area
c. Click Set Print Area

Page Setup.

a. Click Page Layout

b. In the Margins tab, adjust the margins of the page
c. In the Paper size tab, adjust the page size
d. Click Ok

Print the file sideways.

a. Click Office button

b. Click Print
c. again Click Print
d. Click Print

Preparing to print. Microsoft Excel provides lots of optional settings that let you adjust
the final appearance of the printed page to suit your needs. To make sure you've checked
everything likely to affect your printout, follow the steps that are listed to the left in the order
shown.

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Viewing How Your Worksheet Will Print: Microsoft Excel provides three ways to see
and adjust how the worksheet will look.

a. Normal View. The default. It's best for on-screen viewing and working.
b. Print Preview. Shows you the printed page and lets you easily adjust columns and
margins.

d. Page Break Preview. Shows you what data will go on each page and lets you
quickly adjust the print area and page breaks.As you make settings that affect how your
worksheet will print, you can switch between the different views to see the effects before you
send the data to the printer.

a. Click Office Button

b. Click Print
c. Select Printer.
d. Select All /Current
Page/Pages/Selection.
e. Select Number of Copies.
f. Click OK.

Figure - Print option dialog box

Creating and Printing Chart: A Chart is a graphical expression of mathematical

information. Chart is created for the following reason:

a. Delightful and interesting.

b. Easily draw image in mind.
c. Gives a brief idea.
d. Makes easy the comparison.
e. Analyze data.
f. Easily understandable.
g. Saves time.

Create an Excel Chart

We’re now going to create a chart from our BBC1 Viewing figures. If you haven't yet
completed the sorting tutorial, go back one page and follow along with the lesson. You'll then
have a some sorted viewing figures to create a chart from.
When our chart is finished, though, it will look like this:

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A little later, you'll see how to improve on this basic chart.

To start making your chart, highlight the BBC1 programs, and the viewing figures. If you have
just finished the sorting section, this data should still be highlighted, and look like this:

With your program and the viewing figures highlighted, do this:

From the tabs on the Excel Ribbon, click on Insert
Locate the Charts panel. It looks like this in Excel 2007:

In later versions of Excel, the Charts panel looks like this:

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For this first one, we'll create a Column Chart. So, in Excel 2007, click the down arrow on
the Column item of the Chart Panel. You'll see a list of available charts to choose from. Select
the first one, the chart highlighted below (2D Column):
The Column drop down list in later versions of Excel looks like this:

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When you make your selection, a new chart appears on the same spreadsheet that you have
open. The chart should look the same as the one at the top if this page.
But notice that the Excel Ribbon has changed. The design menu is selected, along with
options for Chart Layouts:

In Excel 2013, you'll see these layouts on the left, in the Chart Layouts panel, under Quick
Layouts:

Also on the Design Ribbon, you'll see options for Chart styles:

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Using Filter

If you're using Excel to schedule events for any projects, chances are you filter those records
by specific criteria. If you're using Excel 2007 or 2010, you're in luck, because there are
several built-in date filters. In this post, we'll review a simple filter for dates falling within the
current week. By current, we mean a Sunday through Saturday week. Then, we'll show you an
advanced filter. (Neither of these techniques work in Excel 2003.)

Simple filter

The simple data set shown below comprises two date columns, a start and an end date. Some
occur in the same week, some don't. Your first hurdle is to decide whether you're filtering by
the start or end date. Neither choice is wrong; it just depends on your needs. To illustrate the
simple filter, let's find all the records where the start date falls within the current week, as
follows:
First, select the entire data range by clicking in any cell in the data range and pressing [Ctrl]+
[Shift]+8.
Next, apply a simple filter by clicking the Data tab and then clicking Filter in the Sort & Filter
group.
Click the StartDate column's dropdown filter and choose Date Filters.
Then, choose This Week from the resulting submenu.

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The filtered group displays only those records where the Start Date value falls within the
current week. Before, the filtered records reflect a current day of June 24, 2012 through June
30, 2012. You probably noticed that there are a number of date filters. They're convenient and
easy to use-even for users with limited skills. As you might expect, you could apply the same
filter to the End Date column and get a different result (or not, depending on the date values).
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To clear the filter, simply click Clear in the Sort & Filter group.

Advanced filter

Now, let's suppose that you need to display only those records where both the start and end
date fall within the current week. There are probably a half dozen ways to accomplish this
task, but I recommend two helper columns and the WEEKNUM() function. This simple function
uses the following form to return the week number:
WEEKNUM(date text)
Where date text is a date string. For instance, the function WEEKNUM("6/27/2012") returns
the value 26.
To adjust this simple data set for a more advanced filter, add two helper columns based on the
following functions in cells D6 and E6, respectively:
=WEEKNUM(B6)
=WEEKNUM(C6)
Then, copy the functions to the remaining cells in each column.

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The WEEKNUM() function in column D returns the week number for each start date. Similarly,
the function in column E returns the week number for each end date. As you can see, the
week numbers for the start and end dates aren't always the same for each record; sometimes
the time period extends beyond the current week.
Next, copy the header cells to create a criteria range (A1:E1). Then, enter the following

Criteria expression into both D2 and E2:

=WEEKNUM(TODAY())
Now you're ready to apply the advanced filter:
Click the Data tab.
In the Sort & Filter group, click Advanced Filter.
In the List Range control, enter A5:E13.
In the Criteria Range control, enter A1:E2.
Click OK.

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If you want to filter for records where either the start or end date falls within the current week,
move one of the criteria expressions to row 3, and update the advanced filter's criteria range,
accordingly. Placing the criteria in two different rows allows the filter to find records that satisfy
either criteria rather than both.

Create a hyperlink to a new file

On a worksheet, click the cell where you want to create a hyperlink.

You can also select an object, such as a picture or an element in a chart, that you want to use
to represent the hyperlink.
On the Insert tab, in the Links group, click Hyperlink.
You can also right-click the cell or graphic and then click Hyperlink on the shortcut menu, or
you can press CTRL+K.
Under Link to, click Create New Document.
In the Name of new document box, type a name for the new file.
Tip: To specify a location other than the one shown under Full path, you can type the new
location preceding the name in the Name of new document box, or you can click Change to
select the location that you want and then click OK.
Under When to edit, click Edit the new document later or Edit the new document now to
specify when you want to open the new file for editing.
In the Text to display box, type the text that you want to use to represent the hyperlink.
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To display helpful information when you rest the pointer on the hyperlink, click ScreenTip,
type the text that you want in the ScreenTip text box, and then click OK.

Exercise:

Prepare a Result sheet.

Prepare a salary sheet.

Prepare a Loan Statement.

Prepare a Mobile Bill.

Prepare a Electricity Bill.

Reference: Internet

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CHAPTER – 5

MICROSOFT POWER POINT

Introduction to MS-PowerPoint:

If you are new to PowerPoint 2007 or have never used it before this tutorial is here to provide
you with step by step instructions on how you use ever function from the basic to advanced
functions of PowerPoint.
Most PowerPoint users will find this program helpful when creating a PowerPoint presentation
for school, work, even personal. I will show you how to do all of these step by step so you can
navigate PowerPoint easily and efficiently.
When you open PowerPoint 2007 you will be opening a new project. All of your basic
commands are located in the upper left hand corner of the screen under a button that looks
like the office 2007 icon. Let's start by clicking the icon in the left hand corner so I can describe
what all of these functions do.

What is Presentation: When we do something in PowerPoint is called Presentation.

Introducing with PowerPoint Window:

To start Power Point:Start by clicking on the Microsoft Office 2007 icon you will see a
drop down. Then select Microsoft PowerPoint 2007.Even though you already have a new
document open click on the new icon. Click on New or the icon that looks like a blank sheet of
paper. Once you click on that you will see a screen that comes up that says blank and recent
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click that icon and you will see a box that says blank presentation. All this function does is give
you another way to start a new presentation.

To Create a New Presentation:

Now while we have this screen open click on the icon that says installed templates. Once you
click on it you will see six options come up. These are pre-designed templates that you can
use instead of creating your own. Click on each one to see what the differences. They each
have a theme you can use depending on what kind of project you are working on. Once you
choose what template you want click on it then click the create button at the lower right hand
corner and it will create that template for you to work on.

Now let's move on to the next link in the New Presentation Window, Installed themes. Again
once you click on this icon you will see some options for color and font themes that are
already made that you can easily use for your project. Click on each one to see what the
differences are or until you find one you like and want to use. Once you find the one you want
press the create button in the lower right hand corner to apply that theme to your PowerPoint
2007 project. If you click on one that you don't want to use press the cancel button in the lower
right hand corner and it will cancel your selection.

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The next link in the Templates section of the New Presentation window is My templates. Click
on that link and you will see a pop up appear on your screen. You will see a message telling
you how to save a template you have already done in case you want to use it for another
project.

To save the Slide:

Now I will show you how to save a document. We are going to follow the same steps as before
click on the Microsoft Office 2007 Icon in the top left corner of the screen. Move your mouse
over the save icon the icon that looks like a blue disk. Go ahead and click on the save icon. If
this is the first time you saved your presentation it will pop up with the Save As window that
looks like this.

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To exit from Power Point:

Click the red X in the upper right corner to close the new Presentation window. Go back up to
the Microsoft office logo, the 4 colored squares, in the upper left hand corner of the computer
screen and click on it. You will see the drop down menu move your curser over the open icon.
The icon looks like a folder that is half way opened. Click on that icon and it will bring up the
Open window.

To Open a Saved Presentation:

In this screen you can search for a PowerPoint Presentation that you have saved type in the
file name in the box that says file name and select open. This will open up the PowerPoint
presentation you were working on or had saved so you can edit or continue to work on it.

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If you have already saved your document it will save and no window will open. Once you are
on this screen you will see, towards the bottom of the screen where it says file name. This is
where you can type in what you want to save your document as. For example type in
Powerpoint1 and press save. Once you press save it will automatically save the presentation.
It is a good idea throughout working on your project that you press the save button so you
don't lose the work you have already done.

To change Slide Design: Select Slide> Click Design Tab> Select any design to change.

Figure: Before, Figure: After change of Slide Design.

To Change Slide Layout: There is many slide layout in Ms-PowerPoint 2007 such as

 Title slide
 Title and Content.
 Section Header.
 Two Content.
 Comparison.
 Title Only.
 Blank.
 Content with Caption.
 Picture with Caption.

We can change layout by following process: Select Layout from slide> Go to Home Tab>
Layout> Select Desired any Layout.

To Change Slide Background: Click on Design Tab>Background Styles> Format

Background> Select any Background Styles from options.

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Before: Change Slide Background. After: Change Slide Background

Using Color and Line Option: Select Slide> Go to Design Tab> Click on Color> Select
any color.

Figure: Using Color and Line Option.

Move/ Copy Slide:

To Copy: Select Slide> Click right button> Select Copy> then Paste under the copied slide.

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To Move: Select Slide> Click right button> Select Cut> then Paste under the copied slide.

Select Cut

Delete Slide: Select Slide> Click right button on that slide> Select delete slide.

Select Delete

Creating a Duplicate Slide:

Select Duplicate

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Before Duplicate slide After Duplicate slide

Slide Show: Click Slide show Tab>Click Slide Show> From Beginning.

View Slide Show:Click View Tab> Click Slide show or Press F5 key from Keyboard.

Automatic Slide Showing: Select all Slide>Click Animation Tab>Click Automatically

after> Desire Time

The slide show will play automatically as per selected Time.

Figure: Automatic Slide Showing

Hide/Unhide Slide: Select slide which you want to in slide show presentation then click
right button> Select Hide Slide. If you perform this hidden slide will not show in slide show.

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Non-Animated Slide Show: When you write or insert something without any animation it
is called Non-Animated Slide Show.

Create a Presentation Using Motion Path: Create a presentation using Motion path
you have to follow the process: First of all> select an object which you insert the effect of
Motion Path, Then Click on Animation Tab> Custom Animation> Then a side window will
appear in your screen> Click Add effect> Motion Path> Select any from the options.

Figure: Create a presentation using Motion Path.

Create a Presentation using different Custom Animation:

Create a Presentation using different custom animation you have to follow the following
process: At First you have to select an object then Click Animation> Custom Animation> Then
a side window will appear in your screen. Click Add effect> Click Entrance> Select any option
from the list.

Figure: Create a presentation using Different Custom Animation.

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Reference : Internet

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CHAPTER -6
COMPUTER NETWORK

Elements of Communication System

There are five elements of a data communication system:-

Message
Sender
Receiver
Medium (Communication Channel)
Encoder & Decoder

Figure: Elements of Communication system.

Message: The message is the information or data that is communicated. It may consist of
text, numbers, images, sound, video etc.

Sender: The computer or device that sends the data or messages is called sender. In data
communication system, computer is usually used as a transmitter. It is also called sender. A
sender may be computer, workstation, telephone, video camera etc.

Receiver: The device that receives the data or messages is called receiver. Receiver is also
known as sink. The receiver can be a computer, workstation, printer or a fax machine.

Medium (Communication Channel):The path through which data is sent or

transmitted from one location to another is called communication channel. If the receiver and
the sender are within a building, a wire may be the communication channel. If they are located
at different locations, the channel may be the telephone lines, fibre optics, satellite or
microwaves.
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Encoder: The computer works with digital signals. The communication channels usually use
analog signals. Therefore, to send data through a communication channel, the digital signals
are encoded (or converted) into analog signals or into a form which can be transmitted through
transmission medium. This is called encoding. The device that carries out this function is
called encoder.

Decoder: The computer works with digital signals. The communication channels usually use
analog signals. Therefore, to receive data from a communication channel, the coded analog
signals or any other encoded form are converted back to digital signals. This is called
decoding. The device that carries out this function is called decoder

Definition of Computer Network.

6. A computer network is a system in which a number of independent computers are

linked together to share data and peripherals, such as hard disks and printers.

Figure : A simple computer network

Network Types:

Basically there are two types of networks. They are as follows:

a. Peer to peer.
b. Server Based.

Peer-to-Peer Networks.

In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among
the computers. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer
functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire
network. The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the
network. Figure 7.4 shows a peer-to-peer network in which each computer functions as both a
client and a server.

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Figure: Peer-to-peer network computers act as both clients and servers

Server-Based Networks.

12. In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network—with computers

acting as both servers and clients—will probably not be adequate. Therefore, most networks
have dedicated servers.

13. A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a client or
workstation.

14. Servers are described as "dedicated" because they are not themselves clients, and
because they are optimized to service requests from network clients quickly and to ensure the
security of files and directories. Server-based networks (see Figure 7.5) have become the
standard models for networking.

Figure: Server-based networks

Comparison of Network Types.

15. A comparison between two networks can be given as follows:

Consideration Peer-to-Peer Network Server-Based Network

Size Good for 10 or fewer computers Limited only by server and
network hardware
Security Security established by the user of Extensive and consistent resource
each computer and user security
Administration Individual users responsible for Centrally located for network
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their own administration; no full- control; requires at least one
time administrator necessary knowledgeable administrator

Classification of Networks.

Computer networks can be classified into following groups, depending on their size and
function.
a. LAN
b. MAN
c. WAN

LAN.

17. A local area network(LAN) is the basic building block of any computer network. A LAN
can range from simple (two computers connected by a cable) to complex (hundreds of
connected computers and peripherals throughout a major corporation). (See Figure 7.6.) The
distinguishing feature of a LAN is that it is confined to a limited geographic area.

Figure 7.6A local area network (LAN)

MAN.

18. A Metropolitan area network or MAN is a bigger version of LAN and generally uses
similar technology. It might either cover a group of nearby corporate offices or a city or might
either private or public. A man can support both data and voice, and might even be related to
the local cable television network. A MAN has just one or two cables and doesn’t contain
switching elements, which shunt packets over one or several potential output lines.

WAN.

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19. A wide area network (WAN), on the other hand, has no geographical limit. It can
connect computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world. A WAN is made up of a
number of interconnected LANs. Perhaps the ultimate WAN is the Internet.

Figure: A wide area network (WAN)

Network Topologies:

The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the arrangement or
physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on the network. "Topology" is the
standard term that most network professionals use when they refer to the network's basic
design. In addition to the term "topology," you will find several other terms that are used to
define a network's design:
a. Physical layout
b. Design
c. Diagram
d. Map

How to choose the topology?

A network's topology affects its capabilities. The choice of one topology over another will have
an impact on the:
a. Type of equipment the network needs.
b. Capabilities of the equipment.
c. Growth of the network.
d. Way the network is managed.
Developing a sense of how to use the different topologies is a key to understanding the
capabilities of the different types of networks.

Standard Topologies.

All network designs stem from four basic topologies:

a. Bus
b. Star
c. Ring
d. Mesh

Bus.

The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers are connected
in a straight line. This is the simplest and most common method of networking computers.

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Figure shows a typical bus topology. It consists of a single cable called a trunk (also called a
backbone or segment) that connects all of the computers in the network in a single line.

Figure: Bus topology network

Star.

In the star topology, cable segments from each computer are connected to a centralized
component called a hub. Figure 7.11 shows four computers and a hub connected in a star
topology. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers
on the network. This topology originated in the early days of computing when computers were
connected to a centralized mainframe computer.

Figure: Simple star network

25. The star network offers the advantage of centralized resources and management.
However, because each computer is connected to a central point, this topology requires a
great deal of cable in a large network installation. Also, if the central point fails, the entire
network goes down. If one computer—or the cable that connects it to the hub—fails on a star
network, only the failed computer will not be able to send or receive network data. The rest of
the network continues to function normally.

Mesh.

A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In a mesh topology, each
computer is connected to every other computer by separate cabling. This configuration
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provides redundant paths throughout the network so that if one cable fails, another will take
over the traffic. While ease of troubleshooting and increased reliability is definite pluses, these
networks are expensive to install because they use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh topology
will be used in conjunction with other topologies to form a hybrid topology.

Figure: Topology Advantages and Disadvantages

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus Use of cable is economical. Network can slow down in heavy
traffic.
Media is inexpensive and easy to work Problems are difficult to isolate.
with. Cable break can affect many
System is simple and reliable. users.
Bus is easy to extend.
Star Modifying system and adding new If the centralized point fails, the
computers is easy. network fails.
Centralized monitoring and management
are possible.
Failure of one computer does not affect
the rest of the network.
Mesh System provides increased redundancy System is expensive to install
and reliability as well as ease of because it uses a lot of cabling.
troubleshooting.

Network Components.

When do you know the LAN is too small?

As companies grow, so do their networks. LANs tend to outgrow their original designs. You
know your LAN is too small when:

a. The cable begins to get crowded with network traffic.

b. Print jobs include longer wait times.
c. Traffic-generating applications, such as databases,
experience increased response times.

Components to expand a network.

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29. The time usually comes when administrators need to expand the size or improve the
performance of their networks. But networks cannot be made larger merely by adding new
computers and more cable. Each topology or architecture has limits. There are, however,
components that can be installed to increase the size of the network within its existing
environment. These components can:
a. Segment existing LANs so that each segment becomes its own LAN.
b. Join two separate LANs.
c. Connect to other LANs and computing environments to join them into a larger
comprehensive WAN.

30. The components that enable engineers to accomplish these goals are:
a. Repeaters
b. Bridge
c. Router
d. Gateway
e. NIC
f. Network Cables

Repeater.

It is a device that regenerates signals so that they can be transmitted on additional cable
segments to extend the cable length or to accommodate additional computers on the
segment. Repeaters operate like networked items, such as an Ethernet LAN to an Ethernet
LAN. They do not translate or filter data. For a repeater to work, both segments that the
repeater joins must have the same media-access scheme, protocol, and transmission
technique.

How Repeaters Work.

A repeater works at the physical layer of the OSI Reference Model to regenerate the network's
signals and resend them out on other segments. Figure 7.18 shows how repeaters regenerate
weak signals.

Figure: Repeaters regenerate weakened signals

The repeater takes a weak signal from one segment, regenerates it, and passes it to the next
segment. To pass data through the repeater from one segment to the next, the packets and
the Logical Link Control (LLC) protocols must be identical on each segment. A repeater will
not enable communication, for example, between an 802.3 LAN (Ethernet) and an 802.5 LAN
(Token Ring).

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35. As shown in Figure 7.19, repeaters can move packets from one kind of physical media
to another. They can take an Ethernet packet coming from a thin net coaxial-cable segment
and pass it on to a fiber-optic segment, provided the repeater is capable of accepting the
physical connections.

Figure: Repeaters can connect different types of media

Bridges.

Like a repeater, a bridge can join segments or workgroup LANs. Figure 7.20 shows a bridge
connecting two network segments. However, a bridge can also divide a network to isolate
traffic or problems. For example, if the volume of traffic from one or two computers or a single
department is flooding the network with data and slowing down the entire operation, a bridge
could isolate those computers or that department.

Uses of a Bridge.

37. Bridges can be used to:

a. Expand the length of a segment.

b. Provide for an increased number of computers on the network.
c. Reduce traffic bottlenecks resulting from an excessive number of attached
computers.
d. Split an overloaded network into two separate networks, reducing the
amount of traffic on each segment and making each network more efficient.
e. Link unlike physical media such as twisted-pair and coaxial Ethernet.

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Figure: A bridge connecting two networks

How Bridges Work.

Because bridges work at the data-link layer of the OSI reference model, all information
contained in the higher levels of the OSI reference model is unavailable to them. Rather than
distinguish between one protocol and another, bridges simply pass all protocols along the
network. All protocols pass across bridges, so it is up to the individual computers to determine
which protocols they can recognize.

Router.

A router is a device used to connect networks of different types, such as those using different
architectures and protocols. Routers work at the network layer of the OSI reference model.
This means they can switch and route packets across multiple networks, which they do by
exchanging protocol-specific information between, separate networks. Routers determine the
best path for sending data and filter broadcast traffic to the local segment.

How Routers Work.

Routers maintain their own routing tables, usually consisting of network addresses; host
addresses can also be kept if the network architecture calls for it. To determine the destination
address for incoming data, the routing table includes:
a. All known network addresses.
b. Instructions for connection to other networks.
c. The possible paths between routers.
d. The costs of sending data over those paths.

Gateways.

Gateways enable communication between different architectures and environments. They

repackage and convert data going from one environment to another so that each environment
can understand the other environment's data. A gateway repackages information to match the
requirements of the destination system. Gateways can change the format of a message so
that it conforms to the application program at the receiving end of the transfer. For example,
electronic-mail gateways, such as the X.400 gateway, receive messages in one format,
translate it, and forward it in X.400 format used by the receiver, and vice versa.

How Gateways Work.

Gateways are task-specific, which means that they are dedicated to a particular type of
transfer. They are often referred to by their task name (Windows NT Server to SNA
gateway).As shown in Figure 7.22, a gateway takes the data from one environment, strips off
its old protocol stack, and repackages it in the protocol stack from the destination network.
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Network Interface Card (NIC).

Network interface cards, usually referred to as NIC, act as the physical interface or connection
between the computer and the network cable. Figure 7.23 shows a NIC with a coaxial-cable
connection. The cards are installed in an expansion slot in each computer and server on the
network. After the NIC has been installed, the network cable is attached to the card's port to
make the actual physical connection between the computer and the rest of the network.

Figure:A sample NIC

The role of the NIC is to:

a. Prepare data from the computer for the network cable.
b. Send the data to another computer.
c. Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system.
d. Receive incoming data from the cable and translate it into bytes that can
be understood by the computer's central processing unit (CPU).

Networking Cables

Networking cables are used to connect one network device to other or to connect two or more
computers to share printer, scanner etc. Different types of network cables like Coaxial cable,
Optical fiber cable, Twisted Pair cables are used depending on the network's topology,
protocol and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g. via Ethernet) or nearly
unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet).

Coaxial cable

The most common use for coaxial cables is for television and other signals with bandwidth of
multiple megahertz. Coaxial lines confine the electromagnetic wave to the area inside the
cable, between the center conductor and the shield. The transmission of energy in the line
occurs totally through the dielectric inside the cable between the conductors. Coaxial lines can
therefore be bent and twisted (subject to limits) without negative effects, and they can be
strapped to conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents in them.

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Figure: Coaxial cable

Optical fiber cable

An 'optical fiber cable' is a cable containing one or more optical fibers. The optical fiber
elements are typically individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a protective tube
suitable for the environment where the cable will be deployed. It carries light impulses. It is
expensive but have higher bandwidth and transmit data over longer distance

Figure: Optical fiber cables

Twisted pair

Twisted pair cabling is a form of wiring in which two conductors (the forward and return
conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out
electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources. This type of cable is used for home
and corporate Ethernet networks. Twisted pair cables consist of two insulated copper wires
there are two types of twisted pair cables: Shielded and Unshielded

Figure: Twisted pair Cable

Familiarization with Practical Network Setup:

Physical setup

This quite straight forward. Plug each end of the crossover cable into the LAN connector on
each PC.

Software Setup

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Sometimes connecting the two PC's together is all it takes to get this type of network working,
but more often or not is is better to manually configure the two PC's together. To do this
follows these steps:
1 - On the main computer open Network connections by Clicking "Start" then "Run" or "Press
Windows key + R" (Opens run command), then type "ncpa.cpl" (No speech marks). The
following screen should appear (Click on it to see larger image).

2 - Right click on your local connection and select "properties".

3 - Now click on the "Internet Protocols (TCP/IP)", and then click on "Properties".

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4 - Now select "Use the following IP address", and input the following:
IP address: 192.168.2.1
Subnet Mask : 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway : 192.168.2.2
Now click on "Use the following DNS server Addresses", and input the following
beside "Preferred DNS Server"
Preferred DNS Server: 192.168.2.2
Click "OK" and then "OK" again to complete the process
See image below for how it should look.

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5 - On the other computer open Network connections by Clicking "Start" then "Run" or "Press
Windows key + R" (Opens run command), then type "ncpa.cpl" (No speech marks). The
following screen should appear (Click on it to see larger image).

6 - Right click on your local connection and select "properties".

7 - Now click on the "Internet Protocols (TCP/IP)", then click on "Properties".

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8 - Now select "Use the following IP address", and input the following:
IP address: 192.168.2.2
Subnet Mask : 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway : 192.168.2.1
Now click on "Use the following DNS server Addresses", and input the following beside
"Preferred DNS Server"
Preferred DNS Server: 192.168.2.1
Click "OK" and then "OK" again to complete the process
See image below for how it should look.

Make Client in peer to peer Network

To make client in Peer to Peer Network we have to follow the following process. Type network
and sharing into the Search box in the Start Menu and select Network and Sharing Center
when it comes up

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Then when the Network and Sharing Center opens, click on Change adapter settings.

Right-click on your local adapter and select Properties.

In the Local Area Connection Properties window highlight Internet Protocol Version 4
(TCP/IPv4) then click the Properties button.

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Now select the radio button Use the following IP address and enter in the correct IP, Subnet
mask, and Default gateway that corresponds with your network setup. Check Validate settings
upon exit so Windows can find any problems with the addresses you entered. When you’re
finished click OK.

Now close out of the Local Area Connections Properties window

Testing the Client PC Connection

To test the Client Computer connection, use the Ping command line utility on the PC. Press
(Window button+ R) from your key board> type> cmd and type one of the following:
C:\>ping scit2 (scit2=Name of the client computer) -or-

C:\>ping 192.168.2.2 (IP address of the client Computer)

The expected output from Ping looks like the following:
C:\>ping 192.168.2.2
Pinging 192.168.2.2 with 32 bytes of data:

Reply from 192.168.2.2: bytes=32 time=10ms TTL=254

Reply from 192.168.2.2: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=254
Reply from 192.168.2.2: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=254
Reply from 192.168.2.2: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=254

Modem:

Application of Modem:

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A modem is a device that makes it possible for computers to communicate over a telephone
line.When computers are too far apart to be joined by a standard computer cable, a modem
can enable communication between them. Remember that network cables are limited in
length. In a network environment, modems serve as a means of communication between
networks and as a way to connect to the world beyond the local network.

Basic Modem Functions.

Computers cannot simply be connected to each other over a telephone line, because
computers communicate by sending digital electronic pulses (electronic signals), and a
telephone line can send only analog waves (sound). Figure 7.24 shows the difference
between digital computer communication and analog telephone communication.

Figure: Digital signals versus analog waves

48. A digital signal has a binary form. The signal can have a value of either 0 or 1. An
analog signal can be pictured as a smooth curve that can represent an infinite range of values.

49. As shown in Figure 7.25, the modem at the sending end converts the computer's digital
signals into analog waves and transmits the analog waves onto the telephone line. A modem
at the receiving end converts the incoming analog signals back into digital signals for the
receiving computer. In other words, sending modem Modulates digital signals into analog
signals and receiving modem Demodulates analog signals back into digital signals.

Figure:Modems convert digital signals to analog waves, and convert analog waves to

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Modem Speed:

Modem Speeds

Time to
download
Rated Rated Minutes a 20MB file
Bits/ Sec. Bytes/ Bytes per
Modulation (Baud Sec. per Mega Minutes . . . .
Method Rate) (baud ÷ 8) Minute Byte Hours Note

Frequency
FSK 2,400 300 18,000 56 1111.1 18.5
Shift Keying

Frequency
FSK 4,800 600 36,000 28 555.6 9.3
Shift Keying

Differential
DPSK 9,600 1,200 72,000 14 277.8 4.6 Phase Shift
Keying

v.90
DPSK 56,000 7,000 420,000 2.4 47.6 0.8 Common
"dial-up"

Integrated
Services
ISDN 128,000 16,000 960,000 1.0 20.8 0.3
Digital
Network

Digital
Subscriber
DSL
300,000 37,500 2,250,000 0.4 8.9 0.1 Line
Worst
Distance to
C. Office

DSL Limited
1,544,000 193,000 11,580,000 0.09 1.7 0.0
Best availability

Cable
Cable Modem
300,000 37,500 2,250,000 0.4 8.9 0.1
worst Other user
traffic

Cable Limited
6,000,000 750,000 45,000,000 0.02 0.4 0.0
best availability

High End High-speed Modems

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T1 1.544M 193,000 11 million 0.1 1.7 0.1 -

T3 44.7M 5,592,000 335 million 0.003 0.1 0.0 -

ATM 155M 19,375,000 1.1 billion 0.001 0.0 0.0 -

LAN Technologies & Protocols

Ethernet

Definition: Ethernet is a physical and data link layer technology for local area networks
(LANs). Ethernet was invented by engineer Robert Metcalfe.
When first widely deployed in the 1980s, Ethernet supported a maximum theoretical data rate
of 10 megabits per second (Mbps). Later, so-called "Fast Ethernet" standards increased this
maximum data rate to 100 Mbps. Gigabit Ethernet technology further extends peak
performance up to 1000 Mbps, and 10 Gigabit Ethernet technology also exists.
Higher level network protocols like Internet Protocol (IP) use Ethernet as their transmission
medium. Data travels over Ethernet inside protocol units called frames.
The run length of individual Ethernet cables is limited to roughly 100 meters, but Ethernet
networks can be easily extended to link entire schools or office buildings using network bridge
devices.

Description of Token Ring.

The Token-Ring architecture is a physical star and an electrical ring. The Token-Ring network
nodes (ring stations) are connected to a wiring device called a Multi Station Access Unit or
MSAU (pronounced MA-oo). Normally several MSAUs are connected in one location while
Lobe Cables connect those MSAUs to the ring stations. This makes up the physical star. The
electrical signal is sent from one ring station to the other through the MSAUs and each
connected lobe cable. This defines the electrical ring.

Each station on a Token-Ring acts as a repeater, receiving a series of bits from one station
and passing them on to the next. During this repeating process, if a ring station notices that it
is the destination of the signal, each bit is copied into memory and the final bit stream is
altered slightly to let other ring stations know that the signal was received. These processes
only take a few bit times to perform.

The signal is sent to each ring station in a specific order, known as the ring order. This ring
order never changes unless another ring station joins or leaves the ring. Once the signal
reaches the last station in the ring, it is sent back to the first station. This method of signal
passing allows each station to view the signal and regenerate it along the way.

Access to the media is allowed only when a ring station receives a special signal called a
"token". This token gives the ring station permission to transmit. Since there is usually only
one token on a ring at a time and a ring station only receives a signal from that station's
Nearest Active Upstream Neighbor (NAUN), collisions are eliminated. After the transmitting
ring station sends its signal, it holds the token until that signal returns from making a complete
pass around the ring. When the sending station receives the signal it sent, it removes the
signal from the ring, and places the token signal back on the ring and sends it to the next ring
station.

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One station on the network is the leader; the ring leader if you will, and makes sure that the
ring operates properly. This leader is called the Active Monitor(AM). The Active Monitor
performs several important functions including signal timing, making sure that signals (frames)
don't circle the ring endlessly, and other maintenance duties.

All stations have the built-in capability to be the Active Monitor, and when there is no AM on a
ring, all the stations use special procedures to select one. There are other monitors on the
network that perform other network management functions like collecting error reports,
notifying inserting ring stations how to configure their adapters and other management
functions. These special function ring stations will be discussed in more detail later.

Advantages

One advantage of the token passing scheme is response time is highly deterministic. Since
every station releases the token after it sends one frame, every other station on the ring has a
chance to transmit before a station can transmit a second frame. The base measurement for
calculating response time is called Rotation Time. This is the time it takes for a token signal to
travel around the ring, passing through each station along the way. It is possible to accurately
calculate how long it will take to transmit any amount of data on the network given the rotation
time, packet size and current network utilization.
Because the Active Monitor keeps frames from endlessly circling the ring, and all the stations
report errors to the Ring Error Monitor (see below) Token-Ring networks usually fix
themselves or at least, tell you what is wrong with them when errors occur. This makes
troubleshooting far easier than CSMA/CD.

Token-Ring's higher throughput, up to 16 megabits per second(Mbps), makes it ideal for high
traffic applications like multimedia or high volume production systems. Also, since token
passing eliminates collisions, contention problems do not increase with the additions of ring
stations.

Depending upon the implementation, the data packet size of a Token-Ring packet can be as
high as 16kb where the Ethernet CSMA/CD frame may be only about 4kb. Token-Ring frames
can afford to be larger since the token passing scheme allows a sending station to transmit
only one packet before relinquishing the token to the next ring station.

Another big advantage to Token Ring is that when a ring segment experiences a high volume
of traffic, the increase in response time is gradual, and in close proportion to the increase in
traffic. CSMA/CD networks normally suffer a much higher increase (almost exponential) in
response time when network traffic increases. This is due to the increase of collisions and
collision recovery since there is a greater chance that more than one station may try to
transmit at one time.

Disadvantages
Because of all the overhead Token-Ring requires to keep the network healthy, Token-Ring
networks usually see poorer performance than CSMA/CD when only a trickle of traffic is sent over
the wire. The break-even point is somewhere around 4 to 6Mbps. Below this range, Token-Ring
can actually perform worse than Ethernet in many environments.
Since each of the ring stations have the potential to be the Active Monitor (or one of the other
special function ring stations), each Token-Ring interface card has to include all the special

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circuitry to perform Token-Ring management duties. The added complexity on each card makes
the per port installation cost of Token-Ring nearly two to four times that of CSMA/CD (Ethernet).
Token bus

Figure: Token passing in a Token bus network

Token bus is a network implementing the token ring protocol over a "virtual ring" on a coaxial
cable. A token is passed around the network nodes and only the node possessing the token
may transmit. If a node doesn't have anything to send, the token is passed on to the next node
on the virtual ring. Each node must know the address of its neighbour in the ring, so a special
protocol is needed to notify the other nodes of connections to, and disconnections from, the
ring.

Token bus was standardized by IEEE standard 802.4. It is mainly used for industrial
applications. Token bus was used by General Motors for their Manufacturing Automation
Protocol (MAP) standardization effort. This is an application of the concepts used in token ring
networks. The main difference is that the endpoints of the bus do not meet to form a physical
ring.

Due to difficulties handling device failures and adding new stations to a network, token ring
gained a reputation for being unreliable and difficult to upgrade. Bus networks, such as
Ethernet, had a more flexible and reliable physical architecture, but Ethernet's access protocol
could not absolutely guarantee a maximum time any station would have to wait to access the
network, so was thought to be unsuitable for manufacturing automation applications. The
Token bus protocol was created to combine the benefits of a physical bus network with the
deterministic access protocol of a token ring network.

In order to guarantee the packet delay and transmission in Token bus protocol, a modified
Token bus was proposed in Manufacturing Automation Systems and flexible manufacturing
system (FMS).
A means for carrying Internet Protocol over token bus was developed.
The IEEE 802.4 Working Group is disbanded and the standard has been withdrawn by the
IEEE.

Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).

It is an industry standard suite of protocols providing communications in a heterogeneous

environment. In addition, TCP/IP provides a routable, enterprise networking protocol and
access to the Internet and its resources. It is a transport layer protocol that actually consists of
several other protocols in a stack that operates at the session layer. Most networks support
TCP/IP as a protocol.

What is Protocol

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The system of rules and procedures that govern communication between two or more devices.
Many varieties of protocols exist, and not all are compatible, but as long as two devices are
using the same protocol, they can exchange data. Protocols exist within protocols as well,
governing different aspects of communication

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

The TCP is responsible for the reliable transmission of data from one node to another. It is a
connection-based protocol and establishes a connection (also known as a session, virtual
circuit, or link), between two machines before any data is transferred. To establish a reliable
connection, TCP uses what is known as a "three-way handshake." This establishes the port
number and beginning sequence numbers from both sides of the transmission. The
handshake contains three steps:

a. The requestor sends a packet specifying the port number it plans to use and its initial
sequence number (ISN) to the server.
b. The server acknowledges with its ISN, which consists of the requestor's ISN, plus 1.
c. The requestor acknowledges the acknowledgement with the server's ISN, plus 1.

Internet Protocol (IP).

Internet Protocol (IP) is a packet-switched protocol that performs addressing and route
selection. As a packet is transmitted, this protocol appends a header to the packet so that it
can be routed through the network using dynamic routing tables. IP is a connectionless
protocol and sends packets without expecting the receiving host to acknowledge receipt. In
addition, IP is responsible for packet assembly and disassembly as required by the physical
and data-link layers of the OSI reference model.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model.

A seven-layer architecture that standardizes levels of service and types of interaction for
computers exchanging information through a network. It is used to describe the flow of data
between the physical connection to the network and the end-user application. This model is
the best-known and most widely used model for describing networking environments.

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Figure: The seven-layer OSI reference model

OSI layer Focus

7. Application layer Program-to-program transfer of information
6. Presentation layer Text formatting and display code conversion
5. Session layer Establishing, maintaining, and coordinating communication
4. Transport layer Accurate delivery, service quality
3. Network layer Transport routes, message handling and transfer
2. Data-link layer Coding, addressing, and transmitting information
1. Physical layer Hardware connections

Concept on Server & Workstation.

Server:

A server is a computer program running to serve the requests of other programs, the "clients".
Thus, the "server" performs some computational task on behalf of "clients". The clients either
run on the same computer or connect through the network. In most common use, server is a
physical computer (a computer hardware system) dedicated to running one or more such
services (as a host),to serve the needs of users of the other computers on the network.
Depending on the computing service that it offers it could be a database server, file server,
mail server, print server, web server, or some other kind of server.
Types of servers
In a general network environment the following types of servers may be found.
Application server, a server dedicated to running certain software applications
Catalog server, a central search point for information across a distributed network
Communications server, carrier-grade computing platform for communications networks
Database server, provides database services to other computer programs or computers
Fax server, provides fax services for clients
File server, provides file services
Game server, a server that video game clients connect to in order to play online together
Home server, a server for the home
Name server or DNS
Print server, provides printer services
Proxy server, acts as an intermediary for requests from clients seeking resources from other
servers
Sound server, provides multimedia broadcasting, streaming.
Standalone server, an emulator for client–server (web-based) programs
Web server, a server that HTTP clients connect to in order to send commands and receive
responses along with data contents
Almost the entire structure of the Internet is based upon a client–server model. High-level root
name servers, DNS, and routers direct the traffic on the internet. There are millions of servers
connected to the Internet, running continuously throughout the world.
World Wide Web
Domain Name System
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E-mail
FTP file transfer
Chat and instant messaging
Voice communication
Streaming audio and video
Online gaming
Database servers

Workstation:

A workstation is a high-end microcomputer designed for technical or scientific applications.

Intended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they are commonly connected to a local
area network and run multi-user operating systems. The term workstation has also been used
to refer to a mainframe computer terminal or a PC connected to a network.
Historically, workstations had offered higher performance than desktop computers, especially
with respect to CPU and graphics, memory capacity, and multitasking capability. They are
optimized for the visualization and manipulation of different types of complex data such as 3D
mechanical design, engineering simulation (e.g. computational fluid dynamics), animation and
rendering of images, and mathematical plots. Consoles consist of a high resolution display, a
keyboard and a mouse at a minimum, but also offer multiple displays, graphics tablets, 3D
mice (devices for manipulating 3D objects and navigating scenes), etc. Workstations are the
first segment of the computer market to present advanced accessories and collaboration tools.
Presently, the workstation market is highly commoditized and is dominated by large PC
vendors, such as Dell and HP, selling Microsoft Windows/Linux running on Intel Xeon/AMD
Opteron. Alternative UNIX based platforms are provided by Apple Inc.

Data Transferring

Select the file or folder and follow the steps: Click right Button> Select Properties

Select> Sharing> Advanced Sharing

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Tick on Share this folder> Click on Permissions

Tick on Full control, Change and Read then select Apply and Ok.
Now Select File will be shared/ Transferred to the Peer to Peer Network.

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Network Administrator and Client

A network administrator, network analyst or network engineer is a person responsible for the
maintenance of computer hardware and software that comprises a computer network. This
normally includes deploying, configuring, maintaining and monitoring active network
equipment.

The network administrator is usually the highest level of technical staff in an organization and
will rarely be involved with direct user support. The network administrator will concentrate on
the overall integrity of the network, server deployment, security, and ensuring that the network
connectivity throughout a company's LAN/WAN infrastructure is on par with technical
considerations at the network level of an organization's hierarchy. Network administrators are
considered tier 3 support personnel that only work on break/fix issues that could not be
resolved at the tier 1 (helpdesk) or tier 2 (desktop/network technician) levels. Depending on
the company, the Network Administrator may also design and deploy networks.

The actual role of the network administrator will vary from company to company, but will
commonly include activities and tasks such as network address assignment, assignment of
routing protocols and routing table configuration as well as configuration of authentication and
authorization – directory services. It often includes maintenance of network facilities in
individual machines, such as drivers and settings of personal computers as well as printers
and such. It sometimes also includes maintenance of certain network servers: file servers,
VPNgateways, intrusion detection systems, etc. Network administrators may also be
technically involved in the maintenance and administration of servers, desktop computers,
printers, routers, switches, firewalls, phones, personal digital assistants, smartphones,
software deployment, security updates and patches as well as a vast array of additional
technologies inclusive of both hardware and software
Address ranges and LAN sizes

Address range Subnet mask Provides Addresses per LAN

10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255.255 255.0.0.0 1 class A LAN 16,777,216
172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 255.255.0.0 16 class B LANs 65,536
192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 25.255.255.0 256 class C LANs 256

Crossover connection

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Direct connection

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1. White
Green
2. Green
3. White
Orange
4. Blue
5. White Blue
6. Orange
7. White
Brown
8. Brown

Practical Network Setup:

A Direct cable connection network is used to connect two PC's together without the need of a
router, hub or internet. It is useful for gaming; file backup or even resource sharing. You can
share the internet like this, plus also printers, scanners etc. It’s a very cheap way to setup a
network.

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Requirement

For this you will require 2 PC's with LAN cards and a crossover cable. By standard the cables
are usually yellow, or have yellow plugs, (but this may not always be the case), and most
modern PC's will have a built in LAN connection, but check before you buy.

Browser Information

What is Web Browser?

A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application for retrieving,

presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information
resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI/URL) that may be a web page,
image, video or other piece of content. Hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to
navigate their browsers to related resources.
Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, they can also be used
to access information provided by web servers in private networks or files in file systems.
The most popular web browsers are Google Chrome, Internet Explorer , Opera and Firefox

Mozilla Firefox

Mozilla Firefox (or simply Firefox) is a free and open-sourceweb browser developed by the
Mozilla Foundation and its subsidiary the Mozilla Corporation. Firefox is available for
Windows, macOS and Linuxoperating systems, with its Firefox for Android available for
Android (formerly Firefox for mobile, it also ran on the discontinued Firefox OS); where all of
these versions use the Geckolayout engine to render web pages, which implements current
and anticipated web standards. An additional version, Firefox for iOS, was released in late
2015, but this version does not use Gecko due to Apple's restrictions limiting third-party web
browsers to the WebKit-based layout engine built into iOS.
Firefox was created in 2002 under the name "Phoenix" by Mozilla community members who
desired a standalone browser, rather than the Mozilla Application Suite bundle. Even during its
beta phase, Firefox proved to be popular with its testers and was praised for its speed,
security, and add-ons compared to Microsoft's then-dominant Internet Explorer 6. Firefox was
released in November 2004, and was highly successful with 60 million downloads within nine
months, which was the first time that Internet Explorer's dominance was challenged. Firefox is
considered the spiritual successor of Netscape Navigator, as the Mozilla community was
created by Netscape in 1998 before their acquisition by AOL.

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Figure: screenshot of Mozilla Firefox.

Opera

Opera is a web browser for Windows, MAC OS, and Linuxoperating systems developed by
Opera Software. It uses the Blinklayout engine. An earlier version using the Presto layout
engine is still available, and runs on FreeBSD systems. According to Opera, the browser had
more than 350 million users worldwide in the 4th quarter of 2014. Total Opera mobile users
reached 291 million in June 2015. According to SlashGeek, Opera has originated features
later adopted by other web browsers, including Speed Dial, pop-up blocking, browser
sessions, private browsing, and tabbed browsing

History of the Opera web browser

Opera began in 1994 as a research project at Telenor, the largest Norwegian

telecommunications company. In 1995, it branched out into a separate company named
Opera SoftwareASA. Opera was first released publicly in 1996 with version 2.0, which only ran
on Microsoft Windows.[13] In an attempt to capitalize on the emerging market for Internet-
connected handheld devices, a project to port Opera to mobile device platforms was started in
1998. Opera 4.0, released in 2000, included a new cross-platform core that facilitated creation
of editions of Opera for multiple operating systems and platforms
Opera

Figure: Screenshot of Opera Browser

Internet Explorer

What is Internet Explorer?

Definition: Internet Explorer is the free, default Web browser for the Microsoft Windows family
of operating systems. Internet Explorer ships pre-installed on all modern Windows computers.

Microsoft Internet Explorer contains various Internet connection, network file sharing, and
security settings. Among other features, Internet Explorer supports:
History of Internet Explorer

The Internet Explorer project was started in the summer of 1994 by Thomas Reardon, who,
according to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Review of 2003, used source code
from Spyglass, Inc. Mosaic, which was an early commercial web browser with formal ties to
the pioneering National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) Mosaic browser. In
late 1994, Microsoft licensed Spyglass Mosaic for a quarterly fee plus a percentage of
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Microsoft's non-Windows revenues for the software. Although bearing a name similar to NCSA
Mosaic, Spyglass Mosaic had used the NCSA Mosaic source code sparingly. Microsoft was
sued by Synet Inc. in 1996, over the trademark infringement.

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Figure: Screenshot of Internet Explorer.

Chrome
Definition: Chrome is a free Internet browser officially released by Google on December 11,
2008. Its features include synchronization with Google services and accounts, tabbed
browsing, in-browser translation and spell check, and its integrated address bar/search bar
called the Omnibox.
History of Chrome:
Google CEO Eric Schmidt opposed the development of an independent web browser for six
years. He stated that "at the time, Google was a small company," and he did not want to go
through "bruising browser wars." After co-founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page hired several
Mozilla Firefox developers and built a demonstration of Chrome, Schmidt admitted that "It was
so good that it essentially forced me to change my mind."
Rumors of Google building a web browser first appeared in September 2004. Online journals
and U.S. newspapers stated at the time that Google was hiring former Microsoft web
developers among others. It also came shortly after the final 1.0 release of Mozilla Firefox,
which was surging in popularity and taking market share from Internet Explorer which was
suffering from major security problems

Reference : Internet

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CHAPTER-8
MINOR TROUBLE SHOOTING

What Is Computer Troubleshooting

Computer troubleshooting is not a single syllabus or it cannot be learn just by reading one
chapter or one book. Actually it depends on the situation and instant decision. Computer may
face various problems for various reasons and one problem may cause of various reason. So
practice and working with regular computer maintenance may help a person to be an expert of
computer troubleshooting. Below is a listing of commonly asked computer questions and
answers and basic troubleshooting steps for major operating systems and software programs.
Keep in mind that this is just a select few of enormous computer problems.

General procedure of initial trouble shooting

1. Press (Alt+Ctl+Del). If our computer fails to boot, turn it off, wait until disk drivers
completely speed down and then turn it back on.

2. If the post detects error refer to “computer messages” and take the appropriative steps
to correct the problem. After the problem has been resolved and restart our computer.

3. Make sure all necessary video, printer and application device drivers are properly
installed.

4. Ensure that cables and connections are secure.

Common Windows errors and how to fix them:

I have problems in Windows after installing new software.

Cause:After installing any type of utility, driver or other software program on a computer you
can encounter an almost endless list of issues that can be caused by any of the below
reasons.Confliction with other software installed on the computer.
Issue with program.Improper installation or problems with installation.

Solution:

1. Reinstall or uninstall the program:

If you're encountering problems with your computer or other programs after installing new
software on your computer attempt to uninstall the program and see if the issues persist. After
the program has been uninstalled try installing the program again.

Note: If after installing a program you're unable to boot into Windows, try booting into
Safe Mode.

2. Check for software program updates or new versions:

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If you continue to experience issues verify that the program, game, or utility you're installing
doesn't have any updates by visiting the developer of the program website. If you're installing
a software program or drivers for a hardware device such as a printer. Attempt to get the latest
software and/or drivers from the manufacturer instead of using the included software.

My computer is running slow what steps can I do to fix it?

Cause: This issue can be caused by any of the below possibilities:

Hard disk drive is short on available disk space.
Several software programs have been installed/uninstalled leaving behind bad files and/or
confusing the software.
Data Corruption.
Missing Windows updates / Outdated drivers.
Computer is overheating.
Corrupt OS.
Bad Hardware.

Solution:

 Not enough hard disk drive space:

Verify that there is at least 200-500MB of free hard disk drive space. This available space
allows the computer to have room for the swap file to increase in size as well as room for
temporary files.

 Hard drive corrupted or fragmented:

Run Scandisk or something equivalent to help ensure that there is nothing physically wrong
with the computer hard disk drive.
Run Defrag to help ensure that data is arranged in the best possible order.
Background programs
If you've got an anti-virus scanner on the computer, spyware protection program, or other
security utility make sure it's not running in the background as you're trying to work. Often
when these programs begin to scan the computer it can decrease the overall performance of
your computer.

 Computer or processor is overheating:

Make sure your computer and processor is not overheating, excessive heat can cause a
significant decrease in computer performance some processors will even lower the speed of
the processor automatically to help compensate for the heat related issues.

 Memory upgrade:
If you've had your computer for more than one year it's likely your computer is not meeting the
memory requirements for today. We suggest at a minimum the computer have 1GB of
memory.

 Erase computer and start over:

Finally, if none of the above solutions resolve your issues, it is recommended that you reinstall
Windows and/or erase everything and then start over.

 Hardware issues:
If your computer continues to be slow after going over each of the above recommendations it's
possible that your computer is experiencing a more serious hardware related issue such as a

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failing component in the computer. This could be a failing or bad CPU, RAM, Motherboard, or
other component.

Why do Windows programs stop responding?

Cause: A computer, operating system, software program or driver may stop responding or
cause other programs to stop responding because of several possible reasons, such as a
confliction of software or hardware resources between two programs, lack of system
resources, or a bug in the software or drivers.

Solution:

To recover from a program that has stopped responding, a user can generally press the CTRL
+ ALT + DEL keys on his or her keyboards to open the "Close Program" window or open the
"Task Manager" window and click the "End Task" button to terminate the program. If another
window opens, click the "End Task" button again to confirm stopping that program.
It is important to realize that when a program stops responding any work that has not been
saved will more than likely be lost when end tasking a program. Unfortunately, there is no
alternative.

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Windows restarts without warning.

Cause:

This issue could be caused by any of the below possibilities.

Software issue or error:

Errors generated by software programs can cause a computer to reboot unexpectedly or

without warning. If you are running Windows XP see the below section "For Windows XP
users" before continuing.

If you are not running Windows XP or following the below steps still cause your computer to
reboot without warning. Boot your computer into Safe Mode, and let the computer run in Safe
Mode.

If the computer is still rebooting in Safe Mode the issue is likely not software related but
something else If the computer is not rebooting in Safe Mode it is likely you have software
related issue.

Solution For Windows XP users:

Windows XP is designed to automatically reboot each time an error occurs such as a System
Failure. Although this may be nice for errors that do not occur often, users who have a re-
occurring error may wish to identify the error to troubleshoot it. Below are the steps on how
this feature can be disabled and enabled in Windows XP.
From the desktop right-click on My Computer.
Click the Properties option.
In the System Properties window click the Advanced tab.
In Advanced click the Settings button under Startup and Recovery.
In the Startup and Recovery window uncheck the Automatically restart check box.
Click Ok.
Now if the computer generates and error it should not automatically restart and enable you to
display any errors your computer may be experiencing.

Hardware issue or error:

 Any failing hardware component in your computer could cause your computer to
unexpectedly generate an error and/or reboot without warning. If you have recently attempted
to add a new hardware device, remove that device to make sure it is not causing your issues.
Make sure you are not encountering any hardware conflicts by viewing Device Manager for
errors.

 New drivers can also cause this issue, if you have recently performed any hardware driver
updates you may wish to try an earlier version of the drivers. If you have updated drivers and
removed any hardware that could be causing this issue and continue to experience random
reboots, it's possible that the memory is bad in the computer.

 Finally, hardware devices that are not installed properly in the computer can also cause
random reboots. Make sure all the cables and expansion cards are connected properly to the

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computer. The best way to determine this is to disconnect and reconnect all cables and
expansion cards.

Heat related issue:

Many computers today are designed to turn off or automatically reboot if the computer,
processor, or other device in your computer gets too hot. If you have heard any abnormal
noises coming from your computer recently such as a high squealing this could indicate a fan
may be failing in your computer.
You can first start by verifying the fan on the power supply is working by examining the back of
the computer and seeing if the fan is moving and moving smoothly. For all other fans in the
computer you will need to either open the computer and make sure the fan are working
(processor fan and case fan) and/or if your BIOS monitors the RPM of the fans enter BIOS
and make sure the BIOS does not report any errors.

Computer virus:

Computer viruses such as the blaster virus are written to reboot your computer without
warning. Usually these viruses will make the computer reboot ever 5, 10, 15 or 30 minutes
after the computer has booted.

If you believe your computer may be infected with a virus or are uncertain if your computer is
infected with a virus make sure your virus scanner definitions are up to date.

Issue with operating system:

If after following each of the above recommendations your computer still continues to reboot it
is likely that you are experiencing a Microsoft Windows operating system related issue that
cannot be explained. To help make sure this is the case please try the below steps.

 Reboot the computer and enter CMOS setup as the computer is booting.

 After you have loaded the computer in CMOS setup let the computer sit.

 If the computer does not reboot while letting the computer sit in CMOS it is likely that you
are in fact experiencing an issue with Microsoft Windows and it is recommend that if you have
followed all of the above recommendations that you reinstall your version of Microsoft
Windows.

Computer turns off without warning:

Cause:

1. Heat related issue:

A computer that turns off without warning is often a heat related issue. Many computers today
are designed to turn off or automatically reboot if the computer, processor, or other device in
your computer gets too hot. If you have heard any abnormal noises coming from your
computer recently such as a high squealing, this could indicate a fan may be failing in your
computer.

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You can first start by verifying the fan on the power supply is working by examining the back of
the computer and seeing if the fan is moving and moving smoothly. For all other fans in the
computer, you will need to either open the computer and make sure the fan are working
(processor fan and case fans) and/or if your BIOS monitors the RPM of the fans, enter BIOS
and make sure the BIOS does not report any errors.

While inside the computer it's also a good idea to verify the processor heat sink is properly
connected by disconnecting and reconnecting the heat sink. If the processor heat sink is not
properly it will not keep the processor cool causing the computer to overheat.

2. Hardware issue or error:

Any failing hardware component in your computer could cause your computer to unexpectedly
turn off without warning. If you have recently attempted to add a new hardware device, remove
that device to make sure it is not causing your issues.
Before attempting to remove any hardware, make sure you are not encountering this issue
because of hardware conflicts by viewing Device Manager for errors.
If you have not recently installed any new hardware into the computer, the next best solution
to determining if this is a hardware issue would be remove any hardware on the computer that
is not needed. For example, remove your modem, network card, sound card, and any other
expansion cards that are not needed for the computer to operate. Run the computer without
these cards to see if they are the cause of your issue.

3. Computer virus:
It's possible for your computer to be infected with a virus that is designed to shut down your
computer or turn it off. If your computer seems to be turning off when executing a certain
program at specific times in the day, it could be infected.

If you believe your computer may be infected with a virus or are uncertain if your computer is
infected with a virus, make sure your virus scanner definitions are up to date.

4. Issue with operating system:

If after following each of the above recommendations your computer still continues to reboot it
is likely that you are experiencing a Microsoft Windows operating system related issue that
cannot be explained. To help make sure this is the case please try the below steps.

 Reboot the computer and enter CMOS setup as the computer is booting.

 After you have loaded the computer in CMOS setup let the computer sit.

 If the computer does not reboot while letting the computer sit in CMOS it is likely that you
are in fact experiencing an issue with Microsoft Windows and it is recommend that if you have
followed all of the above recommendations that you reinstall your version of Microsoft
Windows.

5. Other failing hardware:

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If after reinstalling your operating system, or during the installation of your operating system,
your computer turns off abnormally, it is very likely that other hardware is failing in the
computer. Often this is RAM, CPU, Motherboard, and/or Power Supply (in that order).
If you have extra available parts or have a friend or co-worker with a similar configuration that
is willing to allow you to test their hardware in your computer, try swapping these parts to
determine if they are at fault. Otherwise, you will need to have the computer serviced.

Windows freezes or stops responding:

Cause:

This issue could be caused by any of the below possibilities.

Solution:

Software related issue:

A computer locking up or freezing is often is caused by a software related issue. If you're

encountering lockups when the computer is opening a particular program, make sure you
have all the latest updates for that program. You can find the latest updates for your software
through the software developer or publisher.

Driver related issue:

A computer lock up can also be caused by drivers. For example, if there is an issue that exists
with your video drivers a computer could lock up while playing a game or displaying any other
type of video. First make sure no errors exist in the Windows Device Manager. This can be
done by opening the Device Manager and verifying that no "Other Devices" are listed and no
device has any exclamation mark or red X.

Next, make sure you have the latest drivers for all major devices in your computer (video,
sound, modem, and network).

Operating system related issue:

Make sure your operating system has all of the latest updates installed on it.

Heat related issue:

If the computer processor is getting too hot it can cause the computer to freeze. If you have
heard any abnormal noises coming from your computer recently such as a high squealing, this
could indicate a fan may be failing in your computer.

You can first start by verifying the fan on the power supply is working by examining the back of
the computer and seeing if the fan is moving and moving smoothly. For all other fans in the
computer you will need to either open the computer and make sure the fan are working
(processor fan and case fan) and/or if your BIOS monitors the RPM of the fans, enter BIOS
and make sure the BIOS does not report any errors.

Hardware issue:
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In addition to software, hardware can also cause a computer to lock. If you have recently
added any new hardware into the computer, try temporarily removing it to make sure it is not
the cause of your issue.
Before attempting to remove any hardware, make sure you are not encountering this issue
because of hardware conflicts by viewing Device Manager for errors. If you have not recently
installed any new hardware into the computer, the next best solution to determining if this is a
hardware issue would be remove any hardware on the computer that is not needed. For
example, remove your modem, network card, sound card, and any other expansion cards that
are not needed for the computer to operate. Run the computer without these cards to see if
they are the cause of your issue.

Serious issue with Windows:

If you have tried all the above recommendations and the computer continues to frequently lock
up, it’s possible that Windows may be seriously corrupt. Try running through the basic
troubleshooting steps for your version of Windows on our basic troubleshooting page. If these
additional steps do not resolve your issue, we suggest you backup all information and erase
and reinstall Windows on your computer.

Hardware failure:

If after reinstalling your operating system, or during the installation of your operating system,
your computer turns off abnormally, it is very likely that other hardware is failing in the
computer. Often this is RAM, CPU, Motherboard, and/or Power Supply (in that order).
If you have extra available parts or have a friend or co-worker with a similar configuration that
is willing to allow you to test their hardware in your computer, try swapping these parts to
determine if they are at fault. Otherwise, you will need to have the computer serviced.

The computer is completely dead?

Solutions: Check all the connections, the cables between the CPU and the monitor and all
the electrical cables. Check the wall socket or surge strip to see if they are bad (sometimes a
surge strip will have good and bad outlets). If you have a green light on your monitor but not
on your CPU, then there is a problem with your CPU. If there is a green light on your CPU
and not your monitor, then you have a problem with your monitor and your CPU may be fine.
If you have another monitor that you know is good, the quickest way to test is to put another
monitor on the machine and see if you get an image on the screen. If you have a light on both
the monitor and the CPU, check the pins of the data cable between the monitor and the CPU.
A single bent pin can cause an image problem.

The keyboard doesn't work?

Solutions:

1. Press Ctrl + Alt + Del (all three keys at the same time) to bring up the Task List. Select any
program that says "Not responding" and click the End Task button. Repeat until all tasks are
ended. Check periodically to see if the keyboard will work.

2. Check to make sure the keyboard is still properly connected to the computer. If the
keyboard has been disconnected, you may have to reboot your computer.
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3. If all else fails, then turn the power off. Wait a couple of minutes before turning the
computer back on.

Special Note

One of the dirtiest parts of your computer is the keyboard. Regular cleaning will help keep the
keyboard working properly. First, blow compressed air through the spaces in between the
keys to remove dust and lint. If you shake your keyboard upside-down this will also remove
some of the particles.
Another keyboard problem that could occur is when you turn your computer on and you get a
message that no keyboard was detected or you get into Windows but are not able to type.
Remove the keyboard connector for the CPU, examine the pins in the connector to ensure
they are straight, and then reinsert the connector. Also, check and make sure the mouse and
keyboard connectors have not been switched. If the keyboard still doesn’t work try
connecting, another keyboard that you know is working. This will determine if you need a new
keyboard or if you have a CPU problem.

The mouse doesn't work?

Solutions:

Check to make sure the mouse is still properly connected to the computer. If the mouse has
been disconnected, you may have to reboot your computer.

Like the keyboard, the mouse pad is sitting in the open most of the time getting dusty, wet,
slimed, or anything else that happens on you desktop. The mouse then rolls over whatever
has collected on the mouse pad and gets inside, gumming up the works. To clean the mouse
pad, wipe it off occasionally with a damp cloth or get a new one.

You also need to clean your mouse regularly, as often as twice a week. If you turn your
mouse over, you’ll notice a round ball with a cover over it. This cover can be twisted off and
the ball will come out. Roll the ball on a clean, lint free cloth. Then take a look at the rollers
inside the mouse. Take tweezers, a screwdriver, or even your fingernail to scratch the dirt and
lint off the rods. Next, you should look inside the mouse and clean out any other dirt or lint
that is hiding in there. Finally, replace the ball and twist back on the cover.

Computer POST and Error codes

The computer POST (power-on self-test) checks a computer's internal hardware for
compatibility and connection before starting the remainder of the boot process. If the computer
passes the POST, the computer may give a single beep (some computers may beep twice) as
it starts and continue to boot. However, if the computer fails the POST, the computer will either
not beep or generate a beep code that tells the user the source of the problem.

If your computer has an irregular POST or a beep code not mentioned below, follow the POST
troubleshooting steps to determine the failing hardware component.
AMI BIOS beep codes
Award BIOS beep codes
Dell beep codes
IBM BIOS beep codes
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Macintosh startup tones
Phoenix BIOS beep codes
Motherboard help

AMI BIOS beep codes

Below are the AMI BIOS Beep codes that can occur. However, because of the wide variety of
different computer manufacturers with this BIOS, the beep codes may vary.

Beep Code Descriptions

1 short DRAM refresh failure
2 short Parity circuit failure
3 short Base 64 K RAM failure
4 short System timer failure
5 short Process failure
6 short Keyboard controller Gate A20 error
7 short Virtual mode exception error
8 short Display memory Read/Write test failure
9 short ROM BIOS checksum failure
10 short CMOS shutdown Read/Write error
11 short Cache Memory error
1 long, 3 short Conventional/Extended memory failure
1 long, 8 short Display/Retrace test failed
two-tone siren Low CPU Fan speed, Voltage Level issue

AWARD BIOS beep codes

Below are Award BIOS Beep codes that can occur. However, because of the wide variety of
different computer manufacturers with this BIOS, the beep codes may vary.

Beep Code Description

Indicates a video error has occurred and the BIOS cannot
1 long, 2 short initialize the video screen to display any additional
information.
Video card not detected (reseat video card) or bad video
1 long, 3 short
card
Beeps repeating endlessly RAM problem.
Repeated high frequency beeps
Overheating processor (CPU)
while PC is running
Repeated beeps alternating high &
Issue with the processor (CPU), possibly damaged
low frequency

If any other correctable hardware issues are found, the BIOS displays a message.

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Dell beep codes

Beep Code Description

1 beep BIOSROM corruption or failure
2 beeps Memory (RAM) not detected
3 beeps Motherboard failure
4 beeps Memory (RAM) failure
5 beeps CMOS Battery failure
6 beeps Video card failure
7 beeps Bad processor (CPU)

For other Dell beep codes, please refer to Dell's Beep Codes and PSA Diagnostics Chart
page.

IBM BIOS beep codes

Below are general IBM BIOS Beep codes that can occur. However, because of the wide
variety of models shipping with this BIOS, the beep codes may vary.

Beep Code Description

No Beeps No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
1 Short Beep Normal POST, computer is ok.
2 Short Beep POST error, review screen for error code.
Continuous Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
Repeating Short Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.
1 Long and 1 Short Beep Motherboard issue.
1 Long and 2 Short Beeps Video (Mono/CGA Display Circuitry) issue.
1 Long and 3 Short Beeps. Video (EGA) Display Circuitry.
3 Long Beeps Keyboard or Keyboard card error.
1 Beep, Blank or Incorrect Display Video Display Circuitry.

Macintosh startup tones

Tones Error
Error Tone. (two sets of different tones) Problem with logic board or SCSI bus.
Startup tone, drive spins, no video Problem with video controller.
Powers on, no tone. Logic board problem.
High Tone, four higher tones. Problem with SIMM.

Computer virus

A computer virus is a small software program that spreads from one computer to another
computer and that interferes with computer operation. A computer virus may corrupt or delete
data on a computer, use an e-mail program to spread the virus to other computers, or even
delete everything on the hard disk.

Computer viruses are most easily spread by attachments in e-mail messages or by instant

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messaging messages. Therefore, you must never open an e-mail attachment unless you know
who sent the message or unless you are expecting the e-mail attachment. Computer viruses
can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting cards, or audio and video files.
Computer viruses also spread by using downloads on the Internet. Computer viruses can be
hidden in pirated software or in other files or programs that you may download.

Symptoms that may be the result of ordinary Windows functions

A computer virus infection may cause the following problems:

Note: These problems may also occur because of ordinary Windows functions or problems in
Windows that are not caused by a computer virus.

Windows does not start even though you have not made any system changes or even though
you have not installed or removed any programs.

Windows does not start because certain important system files are missing. Additionally, you
receive an error message that lists the missing files.

The computer sometimes starts as expected. However, at other times, the computer stops
responding before the desktop icons and the taskbar appear.

The computer runs very slowly. Additionally, the computer takes longer than expected to start.

You receive out-of-memory error messages even though the computer has sufficient RAM.
New programs are installed incorrectly.

Windows spontaneously restarts unexpectedly.

Programs that used to run stop responding frequently. Even if you remove and reinstall the
programs, the issue continues to occur.

A disk utility such as Scandisk reports multiple serious disk errors.

A partition disappears.

The computer always stops responding when you try to use Microsoft Office products.
You cannot start Windows Task Manager.

Antivirus software indicates that a computer virus is present.

Symptoms of a computer virus

If you suspect or confirm that your computer is infected with a computer virus, obtain the
current antivirus software. The following are some primary indicators that a computer may be
infected:

The computer runs slower than usual.

The computer stops responding, or it locks up frequently.
The computer crashes, and then it restarts every few minutes.
The computer restarts on its own. Additionally, the computer does not run as usual.
Applications on the computer do not work correctly.
Disks or disk drives are inaccessible.
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You cannot print items correctly.
You see unusual error messages.
You see distorted menus and dialog boxes.
There is a double extension on an attachment that you recently opened, such as a .jpg, .vbs,
.gif, or .exe extension.
An antivirus program is disabled for no reason. Additionally, the antivirus program cannot be
restarted.
An antivirus program cannot be installed on the computer, or the antivirus program will not run.
New icons appear on the desktop that you did not put there, or the icons are not associated
with any recently installed programs.
Strange sounds or music plays from the speakers unexpectedly.
A program disappears from the computer even though you did not intentionally remove the
program.
These are common signs of infection. However, these signs may also be caused by hardware
or software problems that have nothing to do with a computer virus. Unless you run the
Microsoft Malicious Software Removal Tool, and then you install industry-standard, up-to-date
antivirus software on your computer, you cannot be certain whether a computer is infected
with a computer virus or not.

Symptoms of worms and Trojan horse viruses in e-mail messages

When a computer virus infects e-mail messages or infects other files on a computer, you may
notice the following symptoms:
The infected file may make copies of itself. This behavior may use up all the free space on the
hard disk.

A copy of the infected file may be sent to all the addresses in an e-mail address list.
The computer virus may reformat the hard disk. This behavior will delete files and programs.
The computer virus may install hidden programs, such as pirated software. This pirated
software may then be distributed and sold from the computer.
The computer virus may reduce security. This could enable intruders to remotely access the
computer or the network.

You receive an e-mail message that has a strange attachment. When you open the
attachment, dialog boxes appear, or a sudden degradation in system performance occurs.
Someone tells you that they have recently received e-mail messages from you that contained
attached files that you did not send. The files that are attached to the e-mail messages have
extensions such as .exe, .bat, .scr, and .vbs extensions.

What is Spyware?

Spyware can install on your computer without your knowledge. These programs can change
your computer’s configuration or collect advertising data and personal information. Spyware
can track internet searching habits and possibly redirect web site activity.

Symptoms of Spyware

When a computer becomes affected by Spyware, the following may result:

Slow internet connection.
Changing your web browser’s home page.
Loss of internet connectivity.

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Failure to open some programs, including security software.
Unable to visit specific websites, which may include redirecting you to another one.

Types of Viruses

There are many types of computer viruses:

File virus: Most viruses fall into this category. A virus attaches itself to a file, usually a
program file.

Boot sector virus: These viruses infect floppy and hard drives. The virus program will load
first, before the operating system.

Macro Virus: This is a new type of virus that use an application's own macro programming
feature to distribute themselves. Unlike other viruses, macro viruses do not infect programs;
they infect documents.

Virus Hoax: Although there are thousands of viruses discovered each year, there are still
some that only exist in the imaginations of the public and the press - known as virus hoaxes.
These viruses’ hoaxes DO NOT EXIST, despite rumor of their creation and distribution.

Anti-virus software and other preventive measures

Many users install anti-virus software that can detect and eliminate known viruses after the
computer downloads or runs the executable. There are two common methods that an anti-
virus software application uses to detect viruses. The first, and by far the most common
method of virus detection is using a list of virus signature definitions. This works by examining
the content of the computer's memory (its RAM, and boot sectors) and the files stored on fixed
or removable drives (hard drives, floppy drives), and comparing those files against a database
of known virus "signatures". The disadvantage of this detection method is that users are only
protected from viruses that pre-date their last virus definition update. The second method is to
use a heuristic algorithm to find viruses based on common behaviors. This method has the
ability to detect novel viruses that anti-virus security firms have yet to create a signature for.

Some anti-virus programs are able to scan opened files in addition to sent and received email
messages "on the fly" in a similar manner. This practice is known as "on-access scanning".
Anti-virus software does not change the underlying capability of host software to transmit
viruses. Users must update their software regularly to patch security holes. Anti-virus software
also needs to be regularly updated in order to recognize the latest threats.

One may also minimize the damage done by viruses by making regular backups of data (and
the operating systems) on different media, that are either kept unconnected to the system
(most of the time), read-only or not accessible for other reasons, such as using different file
systems. This way, if data is lost through a virus, one can start again using the backup (which
should preferably be recent).

If a backup session on optical media like CD and DVD is closed, it becomes read-only and can
no longer be affected by a virus (so long as a virus or infected file was not copied onto the
CD/DVD). Likewise, an operating system on a bootable CD can be used to start the computer
if the installed operating systems become unusable. Backups on removable media must be

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carefully inspected before restoration. The Gammima virus, for example, propagates via
removable flash drives.

Recovery methods

A number of recovery options exist after a computer has a virus. These actions depend on the
virus. Some may be safely removed by functions available in most anti-virus software
products. Others may require re-installation of damaged programs. It is necessary to know the
characteristics of the virus involved to take the correct action, and anti-virus products will
identify known viruses precisely before trying to "dis-infect" a computer; otherwise such action
could itself cause a lot of damage. New viruses that anti-virus researchers have not yet
studied therefore present an ongoing problem, which requires anti-virus packages to be
updated frequently.

Virus removal

One possibility on Windows Me, Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7 is a tool known
as System Restore, which restores the registry and critical system files to a previous
checkpoint. Often a virus will cause a system to hang, and a subsequent hard reboot will
render a system restore point from the same day corrupt. Restore points from previous days
should work provided the virus is not designed to corrupt the restore files or also exists in
previous restore points. Some viruses, however, disable System Restore and other important
tools such as Task Manager and Command Prompt. An example of a virus that does this is
CiaDoor. However, many such viruses can be removed by rebooting the computer, entering
Windows safe mode, and then using system tools.

Administrators have the option to disable such tools from limited users for various reasons (for
example, to reduce potential damage from and the spread of viruses). A virus can modify the
registry to do the same even if the Administrator is controlling the computer; it blocks all users
including the administrator from accessing the tools. The message "Task Manager has been
disabled by your administrator" may be displayed, even to the administrator.

Many websites run by anti-virus software companies provide free online virus scanning, with
limited cleaning facilities (the purpose of the sites is to sell anti-virus products). Some websites
allow a single suspicious file to be checked by many antivirus programs in one operation.
Additionally, several capable anti-virus software programs are available for free download from
the internet (usually restricted to non-commercial use), and Microsoft provide a free anti-
malware utility that runs as part of their regular Windows update regime.

Operating system reinstallation

Reinstalling the operating system is another approach to virus removal. It involves either
reformatting the computer's hard drive and installing the OS and all programs from original
media, or restoring the entire partition with a clean backup image. User data can be restored
by booting from a Live CD, or putting the hard drive into another computer and booting from its
operating system with great care not to infect the second computer by executing any infected
programs on the original drive; and once the system has been restored precautions must be
taken to avoid re infection from a restored executable file.

Scandisk

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Scandisk is a system which it runs automatically in the event the operating system is shut
down improperly. We can also run scandisk any time to evaluate our computer.

Why we use scandisk

We can use scan disk to check our hard disk for logical and physical errors. Scan disk can
then repair the damage area.

How we use to scandisk

Click start
Pointing to programs
Pointing to Accessories
Pointing to system tools
Click scandisk
Select drive
Select standard/Through
Click start
Click close

Disk defragmenter

Disk defragmenter optimize the speed with which our programs load and run. With quick start
and shut down, we can work, play
games, explore internet faster and more efficiently.

Why we use Defragmenter

We can use disk defragmenter to rearrange file and unused space on our hard disk so that run
faster.

How we use to Defragmenter

Click start
Pointing to programs
Pointing to Accessories
Pointing to system tools
Click disk defragmenter
Select drive
Click ok

Power Line problems and their prevention:

Power line irregularities:

Power line problem can be broadly in three basic categories:
Over voltage
Under voltage
Noise
Each problem has its own distinct causes and requires a particular kind of protection.

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Over voltage
The deadliest power line pollution is over voltage—lightning-like high potential spikes that
sneak into your PC and actually meltdown its silicon circuitry. Often the damage is invisible
lack of image on your monitor. Other times, you can actually see charred remain inside your
computer as a result of the over voltage.

Under voltage

An under voltage occurs when your equipment gets less than it expects. Under voltage can
range from sags, which are dips of but a few volts, to complete outages or blackouts.
Durations vary from nearly instantaneous to hours or days, if you haven’t paid your light bill
recently. Very short dips, sags, and even blackouts are not a problem. As long as they are
less than a few dozen milliseconds about the blink of an eye your computer sound purr along if
nothing happened. The only exceptions are a few computers that have power supplies with
very sensitive power good signals. A shun blackout may switch off power good signal shutting
dawn your computer even though enough electrons is available.

Most PCs are designed to withstand prolonged voltage about 20 percent without shutting
down Deeper dips or blackouts lasing for more than chose few milliseconds result in
shutdown. Your PC is forced to cold than booting up afresh. Any work you not saved before
the under voltage is lost.

Noise

Noise is a nagging problem in the power supplies of most electronic divides. It compares all
the supply spurious signals that wise pickup as they run show electromagnet fields. In many
cases this signals can sneak trough the filtering circuitry of the power supply and interface with
the signals inside the electrical device.

In computer these spurious signals could confuse the digital thought coursing through the
circuitry of the machine. As a practical matter, they don’t All better computer are designed to
minimize the leakage of their signals from inside their cases into the outside world to minimize
your computer’s interfering with your radio & television. The same protection against signals
getting out works extremely well against other signals getting in. Personal computer are thus
well-protected against line noise. You probably won’t need a noise filter to protect your
computer.

Then again noise filtering doesn’t hurt. Most power protection devices have noise filtering built
into them because it’s cheap and can be an extra selling point. Think of it as a bonus, you can
take advantage of its added protection but don’t go out of your way to get it.

Power Supply Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting the power supply basically means isolating the supply as the cause of
problems within a system. Rarely is it recommended to go inside the power supply to make
repairs because of the dangerous high voltages present. Specifically not recommended unless
the technician knows what he is doing.

The Following is a list of PC problem that often are power supply related

Any power –on or system startup failures or lockups.

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Spontaneous rebooting intermittent lockups during normal operation.
Intermittent parity check or other memory type errors.
Hard disk and fan simultaneously fail to spin (no+12v).
Overheating due to fan failure
Small brownouts cause the system to reset.
Electric shocks felt on the system cause or connectors.
Slight static discharges disrupt system operation.

The following fairly obvious symptoms point right to the power supply as a possible cause:

System is completely dead (no fan, no cursor)

Smoke
Blown Circuit breakers

Using Power-Protection System

Power- protection systems do just what the name implies: They protect your equipment from
the effects of power surges and power failures. In particular, power surges and spikes can
damage computer equipment, and a loss of power can result in lost data.

Power supplies should stay within operating specifications and continue to run a system if any
of these power line disturbances occur:
Voltage drop to 80v for up to 2 seconds.
Voltage drop to 70v up to .5 seconds
Voltage surge of up to 143v for up to 1 second.

IBM also states that neither there power supplies not systems will be damaged by the
following occurrences:

Full power outage

Any Voltage drop (brownout)
A spike of up to 2,500v

The following types of power –protection devices are explained in the sections that follow:

Surge Suppressers
Line conditioners
Standby power supply’s (SPS)
Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)

Surge Suppressers (Protectors)

The simplest from of power protection is any of the commercially available surge protectors;
that is, devices inserted between the system and the power line. These devices can absorb
the high voltage transients produced by nearby lightning strikes and power equipment. Some
surge protectors can be affective for certain types or power problems, but they offer only very
limited protection.

Line Conditioner

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A line conditioner can handle many of these types of problems. A line conditioner is designed
to remedy a variety of problems. It filters the power, bridges brownouts, sup presses high
voltage and current conditions, and generally acts as a buffer between the power line and the
system. A line conditioner does the job of a surge suppresser, and much more.

Backup Power

The next level of power protection includes backup power devices. These units can provides
power in case of a complete blackout, which provides the time needed for an orderly system
shutdown. Two types are available the standby power supply (SPS) and the uninterruptible
power supply (UPS).

Standby Power Supply (SPS)

A standby power supply is known as an offline device. It functions only when normal power is
disrupted. An SPS system uses a special circuit that can sense the AC line current. If the
sensor detects the loss of power on the line the system quickly switch over to a standby
battery and power inverter. The power inverter converts the battery power to 220 volt AC
power, which then is supplied to the system.

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

Perhaps the best overall solution to any power problem is to provide a power source that is
both conditioned and that also cannot be interrupted which describes an uninterruptible power
supply. UPSs are known as online system because they continuously function and supply
power to your computer systems. The term true UPS to describe a truly online system. A true
UPS system is constructed much the same as an SPS system; however because you always
are operating from the battery, there is no switching circuit.

Reference : Internet

Microsoft Project.

Read Pdf version.

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